1735:
1261:
4018:
4007:
116:
1555:, the planet was dominated by relatively small fauna, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. From a geological perspective, it did not take long for mammals and birds to greatly diversify in the absence of the dinosaurs that had dominated during the Mesozoic. Some flightless birds grew larger than humans. These species are sometimes referred to as "
1009:
1723:, in contrast, experienced major diversification over the Eocene, especially at high latitudes, as the world's oceans cooled. Diatom diversification was particularly concentrated at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. A second major pulse of diatom diversification occurred over the course of the Middle and Late Miocene.
1060:
ranged from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago. In the Early-Eocene, species living in dense forest were unable to evolve into larger forms, as in the
Paleocene. Among them were early primates, whales and horses along with many other early forms of mammals. At the top of the food chains
2016:
O'Leary, Maureen A.; Bloch, Jonathan I.; Flynn, John J.; Gaudin, Timothy J.; Giallombardo, Andres; Giannini, Norberto P.; Goldberg, Suzann L.; Kraatz, Brian P.; Luo, Zhe-Xi; Meng, Jin; Ni, Michael J.; Novacek, Fernando A.; Perini, Zachary S.; Randall, Guillermo; Rougier, Eric J.; Sargis, Mary T.;
1099:
spans from 33.9 million to 23.03 million years ago. The
Oligocene featured the expansion of grasslands which had led to many new species to evolve, including the first elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species still prevalent today. Many other species of plants evolved in
1542:
Epoch. Recent analysis of the geomagnetic reversal frequency, oxygen isotope record, and tectonic plate subduction rate, which are indicators of the changes in the heat flux at the core mantle boundary, climate and plate tectonic activity, shows that all these changes indicate similar rhythms on
1073:
between
Australia and Antarctica formed. This disrupted ocean currents worldwide and as a result caused a global cooling effect, shrinking the jungles. This allowed mammals to grow to mammoth proportions, such as whales which, by that time, had become almost fully aquatic. Mammals like
1331:. 100,000 years ago marked the end of one of the worst droughts in Africa, and led to the expansion of primitive humans. As the Pleistocene drew to a close, a major extinction wiped out much of the world's megafauna, including some of the hominid species, such as
1473:
In the
Cretaceous, the climate was hot and humid with lush forests at the poles, there was no permanent ice and sea levels were around 300 metres higher than today. This continued for the first 10 million years of the Paleocene, culminating in the
1032:, which permitted the spread of dense but usually species-poor forests. The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of Earth. The continents began to take their modern shape, but all the continents and the subcontinent of India were separated from each other.
1567:), and some also grew very large, attaining sizes not seen in most of today's terrestrial mammals. The ranges of many Cenozoic bird clades were governed by latitude and temperature and have contracted over the course of this era as the world cooled.
980:
better organise and group the many significant events that occurred during this comparatively short interval of time. Knowledge of this era is more detailed than any other era because of the relatively young, well-preserved rocks associated with it.
1044:
had not yet formed. This epoch featured a general warming trend, with jungles eventually reaching the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that had once predominated were extinct. Archaic mammals filled the world such as
3145:
2530:
1296:
as a result of the cooling trend that started in the Mid-Eocene. There were at least four separate glaciation periods marked by the advance of ice caps as far south as 40° N in mountainous areas. Meanwhile, Africa experienced a trend of
1354:". It is often cited that over 322 recorded species have become extinct due to human activity since the Industrial Revolution, but the rate may be as high as 500 vertebrate species alone, the majority of which have occurred after 1900.
764:) in the southern hemisphere. The extinction of many groups allowed mammals and birds to greatly diversify so that large mammals and birds dominated life on Earth. The continents also moved into their current positions during this era.
1170:
lasted from 5.333 to 2.58 million years ago. The
Pliocene featured dramatic climatic changes, which ultimately led to modern species of flora and fauna. The Mediterranean Sea dried up for several million years (because the
2017:
Silcox, Nancy b.; Simmons, Micelle; Spaulding, Paul M.; Velazco, Marcelo; Weksler, John r.; Wible, Andrea L.; Cirranello, A. L. (8 February 2013). "The
Placental Mammal Ancestor and the Post–K-Pg Radiation of Placentals".
1858:
From pp. 153–154: "As many systems or combinations of organic forms as are clearly traceable in the stratified crust of the globe, so many corresponding terms (as Palæozoic, Mesozoic, Kainozoic, &c.) may be made, ...
1543:
million years' timescale in the
Cenozoic Era occurring with the common fundamental periodicity of ~13 Myr during most of the time. The levels of carbonate ions in the ocean fell over the course of the Cenozoic.
1346:" lies within the boundaries of the Holocene Epoch. Human activity is blamed for a mass extinction that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species becoming extinct have only been recorded since the
1872:
Bulletin 769: The
Geologic Time Classification of the United States Geological Survey Compared With Other Classifications, accompanied by the original definitions of era, period and epoch terms
1602:
also played a very important role in this era, shaping the evolution of the birds and mammals that fed on them. One group that diversified significantly in the
Cenozoic as well were the
2194:
Anagnostou, Eleni; John, Eleanor H.; Edgar, Kirsty M.; Foster, Gavin L.; Ridgwell, Andy; Inglis, Gordon N.; Pancost, Richard D.; Lunt, Daniel J.; Pearson, Paul N. (25 April 2016).
3387:
3209:
2842:
2303:
989:
The
Paleogene spans from the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, 66 million years ago, to the dawn of the Neogene, 23.03 million years ago. It features three
2356:
1080:
were at the top of the food-chain. The Late Eocene saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of savanna-like areas, along with the evolution of
2280:
2195:
726:
3380:
1719:
experienced rapid rates of speciation and reduced species longevity, while suffering prolonged declines in diversity during the Eocene and Neogene.
969:
455:
2474:
2308:
916:) is comparable to the preceding Mesozoic ('middle life') and Paleozoic ('old life') Eras, as well as to the Proterozoic ('earlier life') Eon.
2080:
Williams, C. J.; LePage, B. A.; Johnson, A. H.; Vann, D. R. (2009). "Structure, Biomass, and Productivity of a Late Paleocene Arctic Forest".
1085:
3339:
3262:
Falkowski, Paul G.; Katz, Miriam E.; Knoll, Andrew H.; Quigg, Antonietta; Raven, John A.; Schofield, Oscar; Taylor, F. J. R. (16 July 2004).
2950:
1552:
2167:
2115:
Johnson, Kirk R.; Ellis, Beth (28 June 2002). "A Tropical Rainforest in Colorado 1.4 Million Years After the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary".
1475:
768:
3373:
3025:
2748:
2302:
Retallack, Gregory J.; Orr, William N.; Prothero, Donald Ross; Duncan, Robert A.; Kester, Paul R.; Ambers, Clifford P. (1 July 2004).
1492:
Earth entered a period of long term cooling. This was mainly due to the collision of India with Eurasia, which caused the rise of the
2699:
1748:
1902:
1257:. It features modern animals, and dramatic changes in the climate. It is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.
661:
2470:"Link between Global Cooling and Mammalian Transformation across the Eocene–Oligocene Boundary in the Continental Interior of Asia"
1100:
this period too. A cooling period featuring seasonal rains was still in effect. Mammals still continued to grow larger and larger.
1024:
lasted from 66 million to 56 million years ago. Modern placental mammals originated during this time. The devastation of the
2676:
1260:
1108:
The Neogene spans from 23.03 million to 2.58 million years ago. It features 2 epochs: the Miocene, and the Pliocene.
2351:
1712:
and marsupials of Australia. Mammal evolution in the Cenozoic was predominantly shaped by climatic and geological processes.
1070:
3062:
Saupe, Erin E.; Farnsworth, Alexander; Lunt, Daniel J.; Sagoo, Navjit; Pham, Karen V.; Field, Daniel J. (10 June 2019).
1779:
1335:. All the continents were affected, but Africa to a lesser extent. It still retains many large animals, such as hippos.
733:, became extinct in an event attributed by most experts to the impact of a large asteroid or other celestial body, the
3396:
3139:
Feijó, Anderson; Ge, Deyan; Wen, Zhixin; Cheng, Jilong; Xia, Lin; Patterson, Bruce D.; Yang, Qisen (6 December 2022).
1833:
444:
1889:
Harland, W. Brian; Armstrong, Richard L.; Cox, Allen V.; Craig, Lorraine E.; Smith, David G.; Smith, Alan G. (1990).
1069:. The temperature was 30 degrees Celsius with little temperature gradient from pole to pole. In the Mid-Eocene, the
802:
2898:
1202:
1025:
4051:
1960:
976:
was officially replaced by the Paleogene and Neogene Periods. The common use of epochs during the Cenozoic helps
819:
3141:"Mammalian diversification bursts and biotic turnovers are synchronous with Cenozoic geoclimatic events in Asia"
4046:
533:
2288:
1977:"Formal ratification of the Quaternary System/Period and the Pleistocene Series/Epoch with a base at 2.58 Ma"
1911:
Although John Phillips originally spelled it as "Kainozoic" in 1840, he spelled it "Cainozoic" a year later:
1500:
in the air, causing a long-term reduction in the proportion of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Around
3669:
3664:
2903:
1790:
1716:
1828:
1511:, with relatively short warmer periods. When South America became attached to North America creating the
2836:
2399:
1759:
1740:
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animals, giving this period its other name, the Age of Mammals. The Cenozoic is just as much the age of
1531:
1370:
1347:
780:
511:
3277:
3221:
3154:
3075:
3064:"Climatic shifts drove major contractions in avian latitudinal distributions throughout the Cenozoic"
2993:
2912:
2872:
2798:
2539:
2483:
2416:
2365:
2317:
2222:
2124:
2028:
1988:
1849:
1441:
and Cenozoic times led to a shift in the river courses of various large African rivers including the
121:
1253:
spans from 2.58 million years ago to present day, and is the shortest geological period in the
4000:
2619:
1754:
1318:
1922:
3355:
2499:
2450:
2235:
2148:
2097:
2062:
1575:
1564:
734:
4017:
2984:
Chen, J.; Kravchinsky, V.A.; Liu, X. (2015). "The 13 million year Cenozoic pulse of the Earth".
814:
4041:
3798:
3762:
3335:
3301:
3293:
3268:
3237:
3190:
3172:
3103:
3044:
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2824:
2767:
2575:
2557:
2469:
2442:
2227:
2140:
2054:
2019:
1898:
1671:
1512:
1406:
1190:
1152:
1140:
1066:
1041:
1890:
1647:. But as the forests began to recede and the climate began to cool, other mammals took over.
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3767:
3736:
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3285:
3229:
3180:
3162:
3093:
3083:
3034:
3001:
2997:
2920:
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2814:
2806:
2565:
2547:
2491:
2432:
2424:
2407:
2373:
2325:
2217:
2209:
2200:
2132:
2089:
2044:
2036:
1996:
1918:
Figures and Descriptions of the Palæozoic Fossils of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset; ...
1870:
1683:
1606:. Evolving in the Cenozoic, the variety of snakes increased tremendously, resulting in many
1571:
1560:
1523:
1424:
1351:
1269:
1181:
841:
605:
3861:
3757:
3695:
3590:
3559:
3528:
2707:
1813:
1700:, various bizarre groups of mammals from South America, such as the vaguely elephant-like
1692:
1591:
1438:
1382:
1310:
1254:
1096:
1021:
990:
977:
973:
937:
714:
2400:"Cooler winters as a possible cause of mass extinctions at the Eocene/Oligocene boundary"
2196:"Changing atmospheric CO2 concentration was the primary driver of early Cenozoic climate"
3281:
3225:
3158:
3079:
2916:
2876:
2802:
2543:
2487:
2420:
2377:
2369:
2321:
2128:
2032:
1992:
1916:
1225:
desert. The world map has not changed much since, save for changes brought about by the
4011:
3830:
3700:
3595:
3564:
3185:
3140:
3098:
3063:
2938:
2819:
2786:
2730:
1943:
1627:
1618:
1394:
1176:
1167:
1128:
1089:
3263:
2601:
1808:
4035:
3731:
3721:
3690:
3653:
3585:
3554:
2966:
2787:"Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction"
2684:
2657:
2570:
2239:
2101:
2066:
1579:
1462:
1458:
1402:
1398:
1343:
1302:
1198:
1194:
1160:
1112:
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767:
The climate during the early Cenozoic was warmer than today, particularly during the
761:
694:
479:
74:
2638:
2525:
2503:
2152:
1119:
spread further, dominating a large portion of the world, at the expense of forests.
4022:
4006:
3953:
3803:
3726:
2924:
2454:
2261:
1705:
1651:
1535:
1454:
1420:
1342:
began 11,700 years ago and lasts to the present day. All recorded history and "the
1327:
1306:
1273:
1057:
1033:
1013:
115:
3121:
1507:
permanent ice began to build up on Antarctica. The cooling trend continued in the
3021:"Retrodiction of secular variations in deep-sea CaCO3 burial during the Cenozoic"
2884:
3948:
3817:
3793:
3638:
3433:
3233:
1697:
1559:", and were formidable predators. Mammals came to occupy almost every available
1556:
1527:
1446:
1442:
1332:
1322:
1298:
1289:
1230:
1226:
1156:
961:
299:
49:
3146:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3039:
3020:
3005:
2531:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
717:(flowering plants). It is the latest of three geological eras, preceded by the
3943:
3903:
3846:
3746:
3643:
3517:
3417:
3365:
2495:
2173:
1938:
1730:
1701:
1687:
1667:
1640:
1636:
1622:
1390:
1386:
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1281:
1250:
1238:
1234:
1136:
1037:
933:
753:
362:
94:
59:
3297:
3241:
3176:
3048:
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2552:
548:
535:
3958:
3908:
3882:
3841:
3788:
3633:
3609:
3490:
3480:
3469:
3289:
3167:
3088:
2136:
2040:
1794:
1709:
1644:
1607:
1493:
1366:
1292:
lasted from 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago. This epoch was marked by
1179:
from the Mediterranean, and evaporation rates exceeded inflow from rivers).
1144:
1124:
1050:
1046:
1029:
1002:
994:
949:
941:
925:
776:
757:
730:
722:
369:
99:
17:
3305:
3194:
3107:
2828:
2810:
2579:
2446:
2231:
2144:
2058:
3360:
2304:"Eocene–Oligocene extinction and paleoclimatic change near Eugene, Oregon"
1115:
spans from 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago and is a period in which
1008:
701:
million years of Earth's history. It is characterized by the dominance of
3918:
3913:
3877:
3777:
3710:
3679:
3574:
3543:
3504:
3454:
3428:
2858:"Arabia-Eurasia collision and the forcing of mid Cenozoic global cooling"
2857:
2437:
2093:
1856:. Vol. 17. London, England: Charles Knight and Co. pp. 153–154.
1675:
1655:
1574:
from a few small, simple, generalised forms into a diverse collection of
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1339:
1293:
1277:
1062:
965:
957:
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718:
329:
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84:
69:
64:
54:
2213:
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3622:
3459:
3443:
1679:
1663:
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1508:
1414:
1362:
1314:
1265:
1210:
1206:
1172:
1148:
1116:
1081:
953:
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710:
527:
510:
enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent
507:
489:
376:
125:
104:
79:
2049:
1921:
London, England, U.K.: Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans. p.
1854:
Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge
1480:
3968:
3851:
3485:
2428:
2329:
2001:
1976:
1875:. Washington, D.C., U.S.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 8.
1784:
1720:
1650:
The Cenozoic is full of mammals both strange and familiar, including
1632:
1611:
1595:
1517:
1374:
1222:
1214:
1186:
998:
945:
772:
745:
744:
because the terrestrial animals that dominated both hemispheres were
702:
523:
1897:. Cambridge, England, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 31.
1617:
In the earlier part of the Cenozoic, the world was dominated by the
1610:, following the evolution of their current primary prey source, the
1502:
1487:
1429:
1123:
forests evolved, encouraging the evolution of new species, such as
2398:
Ivany, Linda C.; Patterson, William P.; Lohmann, Kyger C. (2000).
1659:
1603:
1419:
creating the Himalayas; Arabia collided with Eurasia, closing the
1259:
1040:, and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the
1007:
129:
1159:. This increased aridity. Many new plants evolved: 95% of modern
3992:
3988:
3984:
1450:
1218:
1132:
1120:
818:'life'). The name was proposed in 1840 by the British geologist
706:
43:
3369:
1205:, wreaking havoc on local ecologies. Climatic changes brought:
2082:
Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
1583:
614:
144:
1885:
The evolution of the spelling of "Cenozoic" is reviewed in:
1209:
that are still continuing to spread across the world; Indian
807:
795:
1397:
widened and, later in the era (2.8 million years ago),
2526:"A finding of Oligocene primates on the European continent"
1522:, the Arctic region cooled due to the strengthening of the
889:
868:
859:
850:
650:
629:
620:
3210:"Calcareous nannoplankton evolution: a tale of two oceans"
968:. The Quaternary Period was officially recognised by the
874:
635:
3019:
Boudreau, Bernard P.; Luo, Yiming (15 September 2017).
2901:(2005). "The drainage of Africa since the Cretaceous".
1530:
currents, eventually leading to the glaciations of the
2169:
Lamniform sharks: 110 million years of ocean supremacy
1975:
Gibbard, P. L.; Head, M. J.; Walker, M. J. C. (2010).
1635:, and a handful of primitive large mammal groups like
2468:
Zhang, R.; Kravchinsky, V.A.; Yue, L. (21 May 2012).
886:
883:
877:
865:
856:
847:
844:
662:
653:
647:
644:
638:
626:
617:
611:
608:
1131:
thrived, and evolved into many different varieties.
3967:
3931:
3891:
3860:
3829:
3816:
3776:
3745:
3709:
3678:
3652:
3621:
3608:
3573:
3542:
3516:
3503:
3468:
3442:
3416:
3403:
862:
623:
588:
580:
572:
564:
518:
503:
495:
485:
475:
470:
462:
450:
440:
435:
427:
419:
414:
137:
34:
3356:Western Australian Museum – The Age of the Mammals
3334:. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
3264:"The Evolution of Modern Eukaryotic Phytoplankton"
2967:"How the Isthmus of Panama Put Ice in the Arctic"
2865:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1163:families were present by the end of the Miocene.
1065:. Carbon dioxide levels were approximately 1,400
924:The Cenozoic is divided into three periods: the
752:(placentals) in the northern hemisphere and the
3068:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2279:National Geographic Society (24 January 2017).
1496:: the upraised rocks eroded and reacted with CO
1381:, drifted north and, eventually, collided with
2945:. London, UK: Bodley Head. pp. 9–10, 40.
3381:
2357:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
1088:, the European face of which is known as the
729:, when many species, including the non-avian
8:
1704:and the dog-like marsupial relatives called
2841:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1049:(extinct carnivores, unrelated to existing
901:
871:
853:
678:
632:
401:An approximate timescale of the Cenozoic.
3826:
3618:
3513:
3413:
3388:
3374:
3366:
1084:. The end of the Eocene was marked by the
3184:
3166:
3097:
3087:
3038:
2818:
2569:
2551:
2524:Köhler, M; Moyà-Solà, S (December 1999).
2436:
2223:1983/799fc7ff-ff17-41b7-8dcc-cae1b66c5734
2221:
2048:
2000:
1389:moved into its current position over the
1350:. This is sometimes referred to as the "
1313:deserts. Many animals evolved including
1139:finally closed with the creation of the
970:International Commission on Stratigraphy
3332:After the Dinosaurs: The Age of Mammals
2856:Allen, M. B.; Armstrong, H. A. (2008).
2475:International Journal of Earth Sciences
2352:"The Late Eocene-Oligocene Extinctions"
1771:
822:(1800–1874), who originally spelled it
2834:
2309:Geological Society of America Bulletin
2166:Royal Tyrrell Museum (28 March 2012),
1301:which resulted in the creation of the
1175:reduced sea levels, disconnecting the
756:(marsupials, now mainly restricted to
31:
1551:Early in the Cenozoic, following the
1193:formed, and animals migrated between
727:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
120:Rock deposits from the Cenozoic Era (
7:
1369:moved into their current positions.
3987:= kiloannum (thousands years ago);
3361:Cenozoic (chronostratigraphy scale)
3026:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2986:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2378:10.1146/annurev.ea.22.050194.001045
1365:, the Cenozoic is the era when the
3991:= megaannum (millions years ago);
2350:Prothero, Donald Ross (May 1994).
1189:, beginning the human branch. The
740:The Cenozoic is also known as the
403:Axis scale: millions of years ago.
25:
3995:= gigaannum (billions years ago).
1264:Megafauna of Pleistocene Europe (
1086:Eocene–Oligocene extinction event
1028:included the extinction of large
4016:
4005:
3208:Bown, Paul R. (1 October 2005).
1733:
1476:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
840:
769:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
725:. The Cenozoic started with the
693:) is Earth's current geological
604:
114:
27:Third era of the Phanerozoic Eon
2785:Ceballos et al. (2015) (2015).
1229:of the Quaternary, such as the
1143:, leaving only remnants as the
826:. The era is also known as the
2925:10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.11.008
2749:"Sixth Extinction extinctions"
1814:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
1:
3434:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma)
2943:Origins:How the Earth Made Us
1981:Journal of Quaternary Science
1869:Wilmarth, Mary Grace (1925).
1749:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
1135:evolved into 30 species. The
1071:Antarctic Circumpolar Current
794:derives from the Greek words
3330:Prothero, Donald R. (2006).
3251:– via GeoScienceWorld.
2885:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.04.021
1437:The break-up of Gondwana in
1221:; and the beginnings of the
808:
796:
3397:Geological history of Earth
3234:10.2113/gsmicropal.51.4.299
1834:Online Etymology Dictionary
972:in June 2009. In 2004, the
4068:
3670:Mississippian (323–359 Ma)
3665:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma)
3429:Holocene (present–11.7 ka)
3040:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.06.005
3006:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.09.033
2729:University of California.
2698:University of California.
2681:Oak Ridge National Library
2656:University of California.
2637:University of California.
2600:University of California.
2260:University of California.
1895:A Geologic Time Scale 1989
1590:, the age of co-dependent
1325:, sabre-toothed cats, and
1203:great American interchange
813:
801:
697:, representing the last 66
3982:
3954:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga)
3804:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma)
2496:10.1007/s00531-012-0776-1
1961:Oxford English Dictionary
1944:Dictionary.com Unabridged
1891:"The Chronostratic Scale"
1412:India collided with Asia
1061:were huge birds, such as
573:Upper boundary definition
504:Lower boundary definition
399:
142:
113:
39:
3949:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga)
3794:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma)
3639:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma)
3491:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma)
3481:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma)
2766:IUCN (3 November 2009).
2735:University of California
2704:University of California
2662:University of California
2643:University of California
2606:University of California
2553:10.1073/pnas.96.25.14664
2266:University of California
1717:calcareous nannoplankton
1598:, and the age of birds.
783:dried and cooled Earth.
3944:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga)
3909:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga)
3904:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga)
3847:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma)
3737:Llandovery (433–444 Ma)
3644:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma)
3455:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma)
3290:10.1126/science.1095964
3168:10.1073/pnas.2207845119
3089:10.1073/pnas.1903866116
2998:2015E&PSL.431..256C
2624:Encyclopædia Britannica
2137:10.1126/science.1072102
2041:10.1126/science.1229237
1915:Phillips, John (1841).
1848:Phillips, John (1840).
1791:Oxford University Press
1631:, large sharks such as
1520: million years ago
1505: million years ago
1490: million years ago
1483: million years ago
1432: million years ago
900:In name, the Cenozoic (
748: – the
3914:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga)
3883:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga)
3842:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma)
3789:Furongian (485–497 Ma)
3634:Lopingian (252–260 Ma)
3460:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma)
2811:10.1126/sciadv.1400253
1696:, the rhinoceros-like
1285:
1017:
270:−10 —
260:−15 —
250:−20 —
240:−25 —
230:−30 —
220:−35 —
210:−40 —
200:−45 —
190:−50 —
180:−55 —
170:−60 —
160:−65 —
150:−70 —
3919:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga)
3878:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga)
3799:Series 2 (509–521 Ma)
3486:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma)
1964:(2nd ed.). 1989.
1787:UK English Dictionary
1760:Late Cenozoic Ice Age
1741:Earth sciences portal
1570:During the Cenozoic,
1348:Industrial Revolution
1263:
1036:was separated by the
1026:K–Pg extinction event
1011:
781:Quaternary glaciation
512:K-Pg extinction event
280:−5 —
3959:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga)
3852:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga)
3732:Wenlock (427–433 Ma)
3722:Pridoli (419–423 Ma)
2687:on 25 February 2015.
2094:10.1635/053.158.0106
1797:on 23 November 2021.
1572:mammals proliferated
1373:, having split from
1371:Australia-New Guinea
1127:. During this time,
4014: •
4003: •
4001:Geologic time scale
3763:Middle (458–470 Ma)
3727:Ludlow (423–427 Ma)
3696:Middle (383–393 Ma)
3591:Middle (237–247 Ma)
3560:Middle (164–174 Ma)
3282:2004Sci...305..354F
3226:2005MiPal..51..299B
3159:2022PNAS..11907845F
3153:(49): e2207845119.
3080:2019PNAS..11612895S
3074:(26): 12895–12900.
2917:2005Geomo..67..437G
2877:2008PPP...265...52A
2803:2015SciA....1E0253C
2753:Scientific American
2544:1999PNAS...9614664K
2488:2012IJEaS.101.2193Z
2421:2000Natur.407..887I
2370:1994AREPS..22..145P
2322:2004GSAB..116..817R
2285:National Geographic
2214:10.1038/nature17423
2129:2002Sci...296.2379J
2123:(5577): 2379–2383.
2033:2013Sci...339..662O
1993:2010JQS....25...96G
1755:Geologic time scale
1621:birds, terrestrial
1401:became attached to
1319:giant ground sloths
779:transition and the
760:and to some extent
589:Upper GSSP ratified
581:Upper boundary GSSP
565:Lower GSSP ratified
545: /
519:Lower boundary GSSP
496:Time span formality
4012:Geology portal
3873:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga)
3768:Early (470–485 Ma)
3701:Early (393–419 Ma)
3596:Early (247–252 Ma)
3565:Early (174–201 Ma)
3534:Early (100–145 Ma)
3529:Late (66.0–100 Ma)
3122:"The Cenozoic Era"
2768:"Sixth Extinction"
2677:"Pliocene climate"
1850:"Palæozoic series"
1817:. Merriam-Webster.
1672:sabre-toothed cats
1532:Quaternary ice age
1415:55 to 45
1286:
1018:
735:Chicxulub impactor
549:36.1537°N 8.6486°E
486:Stratigraphic unit
476:Chronological unit
463:Time scale(s) used
4029:
4028:
3927:
3926:
3893:Paleoproterozoic
3812:
3811:
3758:Late (444–458 Ma)
3691:Late (359–383 Ma)
3604:
3603:
3586:Late (201–237 Ma)
3555:Late (145–164 Ma)
3499:
3498:
3420:(present–2.58 Ma)
3408:(present–66.0 Ma)
3341:978-0-253-34733-6
3276:(5682): 354–360.
3214:Micropaleontology
3126:ucmp.berkeley.edu
2952:978-1-8479-2435-3
2710:on 24 August 2014
2675:Adams, Jonathan.
2415:(6806): 887–890.
2208:(7603): 380–384.
2027:(6120): 662–667.
1684:three-toed horses
1563:(both marine and
1513:Isthmus of Panama
1423:and creating the
1417:million years ago
1407:isthmus of Panama
1377:during the early
1191:isthmus of Panama
1141:Arabian Peninsula
596:
595:
436:Usage information
409:
408:
122:Torre Sant'Andrea
16:(Redirected from
4059:
4052:1840s neologisms
4023:World portal
4021:
4020:
4010:
4009:
3972:
3936:
3896:
3865:
3862:Mesoproterozoic
3834:
3827:
3822:
3781:
3750:
3714:
3683:
3657:
3626:
3619:
3614:
3578:
3547:
3521:
3514:
3509:
3473:
3447:
3421:
3414:
3409:
3390:
3383:
3376:
3367:
3345:
3317:
3316:
3314:
3312:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3205:
3199:
3198:
3188:
3170:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3118:
3112:
3111:
3101:
3091:
3059:
3053:
3052:
3042:
3016:
3010:
3009:
2981:
2975:
2974:
2971:Oceanus Magazine
2963:
2957:
2956:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2911:(3–4): 437–456.
2895:
2889:
2888:
2862:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2840:
2832:
2822:
2791:Science Advances
2782:
2776:
2775:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2706:. Archived from
2695:
2689:
2688:
2683:. Archived from
2672:
2666:
2665:
2653:
2647:
2646:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2626:. 9 August 2024.
2616:
2610:
2609:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2573:
2555:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2510:
2482:(8): 2193–2200.
2465:
2459:
2458:
2440:
2429:10.1038/35038044
2404:
2395:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2336:
2330:10.1130/B25281.1
2316:(7–8): 817–839.
2299:
2293:
2292:
2287:. Archived from
2276:
2270:
2269:
2262:"Eocene Climate"
2257:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2225:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2176:on 7 August 2013
2172:, archived from
2163:
2157:
2156:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2052:
2013:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2002:10.1002/jqs.1338
1972:
1966:
1965:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1935:
1929:
1926:
1908:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1793:. Archived from
1776:
1743:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1592:flowering plants
1538:of which is the
1521:
1506:
1491:
1484:
1433:
1425:Zagros Mountains
1418:
1352:Sixth Extinction
1182:Australopithecus
978:palaeontologists
915:
912:
909:
906:
903:
896:
895:
892:
891:
888:
885:
880:
879:
876:
873:
870:
867:
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861:
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855:
852:
849:
846:
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811:
805:
799:
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689:
686:
683:
680:
673:
669:
665:
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659:
656:
655:
652:
649:
646:
641:
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637:
634:
631:
628:
625:
622:
619:
616:
613:
610:
560:
559:
557:
556:
555:
550:
546:
543:
542:
541:
538:
522:El Kef Section,
357:
323:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
145:
118:
109:
46:
32:
21:
4067:
4066:
4062:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4056:
4047:Geological eras
4032:
4031:
4030:
4025:
4015:
4004:
3996:
3978:
3970:
3963:
3934:
3923:
3894:
3887:
3863:
3856:
3832:
3831:Neoproterozoic
3821:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga)
3820:
3819:
3818:Proterozoic Eon
3808:
3779:
3772:
3748:
3741:
3712:
3705:
3681:
3674:
3655:
3648:
3624:
3612:
3611:
3600:
3576:
3569:
3545:
3538:
3519:
3507:
3506:
3495:
3471:
3464:
3445:
3438:
3419:
3407:
3406:
3399:
3394:
3352:
3342:
3329:
3326:
3324:Further reading
3321:
3320:
3310:
3308:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3246:
3244:
3207:
3206:
3202:
3138:
3137:
3133:
3120:
3119:
3115:
3061:
3060:
3056:
3018:
3017:
3013:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2965:
2964:
2960:
2953:
2939:Dartnell, Lewis
2937:
2936:
2932:
2897:
2896:
2892:
2860:
2855:
2854:
2850:
2833:
2797:(5): e1400253.
2784:
2783:
2779:
2765:
2764:
2760:
2747:
2746:
2742:
2728:
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2723:
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2636:
2635:
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2618:
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2613:
2599:
2598:
2594:
2584:
2582:
2538:(25): 14664–7.
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2508:
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2467:
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2402:
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2179:
2177:
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2164:
2160:
2114:
2113:
2109:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2015:
2014:
2010:
1974:
1973:
1969:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1914:
1905:
1888:
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1827:
1826:
1822:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1768:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1693:Paraceratherium
1549:
1516:
1501:
1499:
1486:
1479:
1471:
1439:Late Cretaceous
1428:
1413:
1360:
1255:Phanerozoic Eon
1247:
1106:
1097:Oligocene Epoch
1022:Paleocene Epoch
987:
974:Tertiary Period
922:
913:
910:
907:
904:
882:
843:
839:
789:
771:. However, the
698:
690:
687:
684:
681:
671:
667:
663:
643:
607:
603:
554:36.1537; 8.6486
553:
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28:
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15:
12:
11:
5:
4065:
4063:
4055:
4054:
4049:
4044:
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4033:
4027:
4026:
3983:
3980:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3940:
3938:
3929:
3928:
3925:
3924:
3922:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3900:
3898:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3869:
3867:
3858:
3857:
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3854:
3849:
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3838:
3836:
3824:
3814:
3813:
3810:
3809:
3807:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3785:
3783:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3770:
3765:
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3743:
3742:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3718:
3716:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3687:
3685:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3672:
3667:
3661:
3659:
3654:Carboniferous
3650:
3649:
3647:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3630:
3628:
3616:
3606:
3605:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3582:
3580:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3551:
3549:
3540:
3539:
3537:
3536:
3531:
3525:
3523:
3511:
3501:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3477:
3475:
3472:(23.0–66.0 Ma)
3466:
3465:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3451:
3449:
3446:(2.58–23.0 Ma)
3440:
3439:
3437:
3436:
3431:
3425:
3423:
3411:
3401:
3400:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3385:
3378:
3370:
3364:
3363:
3358:
3351:
3350:External links
3348:
3347:
3346:
3340:
3325:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3254:
3220:(4): 299–308.
3200:
3131:
3113:
3054:
3011:
2976:
2958:
2951:
2930:
2890:
2871:(1–2): 52–58.
2848:
2777:
2758:
2740:
2721:
2690:
2667:
2648:
2629:
2611:
2592:
2516:
2460:
2390:
2342:
2294:
2291:on 8 May 2010.
2271:
2252:
2186:
2158:
2107:
2088:(1): 107–127.
2072:
2008:
1967:
1950:
1947:(Online). n.d.
1930:
1928:
1927:
1910:
1909:
1903:
1878:
1861:
1840:
1820:
1800:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1751:(K–T boundary)
1745:
1744:
1728:
1725:
1628:Pristichampsus
1548:
1545:
1534:, the current
1497:
1470:
1467:
1395:Atlantic Ocean
1383:Southeast Asia
1359:
1356:
1246:
1243:
1168:Pliocene Epoch
1129:perissodactyla
1105:
1102:
1090:Grande Coupure
986:
983:
921:
918:
788:
785:
742:Age of Mammals
594:
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468:
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466:ICS Time Scale
464:
460:
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452:
451:Regional usage
448:
447:
442:
441:Celestial body
438:
437:
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431:Age of Mammals
429:
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420:Name formality
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26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4064:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4039:
4037:
4024:
4019:
4013:
4008:
4002:
3999:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3981:
3975:
3973:
3966:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3930:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3901:
3899:
3897:
3890:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3866:
3859:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3835:
3833:(539 Ma–1 Ga)
3828:
3825:
3823:
3815:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3782:
3775:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3755:
3753:
3751:
3744:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3708:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3684:
3677:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3651:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3610:Paleozoic Era
3607:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3579:
3572:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3552:
3550:
3548:
3541:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3522:
3520:(66.0–145 Ma)
3515:
3512:
3510:
3508:(66.0–252 Ma)
3502:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3476:
3474:
3467:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3441:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3402:
3398:
3391:
3386:
3384:
3379:
3377:
3372:
3371:
3368:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3349:
3343:
3337:
3333:
3328:
3327:
3323:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3270:
3265:
3258:
3255:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3204:
3201:
3196:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3147:
3142:
3135:
3132:
3127:
3123:
3117:
3114:
3109:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3058:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3015:
3012:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2980:
2977:
2972:
2968:
2962:
2959:
2954:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2934:
2931:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2905:
2904:Geomorphology
2900:
2894:
2891:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2859:
2852:
2849:
2844:
2838:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2781:
2778:
2773:
2769:
2762:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2744:
2741:
2736:
2732:
2725:
2722:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2700:"Pleistocene"
2694:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2671:
2668:
2663:
2659:
2652:
2649:
2644:
2640:
2633:
2630:
2625:
2621:
2615:
2612:
2607:
2603:
2596:
2593:
2581:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2532:
2527:
2520:
2517:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2476:
2471:
2464:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2438:2027.42/62707
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2409:
2401:
2394:
2391:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2358:
2353:
2346:
2343:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2298:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2275:
2272:
2267:
2263:
2256:
2253:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2202:
2197:
2190:
2187:
2175:
2171:
2170:
2162:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2111:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2076:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2021:
2012:
2009:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1987:(2): 96–102.
1986:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1968:
1963:
1962:
1958:"Cainozoic".
1954:
1951:
1946:
1945:
1940:
1934:
1931:
1924:
1920:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1906:
1904:9780521387651
1900:
1896:
1892:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1879:
1874:
1873:
1865:
1862:
1855:
1851:
1844:
1841:
1836:
1835:
1830:
1824:
1821:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1804:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1786:
1781:
1775:
1772:
1765:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1731:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1652:chalicotheres
1648:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1495:
1489:
1482:
1477:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1422:
1416:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1403:North America
1400:
1399:South America
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1344:Human history
1341:
1336:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1199:South America
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1153:Mediterranean
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1113:Miocene Epoch
1109:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1078:
1077:Andrewsarchus
1072:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1016:
1015:
1010:
1006:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
984:
982:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
919:
917:
898:
894:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
820:John Phillips
816:
810:
804:
798:
793:
786:
784:
782:
778:
774:
770:
765:
763:
762:South America
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
738:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
696:
676:
675:
658:
601:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
558:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
506:
502:
498:
494:
491:
488:
484:
481:
478:
474:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
446:
443:
439:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
413:
398:
378:
371:
364:
356:
355:
332:
331:
322:
321:
294:
147:
146:
141:
136:
131:
127:
123:
117:
112:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
45:
38:
33:
30:
19:
3997:
3933:Archean Eon
3895:(1.6–2.5 Ga)
3780:(485–539 Ma)
3749:(444–485 Ma)
3713:(419–444 Ma)
3682:(359–419 Ma)
3656:(299–359 Ma)
3625:(252–299 Ma)
3613:(252–539 Ma)
3577:(201–252 Ma)
3546:(145–201 Ma)
3505:Mesozoic Era
3405:Cenozoic Era
3404:
3331:
3309:. Retrieved
3273:
3267:
3257:
3245:. Retrieved
3217:
3213:
3203:
3150:
3144:
3134:
3125:
3116:
3071:
3067:
3057:
3030:
3024:
3014:
2989:
2985:
2979:
2970:
2961:
2942:
2933:
2908:
2902:
2899:Goudie, A.S.
2893:
2868:
2864:
2851:
2837:cite journal
2794:
2790:
2780:
2771:
2761:
2752:
2743:
2734:
2724:
2712:. Retrieved
2708:the original
2703:
2693:
2685:the original
2680:
2670:
2661:
2651:
2642:
2632:
2623:
2614:
2605:
2595:
2583:. Retrieved
2535:
2529:
2519:
2507:. Retrieved
2479:
2473:
2463:
2412:
2406:
2393:
2381:. Retrieved
2361:
2355:
2345:
2333:. Retrieved
2313:
2307:
2297:
2289:the original
2284:
2274:
2265:
2255:
2243:. Retrieved
2205:
2199:
2189:
2178:, retrieved
2174:the original
2168:
2161:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2085:
2081:
2075:
2024:
2018:
2011:
1984:
1980:
1970:
1959:
1953:
1942:
1933:
1917:
1894:
1881:
1871:
1864:
1853:
1843:
1832:
1823:
1812:
1803:
1795:the original
1783:
1774:
1714:
1698:brontotheres
1691:
1649:
1641:mesonychians
1626:
1619:gastornithid
1616:
1569:
1557:terror birds
1550:
1536:interglacial
1472:
1436:
1421:Tethys Ocean
1411:
1363:Geologically
1361:
1337:
1333:Neanderthals
1328:Homo sapiens
1326:
1287:
1274:woolly rhino
1248:
1180:
1165:
1157:Caspian Seas
1110:
1107:
1094:
1075:
1058:Eocene Epoch
1055:
1034:Afro-Eurasia
1019:
1014:Basilosaurus
1012:
988:
936:; and seven
923:
899:
835:
831:
827:
823:
791:
790:
787:Nomenclature
766:
754:metatherians
741:
739:
599:
597:
339:
338:
328:
298:
29:
18:Cenozoic era
3969:Hadean Eon
3747:Ordovician
3518:Cretaceous
3418:Quaternary
2992:: 256–263.
2602:"Oligocene"
2364:: 145–165.
1939:"Cainozoic"
1706:borhyaenids
1668:entelodonts
1637:uintatheres
1576:terrestrial
1565:terrestrial
1528:Gulf Stream
1323:dire wolves
1299:desiccation
1290:Pleistocene
1231:Great Lakes
1227:glaciations
1217:in central
1201:during the
1185:evolved in
1161:seed plants
962:Pleistocene
806:'new') and
715:angiosperms
552: /
428:Nickname(s)
42:66.0 – 0
4036:Categories
3971:(4–4.6 Ga)
3935:(2.5–4 Ga)
3864:(1–1.6 Ga)
3470:Paleogene
2731:"Holocene"
2658:"Pliocene"
2245:19 January
2050:11336/7302
1829:"Cenozoic"
1809:"Cenozoic"
1780:"Cenozoic"
1766:References
1710:monotremes
1702:pyrotheres
1688:rhinoceros
1645:pantodonts
1623:crocodiles
1553:K-Pg event
1391:South Pole
1387:Antarctica
1379:Cretaceous
1367:continents
1270:cave lions
1251:Quaternary
1245:Quaternary
1239:Baltic Sea
1237:, and the
1235:Hudson Bay
1137:Tethys Sea
1125:sea otters
1038:Tethys Sea
1030:herbivores
934:Quaternary
750:eutherians
537:36°09′13″N
471:Definition
363:Quaternary
138:Chronology
3998:See also:
3778:Cambrian
3711:Silurian
3680:Devonian
3575:Triassic
3544:Jurassic
3298:0036-8075
3247:8 January
3242:0026-2803
3177:0027-8424
3049:0012-821X
2639:"Miocene"
2620:"Neogene"
2562:0027-8424
2240:205248384
2102:130110536
2067:206544776
1715:Cenozoic
1676:mastodons
1656:creodonts
1608:colubrids
1494:Himalayas
1485:. Around
1427:, around
1405:with the
1358:Tectonics
1051:Carnivora
1047:creodonts
1003:Oligocene
995:Paleocene
985:Paleogene
950:Oligocene
942:Paleocene
926:Paleogene
920:Divisions
836:Cainozoic
832:Caenozoic
824:Kainozoic
777:Oligocene
758:Australia
731:dinosaurs
723:Paleozoic
540:8°38′55″E
415:Etymology
370:Paleogene
4042:Cenozoic
3623:Permian
3444:Neogene
3306:15256663
3195:36442115
3108:31182570
3033:: 1–12.
2941:(2018).
2829:26601195
2714:25 April
2580:10588762
2509:4 August
2504:55409146
2447:11057663
2383:16 April
2335:16 April
2281:"Eocene"
2232:27111509
2153:11207255
2145:12089439
2059:23393258
1727:See also
1708:and the
1686:, giant
1680:mammoths
1664:primates
1588:savannas
1540:Holocene
1524:Humboldt
1340:Holocene
1315:mammoths
1311:Kalahari
1294:ice ages
1278:reindeer
1266:mammoths
1211:monsoons
1207:savannas
1177:Atlantic
1173:ice ages
1063:Paracrax
966:Holocene
958:Pliocene
911:new life
828:Cænozoic
792:Cenozoic
719:Mesozoic
711:conifers
688:new life
600:Cenozoic
454:Global (
330:Mesozoic
35:Cenozoic
3311:8 March
3278:Bibcode
3269:Science
3222:Bibcode
3186:9894185
3155:Bibcode
3099:6601418
3076:Bibcode
2994:Bibcode
2913:Bibcode
2873:Bibcode
2820:4640606
2799:Bibcode
2585:28 July
2540:Bibcode
2484:Bibcode
2455:4408282
2417:Bibcode
2366:Bibcode
2318:Bibcode
2180:12 July
2125:Bibcode
2117:Science
2029:Bibcode
2020:Science
1989:Bibcode
1721:Diatoms
1612:rodents
1600:Grasses
1596:insects
1515:around
1509:Miocene
1469:Climate
1463:Zambezi
1459:Limpopo
1215:deserts
1117:grasses
1104:Neogene
1082:grasses
1042:isthmus
954:Miocene
930:Neogene
905:
746:mammals
703:mammals
682:
528:Tunisia
508:Iridium
490:Erathem
377:Neogene
285:–
275:–
265:–
255:–
245:–
235:–
225:–
215:–
205:–
195:–
185:–
175:–
165:–
155:–
126:Salento
3977:
3338:
3304:
3296:
3240:
3193:
3183:
3175:
3106:
3096:
3047:
2949:
2827:
2817:
2578:
2568:
2560:
2502:
2453:
2445:
2408:Nature
2238:
2230:
2201:Nature
2151:
2143:
2100:
2065:
2057:
1901:
1785:Lexico
1660:whales
1643:, and
1633:Otodus
1604:snakes
1584:flying
1582:, and
1580:marine
1478:about
1455:Orange
1393:; the
1375:Pangea
1309:, and
1303:Sahara
1282:horses
1223:Sahara
1187:Africa
999:Eocene
993:: the
991:epochs
964:, and
946:Eocene
940:: the
938:epochs
932:, and
803:καινός
797:kainós
773:Eocene
713:, and
699:
524:El Kef
499:Formal
423:Formal
393:
388:
383:
2861:(PDF)
2571:24493
2500:S2CID
2451:S2CID
2403:(PDF)
2236:S2CID
2149:S2CID
2098:S2CID
2063:S2CID
1690:like
1625:like
1561:niche
1447:Niger
1443:Congo
1307:Namib
1195:North
1145:Black
834:, or
707:birds
670:-ik,
445:Earth
130:Italy
3336:ISBN
3313:2024
3302:PMID
3294:ISSN
3249:2024
3238:ISSN
3191:PMID
3173:ISSN
3104:PMID
3045:ISSN
2947:ISBN
2843:link
2825:PMID
2772:IUCN
2716:2015
2587:2023
2576:PMID
2558:ISSN
2511:2023
2443:PMID
2385:2023
2337:2023
2247:2023
2228:PMID
2182:2017
2141:PMID
2055:PMID
1899:ISBN
1678:and
1594:and
1547:Life
1526:and
1481:55.5
1461:and
1451:Nile
1338:The
1288:The
1249:The
1219:Asia
1197:and
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