Cellular confinement - Knowledge (XXG)

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be used for construction. This reduces the need for quarry aggregate, thereby reducing quarrying, hauling and earthmoving placement equipment. This in turn decreases fuel use, pollution and the carbon footprint significantly, while at the same time lowering the construction environmental footprint in terms of less dust, erosion and runoff. When used for slope applications, perforated CCS provides excellent soil protection, water drainage and growth stratum for plants for the restoration of green and vegetated landscapes. Long-term design life of advanced CCS technology can also reduce maintenance and long-term economic costs.

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provide an expedient construction technique for access roads over soft ground, without being adversely affected by wet weather conditions. The US Army Corps of Engineers in Vicksburg, Mississippi (1981) experimented with a number of confining systems, from plastic pipe mats, to slotted aluminum sheets to prefabricated polymeric systems called sand grids and then, cellular confinement systems. Today cellular confinement systems are typically made from strips 50–200 mm wide, ultrasonically welded at intervals along their width. The CCS is folded and shipped to the job site in a collapsed configuration.

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vertical differential settlement into soft subgrades, improves shear strength, and enhances load-bearing capacity, while reducing the amount of aggregate material required to extend the service life of roads. As a composite system, cellular confinement strengthens the aggregate infill, thereby simultaneously enabling the use of poorly graded inferior material (e.g. local native soils, quarry waste or recycled materials) for infill as well as reducing the structural support layer thickness. Typical load support applications include reinforcement of base and subbase layers in

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Han (2013) summarizes comprehensive research conducted at the University of Kansas, including static and cyclic plate loading tests, full-scale moving wheel tests, and numerical modeling on geocell-reinforced base courses with different infill materials and discusses the main research findings from these studies regarding permanent, elastic, and creep deformations, stiffness, bearing capacity, and stress distribution, and the development of design methods for geocell-reinforced bases. These studies showed that base courses reinforced with

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utilized by many industries are utilized to predict long-term behavior and accumulated plastic strain in a geosynthetic under loading with different mechanical stresses, frequencies and temperatures. For example, the Dutch standard for the Use of Reinforcement Geosynthetics in Roadways covers geocell (as well as geogrid) applications, support mechanisms, and design principles. It also emphasizes the importance of the geocell material attributes (stiffness and creep resistance) and how they influence long-term reinforcement factors.

292:. The perforations in the 3D cells allow the passage of water, nutrients and soil organisms. This encourages plant growth and root interlock, which further stabilizes the slope and soil mass, and facilitates landscape rehabilitation. Typical applications include: construction cut and fill slopes and stabilization; road and rail embankments; pipeline stabilization and storage facility berms; quarry and mine site restoration; channel and coastline structures. They can be built as an underlying mass or as a facing. 311:

soil can be used for infill when suitable and granular, while the outer faces enable a green or tan fascia of the horizontal terraces/rows utilizing topsoil. Walls also can be used for lining channels and in cases of high flow, it is required that the outer cells contain concrete or cement slurry infill. CCS have been used to reinforce soft or uneven soil foundations for large area footings, for retaining wall strip footings, for load sharing of covers over pipelines and other geotechnical applications.

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heavy loading typically have a short design life; therefore minor loss of performance is tolerable. However, in critical infrastructure applications such as reinforcement of the structural layers of highway pavements, railways and platforms, long-term dimensional stability is critical. As long as the volumetric area of the geocell does not change more than 2-3%, compaction and performance is maintained and settlements are minimized.

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understanding of the reinforcement mechanisms. Since then, hundreds of research papers on geocell systems have been published. Extensive research has been conducted on CCS reinforcement for roadway applications to understand the mechanisms and influencing factors of confinement reinforcement, evaluate its effectiveness in improving roadway performance and develop design methods for roadway applications (Han, et al. 2011).

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systems: new polymeric materials for geocells, extensive published research, accepted performance-based testing methods and an expanding knowledge base of field case studies. These are intended to disseminate the most updated knowledge about the best design methods and practices for implementing geocell technology in soil stabilization and road base reinforcement applications.

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structures (either gravity or reinforced walls) for steep faces, walls and irregular topography. Construction of CCS earth retention is simplified as each layer is structurally sound thereby providing access for equipment and workers, while eliminating the need for concrete formwork and curing. Local

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of the geocell. Geocells with a higher elastic modulus had a higher bearing capacity and stiffness of the reinforced base. NPA Geocells showed higher results in ultimate bearing capacity, stiffness, and reinforcement relative to geocells made from HDPE. NPA geocells showed better creep resistance and

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solution that makes civil infrastructure projects more sustainable. In load support applications, the increased geocell reinforcement enables a reduction in the amount and quality of infill for structural support. This means that locally-available, but of marginal soil type or recycled materials can

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The strength and stiffness of pavement layers determines the performance of highway pavements while aggregate use impacts the cost of duration of installation; therefore alternatives are needed to improve pavement quality using new materials with less aggregate usage (Rajagopal et al 2012). Geocells

156:(NAP) geocells reduced the vertical stresses at the interface between subgrade and base course, reduced permanent and creep deformations, increased elastic deformation, stiffness, and bearing capacity of base courses. Additional literature reviews can be found in Kief et al (2013) and Marto (2013). 140:) and were more effective in reducing lateral spreading of infill under loading than conventional reinforced bases. However, Richardson (2004) (who was onsite at the US Corps of Engineers CCS Vicksburg facility) laments 25 years later on the "near absence of research papers on geocells in all of the 734:

3. Pokharel, S .K., Han, J., Manandhar, C., Yang, X. M., Leshchinsky, D., Halahmi, I., and Parsons, R. L. (2011). “Accelerated Pavement Testing of Geocell-Reinforced Unpaved Roads over Weak Subgrade.” Journal of Transportation Research Board, 10th Int’l Conference on Low-Volume Roads, Florida, USA,

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The three-dimensional lateral confinement of CCS along with anchoring techniques ensures the long-term stability of slopes using vegetated topsoil, aggregate or concrete surfacing (if exposed to severe mechanical and hydraulic pressures). The enhanced drainage, frictional forces and cell-soil-plant

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CCS have been successfully installed in thousands of projects worldwide. However, it is incumbent to differentiate between low load applications, such as slope and channel applications, and new heavy-duty infrastructure applications, such as in the base layer of motorways, railways, ports, airports

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Common to the new Guidelines is a performance-based approach, in which engineering parameters, such as modulus, plastic deformation and tensile strength are key factors. Performance-based testing is critical, as heavy-duty infrastructure applications expose geocells to much higher dynamic stresses

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The lifespan of CCS in slope protection applications, for example, is less critical as vegetative growth and root interlock help stabilize the soil. This in effect compensates for any long-term loss of confinement in the CCS. Similarly, load support applications for low volume roads not subject to

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Hedge (2017,) and Hedge, et al (2020) present comprehensive surveys and reviews of latest geocell studies, field testing, state of the art knowledge and present trends and scope of future research directions, validating increased use of geocells in ground reinforcement and infrastructure projects.

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A comprehensive review of available research literature by Yuu, et al in 2008 concluded that the use of CCS technology in base reinforcement of paved roads, and railways in particular, was limited, due to the lack of design methods, lack of advanced research in the previous two decades and limited

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Research and development of cellular confinement systems (CCS) began with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1975 to devise a method for building tactical roads over soft ground. Engineers found that sand-confinement systems performed better than conventional crushed stone sections and they could

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Cellular Confinement Systems (CCS) have been used to improve the performance of both paved and unpaved roads by reinforcing the soil in the subgrade-base interface or within the base course. The effective load distribution of CCS creates a strong, stiff cellular mattress. This 3D mattress reduces

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filter placed on the subgrade surface and propped open in an accordion-like fashion with an external stretcher assembly. The sections expand to an area of several tens of meters and consist of hundreds of individual cells, depending on the section and cell size. They are then filled with various

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A Cellular Confinement System when infilled with compacted soil creates a new composite entity that possesses enhanced mechanical and geotechnical properties. When the soil contained within a CCS is subjected to pressure, as in the case of a load support application, it causes lateral stresses on

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The latest milestone in the evolution of geocells is the development and publication of guideline standards. Recently published Standards for Geocells by the ASTM, ISO and other countries (e.g., the Netherlands), is the natural outcome of recent developments in the field of cellular confinement

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The new standards discuss relevant factors of reinforcement geosynthetics and confinement system applications, 3D reinforcement mechanisms, design factors, and emphasize the impact of geocell material attributes on long-term durability. Standard ASTM and ISO test methods for polymers commonly

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Webster, S.L. 1981, Investigation of Beach Sand Trafficability Enhancement Using Sand-Grid Confinement and Membrane Reinforcement Concepts – Report 2, Geotechnical Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report GL7920(2), February

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Webster, S.L. 1979, Investigation of Beach Sand Trafficability Enhancement Using Sand-Grid Confinement and Membrane Reinforcement Concepts – Report 1, Geotechnical Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report GL7920, November

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CCS provides geomembrane liner protection, while creating stable soil, berms and slopes, for non-slip protection and durable impoundment of liquids and waste. Infill treatment depends on the contained materials: concrete for ponds and reservoirs; gravel for landfill drainage and

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perimeter cell walls. The 3D zone of confinement reduces the lateral movement of soil particles while vertical loading on the contained infill results in high lateral stress and resistance on the cell-soil interface. These increase the shear strength of the confined soil, which:

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Bathurst, R. J. & Jarrett, P. M. 1988, Large-Scale Model Tests of Geocomposite Mattresses Over Peat Subgrades, Transportation Research Record 1188 – Effects of Geosynthetics on Soil Properties and of Environment on Pavement Systems, Transportation Research Board, 1988, pp.

324:, vegetated infill for landscape rehabilitation. Concrete work is efficient and controlled as CCS functions as ready-made forms; CCS with concrete forms a flexible slab that accommodates minor subgrade movement and prevents cracking. In medium and low flow-velocities, CCS with 169:

reinforcement of granular soils to support static and moving wheel loads on roadways, railways and similar applications. But stiffness of the geocells was identified as a key influencing factor for geocell reinforcement, and hence the rigidity of the entire pavement structure.

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Richardson, Gregory N. "Geocells: a 25-year Perspective Part ‘l: Roadway Applications." Geotechnical Fabrics Report (2004).Richardson, Gegory N. "Geocells, a 25-year Perspective Part 2: Channel Erosion Control and Retaining Walls." Geotechnical Fabrics Report 22.8 (2004):

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Confinement from adjacent cells provides additional resistance against the loaded cell through passive resistance, while lateral expansion of the infill is restricted by high hoop strength. Compaction is maintained by the confinement, resulting in long-term reinforcement.

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Webster, S.L. & Watkins J.E. 1977, Investigation of Construction Techniques for Tactical Bridge Approach Roads Across Soft Ground. Soils and Pavements Laboratory, US Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report S771, September

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Bathurst, R.J, Crowe, R.E. & Zehaluk, A.C. 1993, Geosynthetic Cellular Confinement Cells for Gravity Retaining Wall – Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada, Geosynthetic Case Histories, International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, March 1993, pp.

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and platforms. For example, while all polymeric materials in CCS will creep over time under loading, the questions are; how much permanent degradation will occur, under which conditions, and its impact on long-term performance, and if this may lead to failure.

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Yuu, J., Han, J., Rosen, A., Parsons, R. L., Leshchinsky, D. (2008) “Technical Review of Geocell-Reinforced Base Courses over Weak Subgrade,” The First Pan American Geosynthetics Conference & Exhibition proceedings (GeoAmericas), Appendix VII, Cancun,

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Efforts for civilian commercialization of the cellular confinement system by the Presto Products Company, led to the Geoweb®. This cellular confinement system was made from high density polyethylene (HDPE), relatively strong, lightweight and suitable for

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Early research (Bathurst and Jarrett, 1988) found that cellular confinement reinforced gravel bases are "equivalent to about twice the thickness of unreinforced gravel bases" and that geocells performed better than single sheet reinforcement schemes

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Engel, P. & Flato, G. 1987, Flow Resistance and Critical Flow Velocities for Geoweb Erosion Control System, Research and Applications Branch – National Water Research Institute Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario, Canada, March

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Crowe, R.E., Bathurst, R.J. & Alston, C. 1989, Design and Construction of a Road Embankment Using Geosynthetics, Proceedings of the 42’nd Canadian Geotechnical Conference, Canadian Geotechnical Society, Winnipeg, Manitoba, October 1989, pp.

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Pokharel, S. K., Han J., Leshchinsky, D., Parsons, R. L., Halahmi, I. (2009). “Experimental Evaluation of Influence Factors for Single Geocell-Reinforced Sand,” Transportation Research Board (TRB) Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., January

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Webster, S.L. 1986, Sand-Grid Demonstration Roads Constructed for JLOTS II Tests at Fort Story, Virginia, Geotechnical Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report GL8619, November

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Zipoli, L.L.R., Avesani Neto, J.O. (2022). Evaluation of back-calculated elastic moduli of unreinforced and geocell-reinforced unbound granular material from full-scale field tests, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, June,

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Berg, R.R., et al, Design of Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes. US Dept of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. Publication no. FHWA-NHI-10-024, FHWA GEC 011 - Vol. 1, Nov.

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extruding manufacturing. The cellular confinement system was used for load support, slope erosion control and channel lining and earth retention applications in the United States and Canada in the early 1980s.

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Vega, E., van Gurp, C., Kwast, E. (2018). Geokunststoffen als Funderingswapening in Ongebonden Funderingslagen (Geosynthetics for Reinforcement of Unbound Base and Subbase Pavement Layers), SBRCURnet (CROW),

279:, railway substructure and ballast confinement; working platforms in intermodal ports; airport runways and aprons, permeable pavements; pipeline support; green parking facilities and emergency access areas. 214:

The retention of geometry is critical to geocell performance for the lifespan of the project. Volumetric change above 2% could result in loss of confinement, compaction, settlement, fatigue and/or failure.

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Ruge, J.C., Gomez, J.G. and Moreno, C.A. (2019). Analysis of the Creep and the Influence on the Modulus Improvement Factor (MIF) in Polyolefin Geocells using the Stepped Isothermal Method.

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infill materials, such as soil, sand, aggregate or recycled materials and then compacted using vibratory compactors. Surface layers many be of asphalt or unbound gravel materials.

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ISO Standard WD TR 18228-5. (2018). Design using Geosynthetics – Part 5: Stabilization. International Organization for Standardization. Geneva, Switzerland. Under development.

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Emersleben, A. (2013). “Analysis of Geocell Load Transfer Mechanism Using a New Radial Load Test. Sound Geotechnical Research to Practice 2013. GeoCongress, San Diego, 345-357

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better retention of stiffness and creep resistance particularly at elevated temperatures, verified by plate load testing, numerical modeling and full scale trafficking tests.

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Chakraborty, A., Goswami, A., Deb, A., Das, D. and Mahanta, J. (2014). Management of Waste Generated in Guwahati City and the Incorporation of Geocells at the Landfill Site.

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Laboratory plate loading tests, full-scale moving wheel tests, and field demonstrations showed that the performance of geocell-reinforced bases depends on the

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Kief, O., Schary, Y., Pokharel, S.K. (2014). “High-Modulus Geocells for Sustainable Highway Infrastructure.” Indian Geotechnical Journal, Springer. September

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The key properties must maintain its elastic stiffness under dynamic loading, elastic properties without permanent deformation (creep), and tensile strength.

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Han, J., Pokharel, S. K., Yang, X. and Thakur, J. (2011). Unpaved Roads: Tough Cell - Geosynthetic Reinforcement Shows Promise, Roads and Bridges, 40-43

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ASTM D8269-21. Standard Guide for use of Geocells in Geotechnical and Roadway Projects, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2018, www.astm.org.

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Rajagopal, K., Veeraragavan, A., Chandramouli, S. (2012). “Studies on Geocell Reinforced Road Pavement Structures,” Geosynthetics Asia 2012, Thailand

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Koerner, R.M., Koerner, G., Hsuan, Y. (2014). Creep Tension Testing of Geosynthetics, Geosynthetic Institute. GSI White Paper #29, July 26.

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Hegde, A. (2017). Geocell Reinforced Foundation Beds-Past Findings, Present Trends and Future Prospects: A State-of-the-Art Review.

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Hegde, A. (2017). Geocell Reinforced Foundation Beds-Past Findings, Present Trends and Future Prospects: A State-of-the-Art Review.

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Strahl, Z. and Alexiew, D. (2019). Cellular Confinement System Reinforcement – Innovation at the Base of Sustainable Pavements.

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The extent of the stabilizing effect is determined by the material from which the geocell is made, in addition to its geometry.

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Norouzi, M., Pokharel, S.K., Breault, M., and Breault, D. (2017). Innovative Solution for Sustainable Road Construction.

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Marto, A., Oghabi, M., Eisazadeh, A., (2013), Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. vol 18, Bund. Q., 3501-3516

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State of California Department of Transportation, Division of Environmental Analysis, Stormwater Program. Sacramento, CA.

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Rajagopal, K.; Veeragavan, A.; Chandramouli, S. (2012). "Studies on geocell reinforced road pavement structures".

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interaction of CCS prevents downslope movement and limits the impact of raindrops, channelling and hydraulic

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On site, the geocell sections are fastened together and placed directly on the subsoil's surface or on a

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Khorsandiardebili, N.; Ghazavi, M. (2021). "Static stability analysis of geocell-reinforced slopes".

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Hegde, Amarnath M. (2020), Sitharam, T. G.; Hegde, Amarnath M.; Kolathayar, Sreevalsa (eds.),

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Richardson, Gregory N. "Geocells: a 25-year perspective Part ‘l: roadway applications." (2004)

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A cellular confinement system being installed on an experimental trail in south-central Alaska

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cover can be used to create impermeable channels, thereby eliminating the need for concrete.

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Han, J., Thakur, J.K., Parsons, R.L., Pokharel, S.K., Leshchinsky, D., and Yang, X. (2013)

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Managing Degraded Off-Highway Vehicle Trails in Wet, Unstable, and Sensitive Environments

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Proceedings of CAPSA 2019, 12th Conference on Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa

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Jain, R.K. (2013). Creep Behaviour of Geosynthetics for Sustainable Construction.

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Creates a stiff mattress or slab to distribute the load over a wider area

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support and earth retention. Typical cellular confinement systems are

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Filling a geocell envelope with earth to make a temporary barrier wall

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Confinement system used in construction and geotechnical engineering

822: 1488: 46: 38: 26: 18: 853:,” ed: Jacobs Z. S.W. Sun City, South Africa. Oct 2019. 999-1018. 378:. Cellular confinement acts as a solution to this common problem. 1975: 1483: 1478: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1443: 1145: 94: 987: 970:

Leadership in Sustainable Infrastructure Conference Proceedings

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International Journal of Geosynthetics and Ground Engineering

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Journal of Civil Engineering and Environmental Technology

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Ground Improvement Using 3D-Cellular Confinement Systems

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Research Journal of Chemical Y Environmental Sciences,

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Recent innovations in cellular confinement technology

617: 615: 2044: 1999: 1898: 1862: 1853: 1826: 1646: 1595: 1582: 1497: 1451: 1442: 1365: 1043: 1030: 207:The following are key points in the new standards: 396:Geosynthetics in landscape architecture and design 835: 833: 831: 807:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2022.05.006. 241:Increases shear resistance and bearing capacity 890:5th Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics 999: 793: 791: 789: 74:protection, and structural reinforcement for 8: 867:. Moldova: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing. 702: 700: 817: 815: 813: 1859: 1592: 1448: 1040: 1006: 992: 984: 605: 603: 144:national and international conferences." 415:"Cellular Confinement System Research." 388: 283:Steep soil slope and channel protection 182:Application vs. long-term performance 62:—are widely used in construction for 7: 781:Geopolymers and Other Geosynthetics 746:Construction and Building Materials 665:Construction and Building Materials 628:Geocells: Advances and Applications 972:. May 31-Jun 3, Vancouver, Canada. 863:Hegde, A.; Sitharam, T.G. (2016). 568:Biswas, A.; Krishna, A.M. (2017). 31:Wood matrix after installation in 14: 1024:Offshore geotechnical engineering 70:on flat ground and steep slopes, 1315: 1303: 1291: 1279: 1267: 1255: 1241: 1231: 1214: 1202: 1190: 1178: 1166: 1154: 1132: 1103: 1091: 1079: 1067: 1055: 823:https://doi.org/10.1520/D8269-21 195:Development of standards for CCS 925:10.1016/j.geotexmem.2020.12.012 109:History of cellular confinement 1: 1674:Mechanically stabilized earth 308:mechanically stabilized earth 302:Mechanically stabilized earth 238:Reduces punching of soft soil 165:are recognized as a suitable 1426:Hydraulic conductivity tests 905:Geotextiles and Geomembranes 56:Cellular confinement systems 1987:Stress distribution in soil 636:10.1007/978-981-15-6095-8_2 306:CCS provide steep vertical 2163: 1137:Pore pressure measurement 299: 1890:Preconsolidation pressure 1285:Standard penetration test 1021: 586:10.1007/s40891-017-0093-7 433:October 15, 2008, at the 87:high-density polyethylene 1386:California bearing ratio 1184:Rotary-pressure sounding 1015:Geotechnical engineering 336:Sustainable construction 315:Reservoirs and landfills 1806:Geosynthetic clay liner 1781:Expanded clay aggregate 1401:Proctor compaction test 1342:Crosshole sonic logging 1328:Nuclear densometer test 1085:Geo-electrical sounding 959:(JCEET). 1(4), pp. 5-7. 761:1 (5), December. 34-46. 33:Wrangell–St. Elias Park 2069:Earthquake engineering 1880:Lateral earth pressure 1505:Hydraulic conductivity 1356:Wave equation analysis 1335:Exploration geophysics 1227:Deformation monitoring 1196:Rotary weight sounding 222:for longer lifespans. 52: 44: 36: 24: 1247:Settlement recordings 1172:Rock control drilling 1073:Cone penetration test 244:Decreases deformation 154:Novel Polymeric Alloy 91:novel polymeric alloy 84:ultrasonically welded 50: 42: 30: 22: 2109:Agricultural science 1811:Cellular confinement 266:Roadway load support 58:(CCS)—also known as 2001:Numerical analysis 1885:Overburden pressure 1875:Pore water pressure 1655:Shoring structures 1530:Reynolds' dilatancy 1431:Water content tests 1416:Triaxial shear test 1376:Soil classification 1349:Pile integrity test 917:2021GtGm...49..852K 1976:Slab stabilisation 1956:Stability analysis 401:2015-02-14 at the 342:green construction 273:flexible pavements 68:soil stabilization 53: 45: 37: 25: 2124: 2123: 1995: 1994: 1971:Sliding criterion 1933:Response spectrum 1849: 1848: 1679:Pressure grouting 1578: 1577: 1438: 1437: 1391:Direct shear test 1097:Permeability test 645:978-981-15-6095-8 355:Avalanche control 89:(HDPE) strips or 43:Geocell materials 2154: 1983:Bearing capacity 1870:Effective stress 1860: 1761:Land reclamation 1701:Land development 1596:Natural features 1593: 1560:Specific storage 1449: 1381:Atterberg limits 1319: 1307: 1295: 1283: 1271: 1259: 1245: 1235: 1220:Screw plate test 1218: 1206: 1194: 1182: 1170: 1158: 1136: 1107: 1095: 1083: 1071: 1059: 1041: 1008: 1001: 994: 985: 973: 966: 960: 953: 947: 943: 937: 936: 900: 894: 893: 885: 879: 878: 860: 854: 847: 841: 837: 826: 819: 808: 804: 798: 795: 784: 777: 771: 768: 762: 755: 749: 742: 736: 732: 726: 722: 716: 713: 707: 704: 695: 692: 686: 683: 677: 674: 668: 661: 655: 654: 653: 652: 619: 610: 607: 598: 597: 565: 559: 555: 549: 546: 540: 536: 530: 526: 520: 516: 510: 506: 500: 496: 490: 486: 480: 475: 469: 465: 459: 455: 449: 445: 439: 424: 418: 411: 405: 393: 2162: 2161: 2157: 2156: 2155: 2153: 2152: 2151: 2127: 2126: 2125: 2120: 2099:Earth materials 2040: 2002: 1991: 1900: 1894: 1845: 1822: 1776:Earth structure 1771:Erosion control 1669:Ground freezing 1659:Retaining walls 1642: 1584: 1574: 1535:Angle of repose 1493: 1434: 1368: 1361: 1360: 1321:Visible bedrock 1273:Simple sounding 1261:Shear vane test 1037:instrumentation 1036: 1034: 1026: 1017: 1012: 977: 976: 967: 963: 954: 950: 944: 940: 902: 901: 897: 887: 886: 882: 875: 862: 861: 857: 848: 844: 838: 829: 820: 811: 805: 801: 796: 787: 778: 774: 769: 765: 756: 752: 743: 739: 733: 729: 723: 719: 714: 710: 705: 698: 693: 689: 684: 680: 675: 671: 662: 658: 650: 648: 646: 621: 620: 613: 608: 601: 567: 566: 562: 556: 552: 547: 543: 537: 533: 527: 523: 517: 513: 507: 503: 497: 493: 487: 483: 476: 472: 466: 462: 456: 452: 446: 442: 435:Wayback Machine 425: 421: 412: 408: 403:Wayback Machine 394: 390: 385: 351: 338: 317: 304: 298: 296:Earth retention 285: 268: 263: 228: 197: 184: 175:elastic modulus 162: 129: 111: 64:erosion control 17: 12: 11: 5: 2160: 2158: 2150: 2149: 2144: 2142:Road transport 2139: 2129: 2128: 2122: 2121: 2119: 2118: 2117: 2116: 2106: 2101: 2096: 2091: 2086: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2050: 2048: 2046:Related fields 2042: 2041: 2039: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2023: 2018: 2013: 2007: 2005: 1997: 1996: 1993: 1992: 1990: 1989: 1980: 1979: 1978: 1973: 1968: 1966:Classification 1963: 1958: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1940: 1938:Seismic hazard 1935: 1925: 1920: 1915: 1910: 1904: 1902: 1896: 1895: 1893: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1866: 1864: 1857: 1851: 1850: 1847: 1846: 1844: 1843: 1838: 1832: 1830: 1824: 1823: 1821: 1820: 1815: 1814: 1813: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1697: 1696: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1652: 1650: 1644: 1643: 1641: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1599: 1597: 1590: 1580: 1579: 1576: 1575: 1573: 1572: 1567: 1565:Shear strength 1562: 1557: 1552: 1547: 1542: 1540:Friction angle 1537: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1501: 1499: 1495: 1494: 1492: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1455: 1453: 1446: 1440: 1439: 1436: 1435: 1433: 1428: 1423: 1421:Oedometer test 1418: 1413: 1411:Sieve analysis 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1371: 1363: 1362: 1359: 1358: 1352: 1351: 1345: 1344: 1338: 1337: 1331: 1330: 1324: 1323: 1312: 1311: 1300: 1299: 1297:Total sounding 1288: 1287: 1276: 1275: 1264: 1263: 1252: 1251: 1250: 1249: 1239: 1223: 1222: 1211: 1210: 1199: 1198: 1187: 1186: 1175: 1174: 1163: 1162: 1151: 1150: 1149: 1148: 1143: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1100: 1099: 1088: 1087: 1076: 1075: 1064: 1063: 1052: 1051: 1049: 1038: 1028: 1027: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1013: 1011: 1010: 1003: 996: 988: 982: 981: 975: 974: 961: 948: 938: 911:(3): 852–863. 895: 880: 873: 855: 842: 827: 809: 799: 785: 772: 763: 750: 737: 727: 717: 708: 696: 687: 678: 669: 656: 644: 611: 599: 560: 550: 541: 531: 521: 511: 501: 491: 481: 470: 460: 450: 440: 419: 406: 387: 386: 384: 381: 380: 379: 373: 368: 363: 357: 350: 347: 337: 334: 316: 313: 300:Main article: 297: 294: 290:shear stresses 284: 281: 277:military roads 267: 264: 262: 259: 246: 245: 242: 239: 236: 227: 224: 219: 218: 215: 212: 196: 193: 183: 180: 161: 158: 128: 125: 110: 107: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2159: 2148: 2145: 2143: 2140: 2138: 2137:Geosynthetics 2135: 2134: 2132: 2115: 2112: 2111: 2110: 2107: 2105: 2102: 2100: 2097: 2095: 2092: 2090: 2087: 2085: 2082: 2080: 2077: 2075: 2074:Geomorphology 2072: 2070: 2067: 2065: 2062: 2060: 2057: 2055: 2052: 2051: 2049: 2047: 2043: 2037: 2034: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2024: 2022: 2019: 2017: 2014: 2012: 2009: 2008: 2006: 2004: 1998: 1988: 1984: 1981: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1969: 1967: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1957: 1954: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1944: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1931: 1930: 1929: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1919: 1918:Consolidation 1916: 1914: 1913:Frost heaving 1911: 1909: 1906: 1905: 1903: 1897: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1858: 1856: 1852: 1842: 1839: 1837: 1834: 1833: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1819: 1816: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1802: 1799: 1797: 1794: 1793: 1792: 1791:Geosynthetics 1789: 1787: 1786:Crushed stone 1784: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1741:Cut-and-cover 1739: 1737: 1734: 1732: 1729: 1727: 1724: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1695: 1692: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1656: 1654: 1653: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1619: 1616: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1600: 1598: 1594: 1591: 1588: 1581: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1510:Water content 1508: 1506: 1503: 1502: 1500: 1496: 1490: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1456: 1454: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1441: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1370: 1364: 1357: 1354: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1346: 1343: 1340: 1339: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1313: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1301: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1289: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1277: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1265: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1253: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1229: 1228: 1225: 1224: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1212: 1209: 1208:Sample series 1205: 1201: 1200: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1188: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1176: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1164: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1152: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1135: 1131: 1130: 1125: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1111: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1101: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1089: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1077: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1042: 1039: 1033: 1032:Investigation 1029: 1025: 1020: 1016: 1009: 1004: 1002: 997: 995: 990: 989: 986: 979: 978: 971: 965: 962: 958: 952: 949: 942: 939: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 899: 896: 891: 884: 881: 876: 874:9783659829062 870: 866: 859: 856: 852: 846: 843: 836: 834: 832: 828: 824: 818: 816: 814: 810: 803: 800: 794: 792: 790: 786: 782: 776: 773: 767: 764: 760: 754: 751: 747: 741: 738: 731: 728: 721: 718: 712: 709: 703: 701: 697: 691: 688: 682: 679: 673: 670: 666: 660: 657: 647: 641: 637: 633: 629: 625: 618: 616: 612: 606: 604: 600: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 564: 561: 554: 551: 545: 542: 535: 532: 525: 522: 515: 512: 505: 502: 495: 492: 485: 482: 479: 478:Prestogeo.com 474: 471: 464: 461: 454: 451: 444: 441: 437: 436: 432: 429: 423: 420: 416: 410: 407: 404: 400: 397: 392: 389: 382: 377: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 361: 358: 356: 353: 352: 348: 346: 343: 335: 333: 331: 327: 323: 314: 312: 309: 303: 295: 293: 291: 282: 280: 278: 274: 265: 260: 258: 255: 250: 243: 240: 237: 234: 233: 232: 225: 223: 216: 213: 210: 209: 208: 205: 201: 194: 192: 188: 181: 179: 176: 171: 168: 159: 157: 155: 149: 145: 143: 139: 135: 126: 124: 121: 115: 108: 106: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 85: 81: 80:geosynthetics 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 49: 41: 34: 29: 21: 2094:Biogeography 2089:Hydrogeology 2079:Soil science 2059:Geochemistry 1818:Infiltration 1810: 1746:Cut and fill 1689:Soil nailing 1555:Permeability 1520:Bulk density 1237:Inclinometer 1160:Ram sounding 1045: 969: 964: 956: 951: 941: 908: 904: 898: 889: 883: 864: 858: 850: 845: 802: 780: 775: 766: 758: 753: 745: 740: 730: 720: 711: 690: 681: 672: 664: 659: 649:, retrieved 627: 577: 573: 563: 553: 544: 534: 524: 514: 504: 494: 484: 473: 463: 453: 443: 426: 422: 409: 391: 376:Washboarding 366:Mass wasting 339: 326:geomembranes 318: 305: 286: 269: 261:Applications 251: 247: 229: 226:How it works 220: 206: 202: 198: 189: 185: 172: 167:geosynthetic 163: 150: 146: 142:geosynthetic 130: 120:geosynthetic 116: 112: 101:, gravel or 59: 55: 54: 2104:Archaeology 1828:Foundations 1801:Geomembrane 1684:Slurry wall 1623:Water table 1587:Interaction 1583:Structures 1570:Sensitivity 1367:Laboratory 840:Netherlands 134:geotextiles 2131:Categories 1961:Mitigation 1943:Shear wave 1928:Earthquake 1923:Compaction 1908:Permafrost 1899:Phenomena/ 1796:Geotextile 1721:Embankment 1711:Excavation 1648:Earthworks 1608:Vegetation 1603:Topography 1525:Thixotropy 1515:Void ratio 1498:Properties 1396:Hydrometer 1141:Piezometer 1061:Core drill 892:: 497–502. 735:July 24–27 651:2023-10-13 383:References 254:geotextile 82:made with 2084:Hydrology 2064:Petrology 1952:analysis 1950:Landslide 1855:Mechanics 1766:Track bed 1751:Fill dirt 1736:Terracing 1309:Trial pit 1124:Statnamic 1109:Load test 933:234118751 594:114036241 340:CCS is a 322:leachates 35:in Alaska 2114:Agrology 2003:software 1901:problems 1731:Causeway 1706:Landfill 1633:Subgrade 1550:Porosity 1545:Cohesion 431:Archived 399:Archived 371:Rockfall 349:See also 138:geogrids 127:Research 103:concrete 97:, soil, 60:geocells 2054:Geology 2026:SVSlope 1836:Shallow 1756:Grading 1694:Tieback 1638:Subsoil 1628:Bedrock 1618:Topsoil 1613:Terrain 1406:R-value 1369:testing 1119:Dynamic 1046:in situ 1044:Field ( 913:Bibcode 529:266–271 519:266-267 72:channel 2036:Plaxis 2031:UTEXAS 2021:SVFlux 2011:SEEP2D 1863:Forces 1716:Trench 1664:Gabion 1474:Gravel 1114:Static 931: 871: 642: 592: 558:Mexico 499:22-27. 360:Gabion 330:gravel 2016:STABL 1489:Loess 1452:Types 929:S2CID 725:11–15 590:S2CID 580:(2). 489:1986. 458:1979. 448:1977. 417:2006. 2147:Soil 1841:Deep 1484:Loam 1479:Peat 1469:Sand 1464:Silt 1459:Clay 1444:Soil 1146:Well 946:2009 869:ISBN 640:ISBN 539:2836 509:1987 468:1981 328:and 136:and 99:rock 95:sand 76:load 1726:Cut 1035:and 921:doi 632:doi 582:doi 2133:: 1985:* 927:. 919:. 909:49 907:. 830:^ 812:^ 788:^ 699:^ 638:, 626:, 614:^ 602:^ 588:. 576:. 572:. 105:. 66:, 1589:) 1585:( 1048:) 1007:e 1000:t 993:v 935:. 923:: 915:: 877:. 825:. 634:: 596:. 584:: 578:3 132:(

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