1724:
1250:
4007:
3996:
105:
1544:, the planet was dominated by relatively small fauna, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. From a geological perspective, it did not take long for mammals and birds to greatly diversify in the absence of the dinosaurs that had dominated during the Mesozoic. Some flightless birds grew larger than humans. These species are sometimes referred to as "
998:
1712:, in contrast, experienced major diversification over the Eocene, especially at high latitudes, as the world's oceans cooled. Diatom diversification was particularly concentrated at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. A second major pulse of diatom diversification occurred over the course of the Middle and Late Miocene.
1049:
ranged from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago. In the Early-Eocene, species living in dense forest were unable to evolve into larger forms, as in the
Paleocene. Among them were early primates, whales and horses along with many other early forms of mammals. At the top of the food chains
2005:
O'Leary, Maureen A.; Bloch, Jonathan I.; Flynn, John J.; Gaudin, Timothy J.; Giallombardo, Andres; Giannini, Norberto P.; Goldberg, Suzann L.; Kraatz, Brian P.; Luo, Zhe-Xi; Meng, Jin; Ni, Michael J.; Novacek, Fernando A.; Perini, Zachary S.; Randall, Guillermo; Rougier, Eric J.; Sargis, Mary T.;
1088:
spans from 33.9 million to 23.03 million years ago. The
Oligocene featured the expansion of grasslands which had led to many new species to evolve, including the first elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species still prevalent today. Many other species of plants evolved in
1531:
Epoch. Recent analysis of the geomagnetic reversal frequency, oxygen isotope record, and tectonic plate subduction rate, which are indicators of the changes in the heat flux at the core mantle boundary, climate and plate tectonic activity, shows that all these changes indicate similar rhythms on
1062:
between
Australia and Antarctica formed. This disrupted ocean currents worldwide and as a result caused a global cooling effect, shrinking the jungles. This allowed mammals to grow to mammoth proportions, such as whales which, by that time, had become almost fully aquatic. Mammals like
1320:. 100,000 years ago marked the end of one of the worst droughts in Africa, and led to the expansion of primitive humans. As the Pleistocene drew to a close, a major extinction wiped out much of the world's megafauna, including some of the hominid species, such as
1462:
In the
Cretaceous, the climate was hot and humid with lush forests at the poles, there was no permanent ice and sea levels were around 300 metres higher than today. This continued for the first 10 million years of the Paleocene, culminating in the
1021:, which permitted the spread of dense but usually species-poor forests. The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of Earth. The continents began to take their modern shape, but all the continents and the subcontinent of India were separated from each other.
1556:), and some also grew very large, attaining sizes not seen in most of today's terrestrial mammals. The ranges of many Cenozoic bird clades were governed by latitude and temperature and have contracted over the course of this era as the world cooled.
969:
better organise and group the many significant events that occurred during this comparatively short interval of time. Knowledge of this era is more detailed than any other era because of the relatively young, well-preserved rocks associated with it.
1033:
had not yet formed. This epoch featured a general warming trend, with jungles eventually reaching the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that had once predominated were extinct. Archaic mammals filled the world such as
3134:
2519:
1285:
as a result of the cooling trend that started in the Mid-Eocene. There were at least four separate glaciation periods marked by the advance of ice caps as far south as 40° N in mountainous areas. Meanwhile, Africa experienced a trend of
1343:". It is often cited that over 322 recorded species have become extinct due to human activity since the Industrial Revolution, but the rate may be as high as 500 vertebrate species alone, the majority of which have occurred after 1900.
753:) in the southern hemisphere. The extinction of many groups allowed mammals and birds to greatly diversify so that large mammals and birds dominated life on Earth. The continents also moved into their current positions during this era.
1159:
lasted from 5.333 to 2.58 million years ago. The
Pliocene featured dramatic climatic changes, which ultimately led to modern species of flora and fauna. The Mediterranean Sea dried up for several million years (because the
2006:
Silcox, Nancy b.; Simmons, Micelle; Spaulding, Paul M.; Velazco, Marcelo; Weksler, John r.; Wible, Andrea L.; Cirranello, A. L. (8 February 2013). "The
Placental Mammal Ancestor and the Post–K-Pg Radiation of Placentals".
1847:
From pp. 153–154: "As many systems or combinations of organic forms as are clearly traceable in the stratified crust of the globe, so many corresponding terms (as Palæozoic, Mesozoic, Kainozoic, &c.) may be made, ...
1532:
million years' timescale in the
Cenozoic Era occurring with the common fundamental periodicity of ~13 Myr during most of the time. The levels of carbonate ions in the ocean fell over the course of the Cenozoic.
1335:" lies within the boundaries of the Holocene Epoch. Human activity is blamed for a mass extinction that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species becoming extinct have only been recorded since the
1861:
Bulletin 769: The
Geologic Time Classification of the United States Geological Survey Compared With Other Classifications, accompanied by the original definitions of era, period and epoch terms
1591:
also played a very important role in this era, shaping the evolution of the birds and mammals that fed on them. One group that diversified significantly in the
Cenozoic as well were the
2183:
Anagnostou, Eleni; John, Eleanor H.; Edgar, Kirsty M.; Foster, Gavin L.; Ridgwell, Andy; Inglis, Gordon N.; Pancost, Richard D.; Lunt, Daniel J.; Pearson, Paul N. (25 April 2016).
3376:
3198:
2831:
2292:
978:
The
Paleogene spans from the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, 66 million years ago, to the dawn of the Neogene, 23.03 million years ago. It features three
2345:
1069:
were at the top of the food-chain. The Late Eocene saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of savanna-like areas, along with the evolution of
2269:
2184:
715:
3369:
1708:
experienced rapid rates of speciation and reduced species longevity, while suffering prolonged declines in diversity during the Eocene and Neogene.
958:
444:
2463:
2297:
905:) is comparable to the preceding Mesozoic ('middle life') and Paleozoic ('old life') Eras, as well as to the Proterozoic ('earlier life') Eon.
2069:
Williams, C. J.; LePage, B. A.; Johnson, A. H.; Vann, D. R. (2009). "Structure, Biomass, and Productivity of a Late Paleocene Arctic Forest".
1074:
3328:
3251:
Falkowski, Paul G.; Katz, Miriam E.; Knoll, Andrew H.; Quigg, Antonietta; Raven, John A.; Schofield, Oscar; Taylor, F. J. R. (16 July 2004).
2939:
1541:
2156:
2104:
Johnson, Kirk R.; Ellis, Beth (28 June 2002). "A Tropical Rainforest in Colorado 1.4 Million Years After the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary".
1464:
757:
3362:
3014:
2737:
2291:
Retallack, Gregory J.; Orr, William N.; Prothero, Donald Ross; Duncan, Robert A.; Kester, Paul R.; Ambers, Clifford P. (1 July 2004).
1481:
Earth entered a period of long term cooling. This was mainly due to the collision of India with Eurasia, which caused the rise of the
2688:
1737:
1891:
1246:. It features modern animals, and dramatic changes in the climate. It is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.
650:
2459:"Link between Global Cooling and Mammalian Transformation across the Eocene–Oligocene Boundary in the Continental Interior of Asia"
1089:
this period too. A cooling period featuring seasonal rains was still in effect. Mammals still continued to grow larger and larger.
1013:
lasted from 66 million to 56 million years ago. Modern placental mammals originated during this time. The devastation of the
2665:
1249:
1097:
The Neogene spans from 23.03 million to 2.58 million years ago. It features 2 epochs: the Miocene, and the Pliocene.
2340:
1701:
and marsupials of Australia. Mammal evolution in the Cenozoic was predominantly shaped by climatic and geological processes.
1059:
3051:
Saupe, Erin E.; Farnsworth, Alexander; Lunt, Daniel J.; Sagoo, Navjit; Pham, Karen V.; Field, Daniel J. (10 June 2019).
1768:
1324:. All the continents were affected, but Africa to a lesser extent. It still retains many large animals, such as hippos.
722:, became extinct in an event attributed by most experts to the impact of a large asteroid or other celestial body, the
3385:
3128:
Feijó, Anderson; Ge, Deyan; Wen, Zhixin; Cheng, Jilong; Xia, Lin; Patterson, Bruce D.; Yang, Qisen (6 December 2022).
1822:
433:
1878:
Harland, W. Brian; Armstrong, Richard L.; Cox, Allen V.; Craig, Lorraine E.; Smith, David G.; Smith, Alan G. (1990).
1058:. The temperature was 30 degrees Celsius with little temperature gradient from pole to pole. In the Mid-Eocene, the
791:
2887:
1191:
1014:
4040:
1949:
965:
was officially replaced by the Paleogene and Neogene Periods. The common use of epochs during the Cenozoic helps
808:
3130:"Mammalian diversification bursts and biotic turnovers are synchronous with Cenozoic geoclimatic events in Asia"
4035:
522:
2277:
1966:"Formal ratification of the Quaternary System/Period and the Pleistocene Series/Epoch with a base at 2.58 Ma"
1900:
Although John Phillips originally spelled it as "Kainozoic" in 1840, he spelled it "Cainozoic" a year later:
1489:
in the air, causing a long-term reduction in the proportion of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Around
3658:
3653:
2892:
1779:
1705:
1817:
1500:, with relatively short warmer periods. When South America became attached to North America creating the
2825:
2388:
1748:
1729:
1575:
animals, giving this period its other name, the Age of Mammals. The Cenozoic is just as much the age of
1520:
1359:
1336:
769:
500:
3266:
3210:
3143:
3064:
3053:"Climatic shifts drove major contractions in avian latitudinal distributions throughout the Cenozoic"
2982:
2901:
2861:
2787:
2528:
2472:
2405:
2354:
2306:
2211:
2113:
2017:
1977:
1838:
1430:
and Cenozoic times led to a shift in the river courses of various large African rivers including the
110:
1242:
spans from 2.58 million years ago to present day, and is the shortest geological period in the
3989:
2608:
1743:
1307:
1911:
3344:
2488:
2439:
2224:
2137:
2086:
2051:
1564:
1553:
723:
4006:
2973:
Chen, J.; Kravchinsky, V.A.; Liu, X. (2015). "The 13 million year Cenozoic pulse of the Earth".
803:
4030:
3787:
3751:
3324:
3290:
3282:
3257:
3226:
3179:
3161:
3092:
3033:
2935:
2813:
2756:
2564:
2546:
2458:
2431:
2216:
2129:
2043:
2008:
1887:
1660:
1501:
1395:
1179:
1141:
1129:
1055:
1030:
1879:
1636:. But as the forests began to recede and the climate began to cool, other mammals took over.
3881:
3756:
3725:
3522:
3274:
3218:
3169:
3151:
3082:
3072:
3023:
2990:
2986:
2909:
2869:
2803:
2795:
2554:
2536:
2480:
2421:
2413:
2396:
2362:
2314:
2206:
2198:
2189:
2121:
2078:
2033:
2025:
1985:
1907:
Figures and Descriptions of the Palæozoic Fossils of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset; ...
1859:
1672:
1595:. Evolving in the Cenozoic, the variety of snakes increased tremendously, resulting in many
1560:
1549:
1512:
1413:
1340:
1258:
1170:
830:
594:
3850:
3746:
3684:
3579:
3548:
3517:
2696:
1802:
1689:, various bizarre groups of mammals from South America, such as the vaguely elephant-like
1681:
1580:
1427:
1371:
1299:
1243:
1085:
1010:
979:
966:
962:
926:
703:
2389:"Cooler winters as a possible cause of mass extinctions at the Eocene/Oligocene boundary"
2185:"Changing atmospheric CO2 concentration was the primary driver of early Cenozoic climate"
3270:
3214:
3147:
3068:
2905:
2865:
2791:
2532:
2476:
2409:
2366:
2358:
2310:
2117:
2021:
1981:
1905:
1214:
desert. The world map has not changed much since, save for changes brought about by the
4000:
3819:
3689:
3584:
3553:
3174:
3129:
3087:
3052:
2927:
2808:
2775:
2719:
1932:
1616:
1607:
1383:
1165:
1156:
1117:
1078:
3252:
2590:
1797:
4024:
3720:
3710:
3679:
3642:
3574:
3543:
2955:
2776:"Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction"
2673:
2646:
2559:
2228:
2090:
2055:
1568:
1451:
1447:
1391:
1387:
1332:
1291:
1187:
1183:
1149:
1101:
1065:
756:
The climate during the early Cenozoic was warmer than today, particularly during the
750:
683:
468:
63:
2627:
2514:
2492:
2141:
1108:
spread further, dominating a large portion of the world, at the expense of forests.
4011:
3995:
3942:
3792:
3715:
2913:
2443:
2250:
1694:
1640:
1524:
1443:
1409:
1331:
began 11,700 years ago and lasts to the present day. All recorded history and "the
1316:
1295:
1262:
1046:
1022:
1002:
104:
3110:
1496:
permanent ice began to build up on Antarctica. The cooling trend continued in the
3010:"Retrodiction of secular variations in deep-sea CaCO3 burial during the Cenozoic"
2873:
3937:
3806:
3782:
3627:
3422:
3222:
1686:
1548:", and were formidable predators. Mammals came to occupy almost every available
1545:
1516:
1435:
1431:
1321:
1311:
1287:
1278:
1219:
1215:
1145:
950:
288:
38:
3135:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3028:
3009:
2994:
2520:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
706:(flowering plants). It is the latest of three geological eras, preceded by the
3932:
3892:
3835:
3735:
3632:
3506:
3406:
3354:
2484:
2162:
1927:
1719:
1690:
1676:
1656:
1629:
1625:
1611:
1379:
1375:
1367:
1270:
1239:
1227:
1223:
1125:
1026:
922:
742:
351:
83:
48:
3286:
3230:
3165:
3037:
2550:
2541:
537:
524:
3947:
3897:
3871:
3830:
3777:
3622:
3598:
3479:
3469:
3458:
3278:
3156:
3077:
2125:
2029:
1783:
1698:
1633:
1596:
1482:
1355:
1281:
lasted from 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago. This epoch was marked by
1168:
from the Mediterranean, and evaporation rates exceeded inflow from rivers).
1133:
1113:
1039:
1035:
1018:
991:
983:
938:
930:
914:
765:
746:
719:
711:
358:
88:
3294:
3183:
3096:
2817:
2799:
2568:
2435:
2220:
2133:
2047:
3349:
2293:"Eocene–Oligocene extinction and paleoclimatic change near Eugene, Oregon"
1104:
spans from 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago and is a period in which
997:
690:
million years of Earth's history. It is characterized by the dominance of
3907:
3902:
3866:
3766:
3699:
3668:
3563:
3532:
3493:
3443:
3417:
2847:"Arabia-Eurasia collision and the forcing of mid Cenozoic global cooling"
2846:
2426:
2082:
1845:. Vol. 17. London, England: Charles Knight and Co. pp. 153–154.
1664:
1644:
1563:
from a few small, simple, generalised forms into a diverse collection of
1528:
1328:
1282:
1266:
1051:
954:
946:
738:
707:
318:
78:
73:
58:
53:
43:
2202:
3921:
3861:
3611:
3448:
3432:
1668:
1652:
1588:
1576:
1497:
1403:
1351:
1303:
1254:
1199:
1195:
1161:
1137:
1105:
1070:
942:
918:
699:
516:
499:
enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent
496:
478:
365:
114:
93:
68:
2038:
1910:
London, England, U.K.: Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans. p.
1843:
Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge
1469:
3957:
3840:
3474:
2417:
2318:
1990:
1965:
1864:. Washington, D.C., U.S.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 8.
1773:
1709:
1639:
The Cenozoic is full of mammals both strange and familiar, including
1621:
1600:
1584:
1506:
1363:
1211:
1203:
1175:
987:
934:
761:
734:
733:
because the terrestrial animals that dominated both hemispheres were
691:
512:
1886:. Cambridge, England, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 31.
1606:
In the earlier part of the Cenozoic, the world was dominated by the
1599:, following the evolution of their current primary prey source, the
1491:
1476:
1418:
1112:
forests evolved, encouraging the evolution of new species, such as
2387:
Ivany, Linda C.; Patterson, William P.; Lohmann, Kyger C. (2000).
1648:
1592:
1408:
creating the Himalayas; Arabia collided with Eurasia, closing the
1248:
1029:, and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the
996:
118:
1148:. This increased aridity. Many new plants evolved: 95% of modern
3981:
3977:
3973:
1439:
1207:
1121:
1109:
807:'life'). The name was proposed in 1840 by the British geologist
695:
32:
3358:
1194:, wreaking havoc on local ecologies. Climatic changes brought:
2071:
Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
1572:
603:
133:
1874:
The evolution of the spelling of "Cenozoic" is reviewed in:
1198:
that are still continuing to spread across the world; Indian
796:
784:
1386:
widened and, later in the era (2.8 million years ago),
2515:"A finding of Oligocene primates on the European continent"
1511:, the Arctic region cooled due to the strengthening of the
878:
857:
848:
839:
639:
618:
609:
3199:"Calcareous nannoplankton evolution: a tale of two oceans"
957:. The Quaternary Period was officially recognised by the
863:
624:
3008:
Boudreau, Bernard P.; Luo, Yiming (15 September 2017).
2890:(2005). "The drainage of Africa since the Cretaceous".
1519:
currents, eventually leading to the glaciations of the
2158:
Lamniform sharks: 110 million years of ocean supremacy
1964:
Gibbard, P. L.; Head, M. J.; Walker, M. J. C. (2010).
1624:, and a handful of primitive large mammal groups like
2457:
Zhang, R.; Kravchinsky, V.A.; Yue, L. (21 May 2012).
875:
872:
866:
854:
845:
836:
833:
651:
642:
636:
633:
627:
615:
606:
600:
597:
1120:
thrived, and evolved into many different varieties.
3956:
3920:
3880:
3849:
3818:
3805:
3765:
3734:
3698:
3667:
3641:
3610:
3597:
3562:
3531:
3505:
3492:
3457:
3431:
3405:
3392:
851:
612:
577:
569:
561:
553:
507:
492:
484:
474:
464:
459:
451:
439:
429:
424:
416:
408:
403:
126:
23:
3345:Western Australian Museum – The Age of the Mammals
3323:. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
3253:"The Evolution of Modern Eukaryotic Phytoplankton"
2956:"How the Isthmus of Panama Put Ice in the Arctic"
2854:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1152:families were present by the end of the Miocene.
1054:. Carbon dioxide levels were approximately 1,400
913:The Cenozoic is divided into three periods: the
741:(placentals) in the northern hemisphere and the
3057:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2268:National Geographic Society (24 January 2017).
1485:: the upraised rocks eroded and reacted with CO
1370:, drifted north and, eventually, collided with
2934:. London, UK: Bodley Head. pp. 9–10, 40.
3370:
2346:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
1077:, the European face of which is known as the
718:, when many species, including the non-avian
8:
1693:and the dog-like marsupial relatives called
2830:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1038:(extinct carnivores, unrelated to existing
890:
860:
842:
667:
621:
390:An approximate timescale of the Cenozoic.
3815:
3607:
3502:
3402:
3377:
3363:
3355:
1073:. The end of the Eocene was marked by the
3173:
3155:
3086:
3076:
3027:
2807:
2558:
2540:
2513:Köhler, M; Moyà-Solà, S (December 1999).
2425:
2212:1983/799fc7ff-ff17-41b7-8dcc-cae1b66c5734
2210:
2037:
1989:
1378:moved into its current position over the
1339:. This is sometimes referred to as the "
1302:deserts. Many animals evolved including
1128:finally closed with the creation of the
959:International Commission on Stratigraphy
3321:After the Dinosaurs: The Age of Mammals
2845:Allen, M. B.; Armstrong, H. A. (2008).
2464:International Journal of Earth Sciences
2341:"The Late Eocene-Oligocene Extinctions"
1760:
811:(1800–1874), who originally spelled it
2823:
2298:Geological Society of America Bulletin
2155:Royal Tyrrell Museum (28 March 2012),
1290:which resulted in the creation of the
1164:reduced sea levels, disconnecting the
745:(marsupials, now mainly restricted to
20:
1540:Early in the Cenozoic, following the
1182:formed, and animals migrated between
716:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
109:Rock deposits from the Cenozoic Era (
7:
1358:moved into their current positions.
3976:= kiloannum (thousands years ago);
3350:Cenozoic (chronostratigraphy scale)
3015:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2975:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2367:10.1146/annurev.ea.22.050194.001045
1354:, the Cenozoic is the era when the
3980:= megaannum (millions years ago);
2339:Prothero, Donald Ross (May 1994).
1178:, beginning the human branch. The
729:The Cenozoic is also known as the
392:Axis scale: millions of years ago.
14:
3984:= gigaannum (billions years ago).
1253:Megafauna of Pleistocene Europe (
1075:Eocene–Oligocene extinction event
1017:included the extinction of large
4005:
3994:
3197:Bown, Paul R. (1 October 2005).
1722:
1465:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
829:
758:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
714:. The Cenozoic started with the
682:) is Earth's current geological
593:
103:
16:Third era of the Phanerozoic Eon
2774:Ceballos et al. (2015) (2015).
1218:of the Quaternary, such as the
1132:, leaving only remnants as the
815:. The era is also known as the
2914:10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.11.008
2738:"Sixth Extinction extinctions"
1803:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
1:
3423:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma)
2932:Origins:How the Earth Made Us
1970:Journal of Quaternary Science
1858:Wilmarth, Mary Grace (1925).
1738:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
1124:evolved into 30 species. The
1060:Antarctic Circumpolar Current
783:derives from the Greek words
3319:Prothero, Donald R. (2006).
3240:– via GeoScienceWorld.
2874:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.04.021
1426:The break-up of Gondwana in
1210:; and the beginnings of the
797:
785:
3386:Geological history of Earth
3223:10.2113/gsmicropal.51.4.299
1823:Online Etymology Dictionary
961:in June 2009. In 2004, the
4059:
3659:Mississippian (323–359 Ma)
3654:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma)
3418:Holocene (present–11.7 ka)
3029:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.06.005
2995:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.09.033
2718:University of California.
2687:University of California.
2670:Oak Ridge National Library
2645:University of California.
2626:University of California.
2589:University of California.
2249:University of California.
1884:A Geologic Time Scale 1989
1579:, the age of co-dependent
1314:, sabre-toothed cats, and
1192:great American interchange
802:
790:
686:, representing the last 66
3971:
3943:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga)
3793:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma)
2485:10.1007/s00531-012-0776-1
1950:Oxford English Dictionary
1933:Dictionary.com Unabridged
1880:"The Chronostratic Scale"
1401:India collided with Asia
1050:were huge birds, such as
562:Upper boundary definition
493:Lower boundary definition
388:
131:
102:
28:
3938:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga)
3783:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma)
3628:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma)
3480:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma)
3470:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma)
2755:IUCN (3 November 2009).
2724:University of California
2693:University of California
2651:University of California
2632:University of California
2595:University of California
2542:10.1073/pnas.96.25.14664
2255:University of California
1706:calcareous nannoplankton
1587:, and the age of birds.
772:dried and cooled Earth.
3933:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga)
3898:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga)
3893:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga)
3836:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma)
3726:Llandovery (433–444 Ma)
3633:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma)
3444:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma)
3279:10.1126/science.1095964
3157:10.1073/pnas.2207845119
3078:10.1073/pnas.1903866116
2987:2015E&PSL.431..256C
2613:Encyclopædia Britannica
2126:10.1126/science.1072102
2030:10.1126/science.1229237
1904:Phillips, John (1841).
1837:Phillips, John (1840).
1780:Oxford University Press
1620:, large sharks such as
1509: million years ago
1494: million years ago
1479: million years ago
1472: million years ago
1421: million years ago
889:In name, the Cenozoic (
737: – the
3903:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga)
3872:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga)
3831:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma)
3778:Furongian (485–497 Ma)
3623:Lopingian (252–260 Ma)
3449:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma)
2800:10.1126/sciadv.1400253
1685:, the rhinoceros-like
1274:
1006:
259:−10 —
249:−15 —
239:−20 —
229:−25 —
219:−30 —
209:−35 —
199:−40 —
189:−45 —
179:−50 —
169:−55 —
159:−60 —
149:−65 —
139:−70 —
3908:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga)
3867:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga)
3788:Series 2 (509–521 Ma)
3475:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma)
1953:(2nd ed.). 1989.
1776:UK English Dictionary
1749:Late Cenozoic Ice Age
1730:Earth sciences portal
1559:During the Cenozoic,
1337:Industrial Revolution
1252:
1025:was separated by the
1015:K–Pg extinction event
1000:
770:Quaternary glaciation
501:K-Pg extinction event
269:−5 —
3948:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga)
3841:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga)
3721:Wenlock (427–433 Ma)
3711:Pridoli (419–423 Ma)
2676:on 25 February 2015.
2083:10.1635/053.158.0106
1786:on 23 November 2021.
1561:mammals proliferated
1362:, having split from
1360:Australia-New Guinea
1116:. During this time,
4003: •
3992: •
3990:Geologic time scale
3752:Middle (458–470 Ma)
3716:Ludlow (423–427 Ma)
3685:Middle (383–393 Ma)
3580:Middle (237–247 Ma)
3549:Middle (164–174 Ma)
3271:2004Sci...305..354F
3215:2005MiPal..51..299B
3148:2022PNAS..11907845F
3142:(49): e2207845119.
3069:2019PNAS..11612895S
3063:(26): 12895–12900.
2906:2005Geomo..67..437G
2866:2008PPP...265...52A
2792:2015SciA....1E0253C
2742:Scientific American
2533:1999PNAS...9614664K
2477:2012IJEaS.101.2193Z
2410:2000Natur.407..887I
2359:1994AREPS..22..145P
2311:2004GSAB..116..817R
2274:National Geographic
2203:10.1038/nature17423
2118:2002Sci...296.2379J
2112:(5577): 2379–2383.
2022:2013Sci...339..662O
1982:2010JQS....25...96G
1744:Geologic time scale
1610:birds, terrestrial
1390:became attached to
1308:giant ground sloths
768:transition and the
749:and to some extent
578:Upper GSSP ratified
570:Upper boundary GSSP
554:Lower GSSP ratified
534: /
508:Lower boundary GSSP
485:Time span formality
4001:Geology portal
3862:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga)
3757:Early (470–485 Ma)
3690:Early (393–419 Ma)
3585:Early (247–252 Ma)
3554:Early (174–201 Ma)
3523:Early (100–145 Ma)
3518:Late (66.0–100 Ma)
3111:"The Cenozoic Era"
2757:"Sixth Extinction"
2666:"Pliocene climate"
1839:"Palæozoic series"
1806:. Merriam-Webster.
1661:sabre-toothed cats
1521:Quaternary ice age
1404:55 to 45
1275:
1007:
724:Chicxulub impactor
538:36.1537°N 8.6486°E
475:Stratigraphic unit
465:Chronological unit
452:Time scale(s) used
4018:
4017:
3916:
3915:
3882:Paleoproterozoic
3801:
3800:
3747:Late (444–458 Ma)
3680:Late (359–383 Ma)
3593:
3592:
3575:Late (201–237 Ma)
3544:Late (145–164 Ma)
3488:
3487:
3409:(present–2.58 Ma)
3397:(present–66.0 Ma)
3330:978-0-253-34733-6
3265:(5682): 354–360.
3203:Micropaleontology
3115:ucmp.berkeley.edu
2941:978-1-8479-2435-3
2699:on 24 August 2014
2664:Adams, Jonathan.
2404:(6806): 887–890.
2197:(7603): 380–384.
2016:(6120): 662–667.
1673:three-toed horses
1552:(both marine and
1502:Isthmus of Panama
1412:and creating the
1406:million years ago
1396:isthmus of Panama
1366:during the early
1180:isthmus of Panama
1130:Arabian Peninsula
585:
584:
425:Usage information
398:
397:
111:Torre Sant'Andrea
4048:
4041:1840s neologisms
4012:World portal
4010:
4009:
3999:
3998:
3961:
3925:
3885:
3854:
3851:Mesoproterozoic
3823:
3816:
3811:
3770:
3739:
3703:
3672:
3646:
3615:
3608:
3603:
3567:
3536:
3510:
3503:
3498:
3462:
3436:
3410:
3403:
3398:
3379:
3372:
3365:
3356:
3334:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3248:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3237:
3194:
3188:
3187:
3177:
3159:
3125:
3119:
3118:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3090:
3080:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3031:
3005:
2999:
2998:
2970:
2964:
2963:
2960:Oceanus Magazine
2952:
2946:
2945:
2924:
2918:
2917:
2900:(3–4): 437–456.
2884:
2878:
2877:
2851:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2829:
2821:
2811:
2780:Science Advances
2771:
2765:
2764:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2695:. Archived from
2684:
2678:
2677:
2672:. Archived from
2661:
2655:
2654:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2623:
2617:
2616:
2615:. 9 August 2024.
2605:
2599:
2598:
2586:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2562:
2544:
2510:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2499:
2471:(8): 2193–2200.
2454:
2448:
2447:
2429:
2418:10.1038/35038044
2393:
2384:
2378:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2336:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2319:10.1130/B25281.1
2305:(7–8): 817–839.
2288:
2282:
2281:
2276:. Archived from
2265:
2259:
2258:
2251:"Eocene Climate"
2246:
2240:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2214:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2165:on 7 August 2013
2161:, archived from
2152:
2146:
2145:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2041:
2002:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1991:10.1002/jqs.1338
1961:
1955:
1954:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1924:
1918:
1915:
1897:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1855:
1849:
1846:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1782:. Archived from
1765:
1732:
1727:
1726:
1725:
1581:flowering plants
1527:of which is the
1510:
1495:
1480:
1473:
1422:
1414:Zagros Mountains
1407:
1341:Sixth Extinction
1171:Australopithecus
967:palaeontologists
904:
901:
898:
895:
892:
885:
884:
881:
880:
877:
874:
869:
868:
865:
862:
859:
856:
853:
850:
847:
844:
841:
838:
835:
806:
800:
794:
788:
689:
681:
678:
675:
672:
669:
662:
658:
654:
649:
648:
645:
644:
641:
638:
635:
630:
629:
626:
623:
620:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
549:
548:
546:
545:
544:
539:
535:
532:
531:
530:
527:
511:El Kef Section,
346:
312:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
134:
107:
98:
35:
21:
4058:
4057:
4051:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4046:
4045:
4036:Geological eras
4021:
4020:
4019:
4014:
4004:
3993:
3985:
3967:
3959:
3952:
3923:
3912:
3883:
3876:
3852:
3845:
3821:
3820:Neoproterozoic
3810:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga)
3809:
3808:
3807:Proterozoic Eon
3797:
3768:
3761:
3737:
3730:
3701:
3694:
3670:
3663:
3644:
3637:
3613:
3601:
3600:
3589:
3565:
3558:
3534:
3527:
3508:
3496:
3495:
3484:
3460:
3453:
3434:
3427:
3408:
3396:
3395:
3388:
3383:
3341:
3331:
3318:
3315:
3313:Further reading
3310:
3309:
3299:
3297:
3250:
3249:
3245:
3235:
3233:
3196:
3195:
3191:
3127:
3126:
3122:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3050:
3049:
3045:
3007:
3006:
3002:
2972:
2971:
2967:
2954:
2953:
2949:
2942:
2928:Dartnell, Lewis
2926:
2925:
2921:
2886:
2885:
2881:
2849:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2822:
2786:(5): e1400253.
2773:
2772:
2768:
2754:
2753:
2749:
2736:
2735:
2731:
2717:
2716:
2712:
2702:
2700:
2686:
2685:
2681:
2663:
2662:
2658:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2625:
2624:
2620:
2607:
2606:
2602:
2588:
2587:
2583:
2573:
2571:
2527:(25): 14664–7.
2512:
2511:
2507:
2497:
2495:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2391:
2386:
2385:
2381:
2371:
2369:
2338:
2337:
2333:
2323:
2321:
2290:
2289:
2285:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2248:
2247:
2243:
2233:
2231:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2168:
2166:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2004:
2003:
1999:
1963:
1962:
1958:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1903:
1894:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1816:
1815:
1811:
1796:
1795:
1791:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1682:Paraceratherium
1538:
1505:
1490:
1488:
1475:
1468:
1460:
1428:Late Cretaceous
1417:
1402:
1349:
1244:Phanerozoic Eon
1236:
1095:
1086:Oligocene Epoch
1011:Paleocene Epoch
976:
963:Tertiary Period
911:
902:
899:
896:
893:
871:
832:
828:
778:
760:. However, the
687:
679:
676:
673:
670:
660:
656:
652:
632:
596:
592:
543:36.1537; 8.6486
542:
540:
536:
533:
528:
525:
523:
521:
520:
519:
399:
394:
393:
391:
384:
383:
379:
378:
374:
373:
369:
368:
362:
361:
355:
354:
348:
347:
342:
340:
338:
336:
334:
332:
330:
326:
323:
322:
314:
313:
308:
306:
304:
302:
300:
298:
296:
294:
292:
290:
286:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
122:
97:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
46:
41:
30:
29:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4056:
4055:
4052:
4044:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4023:
4022:
4016:
4015:
3972:
3969:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3954:
3953:
3951:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3929:
3927:
3918:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3889:
3887:
3878:
3877:
3875:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3858:
3856:
3847:
3846:
3844:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3827:
3825:
3813:
3803:
3802:
3799:
3798:
3796:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3774:
3772:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3743:
3741:
3732:
3731:
3729:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3707:
3705:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3676:
3674:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3650:
3648:
3643:Carboniferous
3639:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3619:
3617:
3605:
3595:
3594:
3591:
3590:
3588:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3571:
3569:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3540:
3538:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3525:
3520:
3514:
3512:
3500:
3490:
3489:
3486:
3485:
3483:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3466:
3464:
3461:(23.0–66.0 Ma)
3455:
3454:
3452:
3451:
3446:
3440:
3438:
3435:(2.58–23.0 Ma)
3429:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3420:
3414:
3412:
3400:
3390:
3389:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3374:
3367:
3359:
3353:
3352:
3347:
3340:
3339:External links
3337:
3336:
3335:
3329:
3314:
3311:
3308:
3307:
3243:
3209:(4): 299–308.
3189:
3120:
3102:
3043:
3000:
2965:
2947:
2940:
2919:
2879:
2860:(1–2): 52–58.
2837:
2766:
2747:
2729:
2710:
2679:
2656:
2637:
2618:
2600:
2581:
2505:
2449:
2379:
2331:
2283:
2280:on 8 May 2010.
2260:
2241:
2175:
2147:
2096:
2077:(1): 107–127.
2061:
1997:
1956:
1939:
1936:(Online). n.d.
1919:
1917:
1916:
1899:
1898:
1892:
1867:
1850:
1829:
1809:
1789:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1740:(K–T boundary)
1734:
1733:
1717:
1714:
1617:Pristichampsus
1537:
1534:
1523:, the current
1486:
1459:
1456:
1384:Atlantic Ocean
1372:Southeast Asia
1348:
1345:
1235:
1232:
1157:Pliocene Epoch
1118:perissodactyla
1094:
1091:
1079:Grande Coupure
975:
972:
910:
907:
777:
774:
731:Age of Mammals
583:
582:
579:
575:
574:
571:
567:
566:
563:
559:
558:
555:
551:
550:
509:
505:
504:
494:
490:
489:
486:
482:
481:
476:
472:
471:
466:
462:
461:
457:
456:
455:ICS Time Scale
453:
449:
448:
441:
440:Regional usage
437:
436:
431:
430:Celestial body
427:
426:
422:
421:
420:Age of Mammals
418:
414:
413:
410:
409:Name formality
406:
405:
401:
400:
396:
395:
389:
386:
385:
381:
380:
376:
375:
371:
370:
364:
363:
357:
356:
350:
349:
325:
324:
316:
315:
285:
284:
282:
279:0 —
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
142:
137:
132:
129:
128:
124:
123:
108:
100:
99:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
47:
42:
37:
36:
26:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4054:
4053:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4026:
4013:
4008:
4002:
3997:
3991:
3988:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3970:
3964:
3962:
3955:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3930:
3928:
3926:
3919:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3890:
3888:
3886:
3879:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3859:
3857:
3855:
3848:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3824:
3822:(539 Ma–1 Ga)
3817:
3814:
3812:
3804:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3771:
3764:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3740:
3733:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3706:
3704:
3697:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3677:
3675:
3673:
3666:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3640:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3616:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3599:Paleozoic Era
3596:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3572:
3570:
3568:
3561:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3537:
3530:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3511:
3509:(66.0–145 Ma)
3504:
3501:
3499:
3497:(66.0–252 Ma)
3491:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3456:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3441:
3439:
3437:
3430:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3411:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3391:
3387:
3380:
3375:
3373:
3368:
3366:
3361:
3360:
3357:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3338:
3332:
3326:
3322:
3317:
3316:
3312:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3259:
3254:
3247:
3244:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3193:
3190:
3185:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3136:
3131:
3124:
3121:
3116:
3112:
3106:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3047:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3016:
3011:
3004:
3001:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2969:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2951:
2948:
2943:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2923:
2920:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2894:
2893:Geomorphology
2889:
2883:
2880:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2848:
2841:
2838:
2833:
2827:
2819:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2770:
2767:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2748:
2743:
2739:
2733:
2730:
2725:
2721:
2714:
2711:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2689:"Pleistocene"
2683:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2660:
2657:
2652:
2648:
2641:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2622:
2619:
2614:
2610:
2604:
2601:
2596:
2592:
2585:
2582:
2570:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2521:
2516:
2509:
2506:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2465:
2460:
2453:
2450:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2427:2027.42/62707
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2398:
2390:
2383:
2380:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2347:
2342:
2335:
2332:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2287:
2284:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2264:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2245:
2242:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2191:
2186:
2179:
2176:
2164:
2160:
2159:
2151:
2148:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2100:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2065:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2010:
2001:
1998:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1976:(2): 96–102.
1975:
1971:
1967:
1960:
1957:
1952:
1951:
1947:"Cainozoic".
1943:
1940:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1923:
1920:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1895:
1893:9780521387651
1889:
1885:
1881:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1863:
1862:
1854:
1851:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1830:
1825:
1824:
1819:
1813:
1810:
1805:
1804:
1799:
1793:
1790:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1775:
1770:
1764:
1761:
1754:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1720:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1641:chalicotheres
1637:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1493:
1484:
1478:
1471:
1466:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1405:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1392:North America
1389:
1388:South America
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1333:Human history
1330:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1188:South America
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1142:Mediterranean
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1102:Miocene Epoch
1098:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1067:
1066:Andrewsarchus
1061:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1005:
1004:
999:
995:
993:
989:
985:
981:
973:
971:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
908:
906:
887:
883:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
809:John Phillips
805:
799:
793:
787:
782:
775:
773:
771:
767:
763:
759:
754:
752:
751:South America
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
727:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
685:
665:
664:
647:
590:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
547:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
495:
491:
487:
483:
480:
477:
473:
470:
467:
463:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
435:
432:
428:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
402:
387:
367:
360:
353:
345:
344:
321:
320:
311:
310:
283:
136:
135:
130:
125:
120:
116:
112:
106:
101:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
45:
40:
34:
27:
22:
19:
3986:
3922:Archean Eon
3884:(1.6–2.5 Ga)
3769:(485–539 Ma)
3738:(444–485 Ma)
3702:(419–444 Ma)
3671:(359–419 Ma)
3645:(299–359 Ma)
3614:(252–299 Ma)
3602:(252–539 Ma)
3566:(201–252 Ma)
3535:(145–201 Ma)
3494:Mesozoic Era
3394:Cenozoic Era
3393:
3320:
3298:. Retrieved
3262:
3256:
3246:
3234:. Retrieved
3206:
3202:
3192:
3139:
3133:
3123:
3114:
3105:
3060:
3056:
3046:
3019:
3013:
3003:
2978:
2974:
2968:
2959:
2950:
2931:
2922:
2897:
2891:
2888:Goudie, A.S.
2882:
2857:
2853:
2840:
2826:cite journal
2783:
2779:
2769:
2760:
2750:
2741:
2732:
2723:
2713:
2701:. Retrieved
2697:the original
2692:
2682:
2674:the original
2669:
2659:
2650:
2640:
2631:
2621:
2612:
2603:
2594:
2584:
2572:. Retrieved
2524:
2518:
2508:
2496:. Retrieved
2468:
2462:
2452:
2401:
2395:
2382:
2370:. Retrieved
2350:
2344:
2334:
2322:. Retrieved
2302:
2296:
2286:
2278:the original
2273:
2263:
2254:
2244:
2232:. Retrieved
2194:
2188:
2178:
2167:, retrieved
2163:the original
2157:
2150:
2109:
2105:
2099:
2074:
2070:
2064:
2013:
2007:
2000:
1973:
1969:
1959:
1948:
1942:
1931:
1922:
1906:
1883:
1870:
1860:
1853:
1842:
1832:
1821:
1812:
1801:
1792:
1784:the original
1772:
1763:
1703:
1687:brontotheres
1680:
1638:
1630:mesonychians
1615:
1608:gastornithid
1605:
1558:
1546:terror birds
1539:
1525:interglacial
1461:
1425:
1410:Tethys Ocean
1400:
1352:Geologically
1350:
1326:
1322:Neanderthals
1317:Homo sapiens
1315:
1276:
1263:woolly rhino
1237:
1169:
1154:
1146:Caspian Seas
1099:
1096:
1083:
1064:
1047:Eocene Epoch
1044:
1023:Afro-Eurasia
1008:
1003:Basilosaurus
1001:
977:
925:; and seven
912:
888:
824:
820:
816:
812:
780:
779:
776:Nomenclature
755:
743:metatherians
730:
728:
588:
586:
328:
327:
317:
287:
18:
3958:Hadean Eon
3736:Ordovician
3507:Cretaceous
3407:Quaternary
2981:: 256–263.
2591:"Oligocene"
2353:: 145–165.
1928:"Cainozoic"
1695:borhyaenids
1657:entelodonts
1626:uintatheres
1565:terrestrial
1554:terrestrial
1517:Gulf Stream
1312:dire wolves
1288:desiccation
1279:Pleistocene
1220:Great Lakes
1216:glaciations
1206:in central
1190:during the
1174:evolved in
1150:seed plants
951:Pleistocene
795:'new') and
704:angiosperms
541: /
417:Nickname(s)
31:66.0 – 0
4025:Categories
3960:(4–4.6 Ga)
3924:(2.5–4 Ga)
3853:(1–1.6 Ga)
3459:Paleogene
2720:"Holocene"
2647:"Pliocene"
2234:19 January
2039:11336/7302
1818:"Cenozoic"
1798:"Cenozoic"
1769:"Cenozoic"
1755:References
1699:monotremes
1691:pyrotheres
1677:rhinoceros
1634:pantodonts
1612:crocodiles
1542:K-Pg event
1380:South Pole
1376:Antarctica
1368:Cretaceous
1356:continents
1259:cave lions
1240:Quaternary
1234:Quaternary
1228:Baltic Sea
1226:, and the
1224:Hudson Bay
1126:Tethys Sea
1114:sea otters
1027:Tethys Sea
1019:herbivores
923:Quaternary
739:eutherians
526:36°09′13″N
460:Definition
352:Quaternary
127:Chronology
3987:See also:
3767:Cambrian
3700:Silurian
3669:Devonian
3564:Triassic
3533:Jurassic
3287:0036-8075
3236:8 January
3231:0026-2803
3166:0027-8424
3038:0012-821X
2628:"Miocene"
2609:"Neogene"
2551:0027-8424
2229:205248384
2091:130110536
2056:206544776
1704:Cenozoic
1665:mastodons
1645:creodonts
1597:colubrids
1483:Himalayas
1474:. Around
1416:, around
1394:with the
1347:Tectonics
1040:Carnivora
1036:creodonts
992:Oligocene
984:Paleocene
974:Paleogene
939:Oligocene
931:Paleocene
915:Paleogene
909:Divisions
825:Cainozoic
821:Caenozoic
813:Kainozoic
766:Oligocene
747:Australia
720:dinosaurs
712:Paleozoic
529:8°38′55″E
404:Etymology
359:Paleogene
4031:Cenozoic
3612:Permian
3433:Neogene
3295:15256663
3184:36442115
3097:31182570
3022:: 1–12.
2930:(2018).
2818:26601195
2703:25 April
2569:10588762
2498:4 August
2493:55409146
2436:11057663
2372:16 April
2324:16 April
2270:"Eocene"
2221:27111509
2142:11207255
2134:12089439
2048:23393258
1716:See also
1697:and the
1675:, giant
1669:mammoths
1653:primates
1577:savannas
1529:Holocene
1513:Humboldt
1329:Holocene
1304:mammoths
1300:Kalahari
1283:ice ages
1267:reindeer
1255:mammoths
1200:monsoons
1196:savannas
1166:Atlantic
1162:ice ages
1052:Paracrax
955:Holocene
947:Pliocene
900:new life
817:Cænozoic
781:Cenozoic
708:Mesozoic
700:conifers
677:new life
589:Cenozoic
443:Global (
319:Mesozoic
24:Cenozoic
3300:8 March
3267:Bibcode
3258:Science
3211:Bibcode
3175:9894185
3144:Bibcode
3088:6601418
3065:Bibcode
2983:Bibcode
2902:Bibcode
2862:Bibcode
2809:4640606
2788:Bibcode
2574:28 July
2529:Bibcode
2473:Bibcode
2444:4408282
2406:Bibcode
2355:Bibcode
2307:Bibcode
2169:12 July
2114:Bibcode
2106:Science
2018:Bibcode
2009:Science
1978:Bibcode
1710:Diatoms
1601:rodents
1589:Grasses
1585:insects
1504:around
1498:Miocene
1458:Climate
1452:Zambezi
1448:Limpopo
1204:deserts
1106:grasses
1093:Neogene
1071:grasses
1031:isthmus
943:Miocene
919:Neogene
894:
735:mammals
692:mammals
671:
517:Tunisia
497:Iridium
479:Erathem
366:Neogene
274:–
264:–
254:–
244:–
234:–
224:–
214:–
204:–
194:–
184:–
174:–
164:–
154:–
144:–
115:Salento
3966:
3327:
3293:
3285:
3229:
3182:
3172:
3164:
3095:
3085:
3036:
2938:
2816:
2806:
2567:
2557:
2549:
2491:
2442:
2434:
2397:Nature
2227:
2219:
2190:Nature
2140:
2132:
2089:
2054:
2046:
1890:
1774:Lexico
1649:whales
1632:, and
1622:Otodus
1593:snakes
1573:flying
1571:, and
1569:marine
1467:about
1444:Orange
1382:; the
1364:Pangea
1298:, and
1292:Sahara
1271:horses
1212:Sahara
1176:Africa
988:Eocene
982:: the
980:epochs
953:, and
935:Eocene
929:: the
927:epochs
921:, and
792:καινός
786:kainós
762:Eocene
702:, and
688:
513:El Kef
488:Formal
412:Formal
382:
377:
372:
2850:(PDF)
2560:24493
2489:S2CID
2440:S2CID
2392:(PDF)
2225:S2CID
2138:S2CID
2087:S2CID
2052:S2CID
1679:like
1614:like
1550:niche
1436:Niger
1432:Congo
1296:Namib
1184:North
1134:Black
823:, or
696:birds
659:-ik,
434:Earth
119:Italy
3325:ISBN
3302:2024
3291:PMID
3283:ISSN
3238:2024
3227:ISSN
3180:PMID
3162:ISSN
3093:PMID
3034:ISSN
2936:ISBN
2832:link
2814:PMID
2761:IUCN
2705:2015
2576:2023
2565:PMID
2547:ISSN
2500:2023
2432:PMID
2374:2023
2326:2023
2236:2023
2217:PMID
2171:2017
2130:PMID
2044:PMID
1888:ISBN
1667:and
1583:and
1536:Life
1515:and
1470:55.5
1450:and
1440:Nile
1327:The
1277:The
1238:The
1208:Asia
1186:and
1155:The
1144:and
1122:Apes
1110:Kelp
1100:The
1084:The
1045:The
1009:The
990:and
891:lit.
710:and
668:lit.
655:-nə-
587:The
557:1991
39:PreꞒ
3275:doi
3263:305
3219:doi
3170:PMC
3152:doi
3140:119
3083:PMC
3073:doi
3061:116
3024:doi
3020:474
2991:doi
2979:431
2910:doi
2870:doi
2858:265
2804:PMC
2796:doi
2555:PMC
2537:doi
2481:doi
2469:101
2422:hdl
2414:doi
2402:407
2363:doi
2315:doi
2303:116
2207:hdl
2199:doi
2195:533
2122:doi
2110:296
2079:doi
2075:158
2034:hdl
2026:doi
2014:339
1986:doi
1912:160
1507:2.8
1138:Red
1056:ppm
1042:).
994:.
886:).
804:ζωή
798:zōḗ
764:to
684:era
663:-ə-
661:SEN
657:ZOH
653:SEE
581:N/A
573:N/A
565:N/A
469:Era
445:ICS
4027::
3982:Ga
3978:Ma
3974:ka
3289:.
3281:.
3273:.
3261:.
3255:.
3225:.
3217:.
3207:51
3205:.
3201:.
3178:.
3168:.
3160:.
3150:.
3138:.
3132:.
3113:.
3091:.
3081:.
3071:.
3059:.
3055:.
3032:.
3018:.
3012:.
2989:.
2977:.
2958:.
2908:.
2898:67
2896:.
2868:.
2856:.
2852:.
2828:}}
2824:{{
2812:.
2802:.
2794:.
2782:.
2778:.
2759:.
2740:.
2722:.
2691:.
2668:.
2649:.
2630:.
2611:.
2593:.
2563:.
2553:.
2545:.
2535:.
2525:96
2523:.
2517:.
2487:.
2479:.
2467:.
2461:.
2438:.
2430:.
2420:.
2412:.
2400:.
2394:.
2361:.
2351:22
2349:.
2343:.
2313:.
2301:.
2295:.
2272:.
2253:.
2223:.
2215:.
2205:.
2193:.
2187:.
2136:.
2128:.
2120:.
2108:.
2085:.
2073:.
2050:.
2042:.
2032:.
2024:.
2012:.
1984:.
1974:25
1972:.
1968:.
1930:.
1882:.
1841:.
1820:.
1800:.
1778:.
1771:.
1671:,
1663:,
1659:,
1655:,
1651:,
1647:,
1643:,
1628:,
1603:.
1567:,
1492:35
1477:50
1454:.
1446:,
1442:,
1438:,
1434:,
1423:.
1419:35
1398:.
1374:;
1310:,
1306:,
1294:,
1269:,
1265:,
1261:,
1257:,
1230:.
1222:,
1202:;
1140:,
1136:,
1081:.
986:,
949:,
945:,
941:,
937:,
933:,
917:,
882:-/
879:eɪ
858:oʊ
840:aɪ
819:,
726:.
698:,
694:,
666:;
646:-/
619:oʊ
604:iː
515:,
307:i
305:o
303:z
301:o
299:r
297:e
295:n
293:a
291:h
289:P
117:,
113:,
89:Pg
33:Ma
3378:e
3371:t
3364:v
3333:.
3304:.
3277::
3269::
3221::
3213::
3186:.
3154::
3146::
3117:.
3099:.
3075::
3067::
3040:.
3026::
2997:.
2993::
2985::
2962:.
2944:.
2916:.
2912::
2904::
2876:.
2872::
2864::
2834:)
2820:.
2798::
2790::
2784:1
2763:.
2744:.
2726:.
2707:.
2653:.
2634:.
2597:.
2578:.
2539::
2531::
2502:.
2483::
2475::
2446:.
2424::
2416::
2408::
2376:.
2365::
2357::
2328:.
2317::
2309::
2257:.
2238:.
2209::
2201::
2144:.
2124::
2116::
2093:.
2081::
2058:.
2036::
2028::
2020::
1994:.
1988::
1980::
1914:.
1896:.
1848:"
1826:.
1487:2
1273:)
903:'
897:'
876:k
873:ˌ
870:,
867:k
864:ɪ
861:.
855:z
852:ˈ
849:ə
846:n
843:.
837:k
834:ˌ
831:/
827:(
801:(
789:(
680:'
674:'
643:n
640:ɛ
637:s
634:ˌ
631:,
628:k
625:ɪ
622:.
616:z
613:ˈ
610:ə
607:n
601:s
598:ˌ
595:/
591:(
503:.
447:)
343:c
341:i
339:o
337:z
335:o
333:n
331:e
329:C
309:c
121:)
94:N
84:K
79:J
74:T
69:P
64:C
59:D
54:S
49:O
44:Ꞓ
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
