African Pygmies - Knowledge (XXG)

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signals of recent positive selection that we observe at TRIP4 in Mbuti Pygmies and IYD in Biaka Pygmies may reflect such genetic adaptations to an iodine-deficient diet. Furthermore, alterations in the thyroid hormone pathway can cause short stature. We therefore suggest that short stature in these Pygmy groups may have arisen as a consequence of genetic alterations in the thyroid hormone pathway. his would suggest that short stature arose as an indirect consequence of selection in response to an iodine-deficient diet. Second, since different genes in the thyroid hormone pathway show signals of selection in Mbuti vs. Biaka Pygmies, this would suggest that short stature arose independently in the ancestors of Mbuti and Biaka Pygmies, and not in a common ancestral population. Moreover, most Pygmy-like groups around the world dwell in tropical forests, and hence are likely to have iodine-deficient diets. The possibility that independent adaptations to an iodine-deficient diet might therefore have contributed to the convergent evolution of the short stature phenotype in Pygmy-like groups around the world deserves further investigation.

2116:(2004), "4.3 The origin of the African pygmies": "The common view, however, is that the pygmies are the ancient denizens of the forest zone, dating from at least the Middle Stone Age (MSA) (e.g., Cavalli-Sforza 1968a). They would have lived by hunting and gathering until they encountered expanding Central Sudanic, Adamawa-Ubangian and Bantu-speaking farmers ca. 4000 bp. Since that date they have lived in a symbiosis with the farmers, often as a despised and marginalised group. If this is the case, then major MSA archaeological sites in the area of the present-day rain-forest are presumed to be the traces of these ancient pygmy groups. There is no doubt the Central African rainforest has been occupied for a very long time (Clist 1995; Mercader and Marti 1999), but there is no direct evidence as to the racial or genetic affiliations of the populations whose stone tools have been recovered. These sites have problems of dating, but it is usually assumed that the sites, 'Sangoan' or 'Lupemban' are >40,000 years old (the usual limit of radio-carbon dating)." 1002: 337: 1299:

Africa to evict the Pygmies from their forest habitat in order to profit from the sale of hardwood and the resettlement of farmers onto the cleared land. In some cases, as in Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, this conflict is violent. Certain groups, such as the Hutus of the Interahamwe, wish to eliminate the Pygmy and take the resources of the forest as a military conquest, using the resources of the forest for military as well as economic advancement. Since the Pygmies rely on the forest for their physical as well as cultural survival, as these forests disappear, so do the Pygmy.

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subsistence strategies. Blench adduced the lack of clear linguistic and archaeological evidence for the antiquity of the African Pygmies, that the genetic evidence, at the time of his writing, was inconclusive, and that there is no evidence of the Pygmies having a hunting technology distinctive from that of their neighbors. He argued that the short stature of Pygmy populations can arise relatively quickly (in less than a few millennia) under strong selection pressures.

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populations from Africa and estimated separation times and gene flow between these populations. The model identified included the early divergence of the ancestors of Pygmy hunter–gatherers and farming populations ~60,000 years ago, followed by a split of the Pygmies' ancestors into the Western and Eastern Pygmy groups ~20,000 years ago. Our findings increase knowledge of the history of the peopling of the African continent in a region lacking archaeological data.

313: 325: 1853: 1280: 714:, or is otherwise specialized for the forest and is shared between the two western Pygmy groups. This substrate has been suggested as representing a remnant of an ancient "western Pygmy" linguistic phylum, dubbed "Mbenga" or "Baaka". However, as substrate vocabulary has been widely borrowed between Pygmies and neighboring peoples, no reconstruction of such a "Baaka" language is possible for times more remote than a few centuries ago. 1323:, published a review showing that Pygmy populations often had less access to health care than neighboring communities. According to the report, even where health care facilities exist, many Pygmies do not use them because they cannot pay for consultations and medicines, they do not have the documents and identity cards needed to travel or obtain hospital treatment, and they are subjected to humiliating and discriminatory treatment. 76: 1532:

customs and technology. The one characteristic that is common to them all, regardless of their location or degree of acculturation, is their disdain for the term 'pygmy'. Without exception, they prefer to be called by their appropriate ethnic name, such as Mbuti, Efe, Aka, Asua, and consider the term 'pygmy' as pejorative."

417:, claimed to have found the mythical "Pygmies". A commentator wrote in 1892 that, thirty years ago (viz., in the 1860s), "nobody believed in the existence of African dwarf tribes" and that "it needed an authority like Dr. Schweinfurth to prove that pygmies actually exist in Africa" (referencing Georg August Schweinfurth's 1157:

jungle villages, Pygmies and Bantus alike say Pygmies are often paid at the master's whim: in cigarettes, used clothing, or even nothing at all. In 2022, after decades of facing these conditions and working to get legal protections for the Pygmies, a group of 45 indigenous organizations successfully petitioned the

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phenotype differences between Pygmies and Bantu farmers accumulated, Pygmy women started marrying male Bantu farmers (but not the opposite). This trend started around 40,000 years ago, and continued until several thousand years ago. Subsequently, the Pygmy gene pool was not enriched by external gene influxes.

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little is known about the chronology of the demographic events—size changes, population splits, and gene flow—ultimately giving rise to contemporary Pygmy (Western and Eastern) groups and neighboring agricultural populations. We studied the branching history of Pygmy hunter–gatherers and agricultural

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The greatest environmental problem the Pygmies face is the loss of their traditional homeland, the tropical forests of Central Africa. In countries such as Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic and the Republic of Congo this is due to deforestation and the desire of several governments in Central

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e found strong signals for selection in both African Pygmy groups at two genes involved in the iodide-dependent thyroid hormone pathway: TRIP4 in Mbuti Pygmies; and IYD in Biaka Pygmies. These observations suggest that the Efe have adapted genetically to an iodine-deficient diet; we suggest that the

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is hypothesized to have originated in a homeland of Bantu-speaking peoples located around western Cameroon, a part of which Shum Laka is viewed as being of importance in the early period of this expansion. By 3000 BP, the Bantu expansion is hypothesized to have already begun. Yet, the sampled ancient

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Historically, the Pygmy have always been viewed as inferior by both the village dwelling Bantu tribes and colonial authorities. This has translated into systematic discrimination. One early example was the capture of Pygmy children under the auspices of the Belgian colonial authorities, who exported

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and attacked Luba villages. A Luba militia known as "Elements" attacked back, notably killing at least 30 people in the "Vumilia 1" displaced people camp in April 2015. Since the start of the conflict, hundreds have been killed, and tens of thousands have been displaced from their homes. The weapons

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Music permeates daily life, with songs for entertainment, special events, and communal activities. The Pygmie people are known to use an instrument called the n'dehou which is a bamboo flute. The n'dehou only produces a single sound, however, the person using this instrument would wield their breath

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Most contemporary Pygmy groups are only partially foragers and partially trade with neighboring farmers to acquire cultivated foods and other material items; no group lives deep in the forest without access to agricultural products. A total number of about 900,000 Pygmies were estimated to be living

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Vol. 47 – 1996/3. "Pygmies are distributed discontinuously across nine different African countries Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Zaire, the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Congo and live in innumerable distinct ethnic groups that are separated by geography, language,

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website conducted research on the Pygmies. The human rights organization states that, as the forest has receded under logging activities, its original inhabitants have been pushed into populated areas to join the formal economy, working as casual laborers or on commercial farms and being exposed to

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was a teenage pygmy boy from the Congo. Ota was purchased from slave traders and was brought to the United States to be exhibited for his unique looks. Ota had sharpened teeth as a result of the traditions of his tribe, and he was also short in stature. In 1906, Ota was brought to the Bronx Zoo and

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Tishkoff, S. A; Reed, F. A; Friedlaender, F. R; Ehret, C; Ranciaro, A; Froment, A; Hirbo, J. B; Awomoyi, A. A; Bodo, J.-M; Doumbo, O; Ibrahim, M; Juma, A. T; Kotze, M. J; Lema, G; Moore, J. H; Mortensen, H; Nyambo, T. B; Omar, S. A; Powell, K; Pretorius, G. S; Smith, M. W; Thera, M. A; Wambebe, C;

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Studies in Cameroon and the DRC in the 1980s and 1990s showed a lower prevalence of HIV in Pygmy populations than among neighboring groups, but recent increases have been recorded. One study found that the HIV prevalence among the Baka Pygmies in eastern Cameroon rose from 0.7 percent in 1993 to 4

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Since poverty has become very prevalent in Pygmy communities, sexual exploitation of indigenous women has become a common practice. Commercial sex has been bolstered by logging, which often places large groups of male laborers in camps which are set up in close contact with the Pygmy communities.

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populations. Researchers identified an ancestral and autochthonous lineage of mtDNA shared by Pygmies and Bantus, suggesting that both populations were originally one, and that they started to diverge from common ancestors around 70,000 years ago. After a period of isolation, during which current

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of (former) hunter-gatherer populations that ring the rainforest. He argued that the Pygmies do not form the residue of a single ancient stock of Central African hunter-gatherers, but that they are rather descended from several neighboring ethno-linguistic groups, independently adapting to forest

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Olivero, Jesús; Fa, John E; Farfán, Miguel A; Lewis, Jerome; Hewlett, Barry; Breuer, Thomas; Carpaneto, Giuseppe M; Fernández, María; Germi, Francesco; Hattori, Shiho; Head, Josephine; Ichikawa, Mitsuo; Kitanaishi, Koichi; Knights, Jessica; Matsuura, Naoki; Migliano, Andrea; Nese, Barbara; Noss,

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masters. The nation is deeply stratified between these two major ethnic groups. The Pygmy slaves belong from birth to their Bantu masters in a relationship that the Bantus call a time-honored tradition. Even though the Pygmies are responsible for much of the hunting, fishing and manual labor in

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Quintana-Murci, L; Quach, H; Harmant, C; Luca, F; Massonnet, B; Patin, E; Sica, L; Mouguiama-Daouda, P; Comas, D; Tzur, S; Balanovsky, O; Kidd, K. K; Kidd, J. R; Van Der Veen, L; Hombert, J.-M; Gessain, A; Verdu, P; Froment, A; Bahuchet, S; Heyer, E; Dausset, J; Salas, A; Behar, D. M (2008).

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Patin, Etienne; Laval, Guillaume; Barreiro, Luis B; Salas, Antonio; Semino, Ornella; Santachiara-Benerecetti, Silvana; Kidd, Kenneth K; Kidd, Judith R; Van Der Veen, Lolke; Hombert, Jean-Marie; Gessain, Antoine; Froment, Alain; Bahuchet, Serge; Heyer, Evelyne; Quintana-Murci, Lluís (2009).

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Human rights groups have also reported widespread sexual abuse of indigenous women in the conflict-ridden eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Despite these risks, Pygmy populations generally have poor access to health services and information about HIV. One British medical journal,

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Hiernaux (1975) distinguished the Pygmies proper (Mbuti and Biaka), with an average male and female height of around 155 and 144 cm, from "Pygmoid" groups (Twa and neighbouring groups of Uganda, Rwuanda and South Congo) with a somewhat larger average height of 155 to 160 cm (cited after

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The two earlier Shum Laka foragers from 8000 BP and two later Shum Laka foragers from 3000 BP show 5000 years of population continuity in region. Yet, modern peoples of Cameroon are more closely related to modern West Africans than to the ancient Shum Laka foragers. Modern Cameroonian

740:(1997, 1999) criticized the hypothesis of an ancestral "Pygmy language", arguing that even if there is evidence for a common ancestral language rather than just borrowing, it will not be sufficient to establish a specifically "Pygmy" origin rather than any of the several potential 1263:

exhibited in the monkey house. Ota was given a bow and arrow for protection from the animals. After the exhibit was closed, Ota was not able to return home to the Congo. He lived out the rest of his life in Virginia, until he became depressed and died by suicide at the age of 33.

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Bozzola, M; Travaglino P; Marziliano N; Meazza C; Pagani S; Grasso M; Tauber M; Diegoli M; Pilotto A; Disabella E; Tarantino P; Brega A; Arbustini E (Nov 2009). "The shortness of Pygmies is associated with severe under-expression of the growth hormone receptor".

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Other proposed explanations include the potentially lesser availability of protein-rich food sources in rainforest environments, the often reduced soil-calcium levels in rainforest environments, the caloric expenditure required to traverse rainforest terrain,

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to Central Africa, albeit substantially affected by later migrations from West Africa, from their first appearance in the historical record in the 19th century limited to a comparatively small area within Central Africa, greatly decimated by the prehistoric

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There are roughly 500,000 Pygmies remaining in the rainforest of Central Africa. This population is rapidly decreasing as poverty, intermarriage with Bantu peoples, Westernization, and deforestation gradually destroy their way of life and culture.

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music using a one-note instrument. Along with the different sounds of the breath and the n'dehou, the musician may also stomp their feet or tap on their chest to add even more dimension and complexity to the music. The n'dehou was popularized by

1161:(DRC) government, and the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of the Indigenous Pygmy Peoples, the first legislation in the country that recognizes and safeguards the specific rights of the Indigenous pygmy peoples, was signed into law. 1275:

Pygmies are often evicted from their land and given the lowest paying jobs. At a state level, Pygmies are not considered citizens by most African states, and are refused identity cards, deeds to land, health care and education access.

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Lachance, Joseph; Vernot, Benjamin; Elbers, Clara C; Ferwerda, Bart; Froment, Alain; Bodo, Jean-Marie; Lema, Godfrey; Fu, Wenqing; Nyambo, Thomas B; Rebbeck, Timothy R; Zhang, Kun; Akey, Joshua M; Tishkoff, Sarah A (2012).

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says that the level of polyphonic complexity of Pygmy music was reached in Europe in the 14th century, yet Pygmy culture is unwritten and ancient, some Pygmy groups being the first known cultures in some areas of Africa.

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Schlebusch, Carina M; Malmström, Helena; Günther, Torsten; Sjödin, Per; Coutinho, Alexandra; Edlund, Hanna; Munters, Arielle R; Vicente, Mário; Steyn, Maryna; Soodyall, Himla; Lombard, Marlize; Jakobsson, Mattias (2017).

3035: 908:– distributed among both modern West and Central African agriculturalists and hunter-gatherers. One earlier Shum Laka forager was of haplogroup B and one later Shum Laka forager haplogroup B2b, which, together, as 2230:

Jarvis, Joseph P; Scheinfeldt, Laura B; Soi, Sameer; Lambert, Charla; Omberg, Larsson; Ferwerda, Bart; Froment, Alain; Bodo, Jean-Marie; Beggs, William; Hoffman, Gabriel; Mezey, Jason; Tishkoff, Sarah A (2012).

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Lipson, Mark; Ribot, Isabelle; Mallick, Swapan; Rohland, Nadin; Olalde, Iñigo; Adamski, Nicole; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Lawson, Ann Marie; López, Saioa; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Stewardson, Kristin (Jan 2020).

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family. It is assumed that Pygmies once spoke their own language(s), but that, through living in symbiosis with other Africans, in prehistorical times, they adopted languages belonging to these two families."

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Various hypotheses have been proposed to explain the short stature of African pygmies. Becker, et al., suggest African pygmyism may have evolved as an adaptation to the significantly lower average levels of

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are generally recognized as being the earliest divergent modern human group, having diverged from other groups around 250,000 BP – 200,000 BP, as a result of the sampling of the ancient Shum Laka foragers,

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Schlebusch, Carina M; Malmström, Helena; Günther, Torsten; Sjödin, Per; Coutinho, Alexandra; Edlund, Hanna; Munters, Arielle R; Steyn, Maryna; Soodyall, Himla; Lombard, Marlize; Jakobsson, Mattias (2017).

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to investigate a campaign of extermination against pygmies. Although they have been targeted by virtually all the armed groups, much of the violence against Pygmies is attributed to the rebel group the

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uptake, and subsequently restricted bone growth and maintenance, resulting in an overall population average skeletal mass near the lowest periphery of the spectrum among anatomically modern humans.

4147: 3329: 432:" among the Pygmy peoples of Central Africa: the term is considered a pejorative, and people prefer to be referred to by the name of their respective ethnic or tribal groups, such as 1201:("the erasers") who wanted to clear the land of people to open it up for mineral exploitation. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman", and some say their flesh can confer 4163: 1543:

Andrew; Ekoumou, Dieudonné Ongbwa; Paulin, Pascale; Real, Raimundo; Riddell, Mike; Stevenson, Edward G. J; Toda, Mikako; Vargas, J. Mario; Yasuoka, Hirokazu; Nasi, Robert (2016).

444:. There is no clear replacement for the term "Pygmy" in reference to the umbrella group. A descriptive term that has seen some use since the 2000s is "Central African foragers". 3043: 2282:

López Herráez, David; Bauchet, Marc; Tang, Kun; Theunert, Christoph; Pugach, Irina; Li, Jing; Nandineni, Madhusudan R; Gross, Arnd; Scholz, Markus; Stoneking, Mark (2009).

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speakers are greatly distinct from the ancient Shum Laka foragers, thus, showing that the ancient Shum Laka people were not the ancestral source population of the modern

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The mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome haplogroups found in the ancient Shum Laka foragers were Sub-Saharan African haplogroups. Two earlier Shum Laka foragers were of

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hunter-gatherers, while partly descended, are not largely descended from the Shum Laka foragers, due to the apparent absence of descent from Basal West Africans.

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Silva, Marina; Alshamali, Farida; Silva, Paula; Carrilho, Carla; Mandlate, Flávio; Jesus Trovoada, Maria; Černý, Viktor; Pereira, Luísa; Soares, Pedro (2015).

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Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p. 168, Table "A Summary of Hiernaux's Classification (Hiernaux 1975) of the Sub-Saharan African Peoples").

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foragers from the early period of the Stone to Metal Age, in 8000 BP, and two Shum Laka foragers from the late period of the Stone to Metal Age, in 3000 BP.

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Bahuchet, Serge (1993) "History of the inhabitants of the central African rain forest: perspectives from comparative linguistics." In C.M. Hladik, ed.,

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between 16,000 BP and 12,000 BP until as late as 1000 BP or some period of time after 1500 CE. West African hunter-gatherers, many of whom dwelt in the

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environments. In similar hypothetical scenarios, because of reduced access to sunlight, a comparatively smaller amount of anatomically formulated

885:(before 60,000 years ago) divergences from other human populations, and a split between eastern and western pygmy groups about 20,000 years ago. 3715: 3542: 397:

The use of "Pygmy" in reference to the small-framed African hunter-gatherers dates to the early 19th century, in English first by John Barrow,

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O'Dea, JD (1994). "Possible contribution of low ultraviolet light under the rainforest canopy to the small stature of Pygmies and Negritos".

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have been identified in Aka and in Baka, respectively, on the order of 30% of the lexicon. Much of this vocabulary is botanical, deals with

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display the most ancient divergence from other human groups among anatomically modern humans, second only to those displayed among some

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from archaic humans, was found in the 2010s. The lineage of African Pygmies is strongly associated with mitochondrial (maternal line)

608:, not always included in the term "Pygmy", as they tend to be somewhat taller (male average above 155 cm). Subgroups include the 2490:

Lluis Quintana-Murci et al. MtDNA diversity in Central Africa: from hunter-gathering to agriculturalism. CNRS-Institut Pasteur, Paris

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heat and humidity, and pygmyism as an adaptation associated with rapid reproductive maturation under conditions of early mortality.

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Ohenjo, N. O.; Willis, R.; Jackson, D.; Nettleton, C.; Good, K.; Mugarura, B. (2006). "Health of Indigenous people in Africa".

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There are at least a dozen Pygmy groups, sometimes unrelated to each other. They are grouped in three geographical categories:

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has greatly affected their everyday lives. Pygmy culture is threatened today by the forces of political and economic change.

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The African Pygmies are particularly known for their vocal music, usually characterized by dense contrapuntal improvisation.

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Becker, Noémie S.A.; Verdu, Paul; Froment, Alain; Le Bomin, Sylvie; Pagezy, Hélène; Bahuchet, Serge; Heyer, Evelyne (2011).

2409:"Maternal traces of deep common ancestry and asymmetric gene flow between Pygmy hunter-gatherers and Bantu-speaking farmers" 2187: 1760: 296:

region, were ultimately acculturated and admixed into larger groups of West African agriculturalists, akin to the migratory

1489: 4155: 3373: 2562:"Inferring the Demographic History of African Farmers and Pygmy Hunter–Gatherers Using a Multilocus Resequencing Data Set" 1287: 748: 281: 2502:"60,000 years of interactions between Central and Eastern Africa documented by major African mitochondrial haplogroup L2" 1390:

Fagny, Maud; Patin, Etienne; MacIsaac, Julia L; Rotival, Maxime; Flutre, Timothée; Jones, Meaghan J; et al. (2015).

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Polyphonic music is found among the Aka–Baka and the Mbuti, but not among the Gyele (Kola) or the various groups of Twa.

4055: 3720: 3144: 3060: 2233:"Patterns of Ancestry, Signatures of Natural Selection, and Genetic Association with Stature in Western African Pygmies" 1225: 1062: 270: 103: 3770: 3735: 3685: 3276: 2756: 783:. African Pygmies in the historical period have been significantly displaced by, and assimilated to, several waves of 2284:"Genetic Variation and Recent Positive Selection in Worldwide Human Populations: Evidence from Nearly 1 Million SNPs" 1388:(2016), p. 11; Schlebusch et al. (2017). " rainforest hunter-gatherers" is used in population genetics from c. 2015, 1179:

In 2003, Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti pygmies, told the UN's Indigenous People's Forum that during the

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populations, who live outside of the Central Africa forest environment, partly in open swamp or desert environments.

4187: 4081: 3900: 3355: 1931:"Evolutionary History and Adaptation from High-Coverage Whole-Genome Sequences of Diverse African Hunter-Gatherers" 1068:

A study by Price, et al., provides insight into the role genetics plays in the reduced stature of African pygmies:

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Price AL, Tandon A, Patterson N, Barnes KC, Rafaels N, Ruczinski I, Beaty TH, Mathias R, Reich D, Myers S (2009).

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populations, African pygmy populations display unusually low levels of expression of the genes encoding for human

968: 784: 482: 3865: 3815: 3587: 3302: 3181: 1457: 847: 792: 666: 573: 486: 241: 1814: 401:(1806). However, the term was used diffusely, and treated as unsubstantiated claims of "dwarf tribes" among the 4288: 4237: 4005: 3830: 3518: 3398: 3338: 1172:

Mbutis to prospect for minerals and forage for forest food, with those returning empty handed being killed and

464: 147: 102:, "African rainforest hunter-gatherers" (RHG) or "Forest People of Central Africa") are a group of ethnicities 83: 48:

A map showing the distribution of Congo Pygmies and their languages according to Bahuchet (2006). The southern

1233:, which is part of the transitional government and still controls much of the north, as well as their allies. 1442:, International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (2001), p. 312; Thomas Widlok, Wolde Gossa Tadesse (eds.), 3695: 1348: 1213: 1088: 1054: 717:

An ancestral Pygmy language has been postulated for at least some Pygmy groups, based on the observation of

365: 4040: 3795: 3655: 2906:. Teldec Classics: 8573 86584-2. Liner notes by Aimard, Ligeti, Reich, and Simha Arom and Stefan Schomann. 2113: 2051: 421:, published 1873). "African Pygmy" is used for disambiguation from "Asiatic Pygmy", a name applied to the 64: 2704: 730: 4179: 4035: 4015: 3960: 3592: 2903: 2032: 1307:

new diseases. This shift has brought them into closer contact with neighboring ethnic communities whose

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History of Click-Speaking Populations of Africa Inferred from mtDNA and Y Chromosome Genetic Variation.

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there is extensive evidence of mass killings, cannibalism and rape of Pygmies, and they have urged the

904:– broadly distributed throughout modern African populations – and two later Shum Laka foragers were of 1148:, where Pygmies are estimated to make up between 1.2% and 10% of the population, many Pygmies live as 4232: 3950: 3915: 3730: 3286: 2943:"After 14 years of advocacy, the DRC president finally signs new Indigenous peoples law (commentary)" 2651: 2515: 2420: 2355: 2295: 1984: 1865: 1556: 1403: 1217: 909: 863: 718: 707: 674: 3940: 3895: 3845: 3790: 3675: 3670: 3406: 1973:"Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago" 1272:

Pygmy children to zoos throughout Europe, including the World's Fair in the United States in 1907.

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A consortium of researchers conducted a case study on the Pygmies of Africa and concluded that

939:– or, an admixture composed of a modern western Central African hunter-gatherer unit, a modern 324: 4203: 4091: 4050: 3975: 3890: 3860: 3775: 3760: 3629: 3602: 3575: 3476: 3347: 3211: 2891: 2870: 2819: 2737: 2677: 2593: 2541: 2448: 2381: 2323: 2264: 2205: 2171: 2150: 2130: 2065: 2015:"Ancient genomes from southern Africa pushes modern human divergence beyond 260,000 years ago" 2002: 1960: 1899: 1881: 1774: 1733: 1624: 1584: 1429: 1188: 1173: 1169: 1145: 1135: 1035: 665:

They were partially absorbed or displaced by later immigration of agricultural peoples of the

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Central African hunter-gatherers in a multi-disciplinary perspective: challenging elusiveness

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Tropical forests, people, and food: Biocultural interactions and applications to development.

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Blench, Roger (1997) "The languages of Africa". In Roger Blench and Matthew Spriggs (eds.),

2089: 2018: 1992: 1950: 1942: 1889: 1873: 1766: 1723: 1715: 1668: 1616: 1574: 1564: 1419: 1411: 1380:"Central African foragers" is used (in some cases alongside "pygmies") in e.g.: Susan Kent, 1279: 1252: 1180: 1031: 779:

peopling of Central Africa, with a separation time from West and East Africans of the order

776: 752: 741: 711: 636: 565: 237: 44: 4065: 4020: 3910: 3880: 3755: 3740: 3680: 3617: 3513: 2096: 2045: 1821: 963: 800: 700: 678: 639: 586: 569: 545: 410: 387: 301: 262: 246: 119: 2839:"Sensitive Detection of Chromosomal Segments of Distinct Ancestry in Admixed Populations" 1657:"Korounkorokalé revisited: The Pays Mande and the West African microlithic technocomplex" 1656: 1183:, his people were hunted down and eaten as though they were game animals. In neighboring 2916: 2655: 2519: 2424: 2359: 2299: 1988: 1869: 1609:"Archaeology, language and the peopling of West Africa: a consideration of the evidence" 1560: 1407: 931:

The autosomal admixture of the four ancient Shum Laka forager children was ~35% Western

4010: 3970: 3920: 3905: 3885: 3835: 3800: 3785: 3765: 3750: 3622: 3563: 3416: 3182:

Deforestation in central Africa brings HIV/AIDS to indigenous communities, mainly women

2865: 2838: 2672: 2639: 2588: 2561: 2536: 2501: 2443: 2408: 2376: 2343: 2318: 2283: 2259: 2232: 1955: 1930: 1894: 1728: 1703: 1579: 1544: 1424: 1391: 1165: 1050: 831: 722: 594: 454: 285: 107: 56: 38: 3207: 3036:"Rebels 'eating Pygmies' as mass slaughter continues in Congo despite peace agreement" 75: 4282: 4242: 4045: 3985: 3955: 3935: 3875: 3840: 3825: 3810: 3780: 3725: 3650: 3461: 3441: 3431: 2705:"Indirect evidence for the genetic determination of short stature in African Pygmies" 2689: 2216: 1911: 1788: 1745: 1688: 1638: 1336: 1311:

levels are generally higher. This has led to the spread of HIV into the pygmy group.

1248: 1153: 1111: 1058: 972: 925: 901: 871: 843: 827: 807: 682: 598: 490: 362: 297: 236:" in anthropological literature). They are assumed to be descended from the original 229: 31: 1497: 4222: 3925: 3710: 3496: 3451: 3446: 3388: 3363: 3223: 967:

Shum Laka foragers – two from 8000 BP and two from 3000 BP – show that most modern

788: 737: 726: 609: 605: 533: 274: 254: 217: 3634: 2789:

Short lives, short size – why are pygmies small? « Not Exactly Rocket Science

3307: 3111: 2855: 2578: 2308: 2249: 2059: 1801: 1569: 1005:

Size comparison between Pygmies, English officers, Sudanese and Zanzibaris (1890)

4262: 4252: 3855: 3665: 3612: 3486: 3426: 3421: 3016: 2998: 2899: 2815: 1525: 1244: 1192: 1083: 1011: 944: 940: 882: 775:

Genetic studies have found evidence that African Pygmies are descended from the

646:. Genetic evidence for the deep separation of Congo Pygmies from the lineage of 617: 537: 441: 289: 164: 111: 1946: 1719: 4257: 4247: 3965: 3870: 3700: 3690: 3660: 3503: 3471: 3436: 3378: 2663: 1877: 1283: 1184: 1106: 1097: 1015: 921: 839: 835: 517: 79: 3156: 1885: 1770: 1620: 1392:"The epigenomic landscape of African rainforest hunter-gatherers and farmers" 216:). The more widely scattered (and more variable in physiology and lifestyle) 3508: 2640:"Ancient West African foragers in the context of African population history" 2433: 2367: 2050:

Older (pre-2010) studies with inconclusive results: R. Blench and M. Dendo.

1997: 1972: 1854:"Ancient West African foragers in the context of African population history" 1438:

The alternative "Forest People " sees limited use in the early 2000s, e.g.,

1259: 1019: 894: 621: 613: 341: 3215: 2874: 2823: 2741: 2681: 2597: 2545: 2452: 2385: 2327: 2268: 2006: 1964: 1903: 1737: 1588: 1529:

Unasylva — An international journal of forestry and forest industries

1433: 1382:

Cultural Diversity Among Twentieth-Century Foragers: An African Perspective

1613:

Archaeology and Language II: Archaeological Data and Linguistic Hypotheses

1105:

and inhale making high-pitched sounds; this allows the individual to make

987:

are shown to have likely diverged at a similar time, if not even earlier.

4227: 3607: 2732: 1526:"Forest peoples in the central African rain forest: focus on the pygmies" 1358: 1039: 996: 855: 509: 449: 258: 233: 197: 135: 115: 68: 1680: 1415: 806:

Genetically, African pygmies have some key differences between them and

269:

in the central African forests in 2016, about 60% of this number in the

3530: 3525: 3491: 3466: 3383: 2723: 2086:

The African Frontier: The Reproduction of Traditional African Societies

1672: 875: 815: 760: 647: 556: 541: 422: 402: 213: 189: 155: 2527: 912:, is distributed among modern Central African hunter-gatherers (e.g., 635:

African Pygmies are often assumed to be the direct descendants of the

489:

language families. There has been significant intermixing between the

3597: 3411: 2344:"The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans" 1149: 952: 917: 859: 780: 459: 447:

Regional names used collectively of the western group of Pygmies are

433: 209: 205: 201: 185: 2194:. K. Biesbrouck, S. Elders & G. Rossel eds. 41–60. Leiden: CNWS. 2023: 2014: 947:/West African unit likely from further north in the regions of the 3256:"As Cameroon's jungle shrinks, pygmies' lifestyle is under threat" 2466: 2147:

The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue

1278: 1256:

used in the conflict are often arrows and axes, rather than guns.

1251:, rose up into militias (such as the "Perci" militia) in Northern 1237: 1087: 1000: 948: 851: 764: 579: 513: 437: 391: 372: 357: 335: 323: 311: 176: 139: 122:

lifestyle. They are divided into three roughly geographic groups:

74: 55: 43: 4197:

An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus

725:(1994), "African Pygmies speak languages belonging to either the 3297: 2981:"Pygmies struggle to survive in war zone where abuse is routine" 1615:. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 39–40, 43–44, 48–49. 1545:"Distribution and Numbers of Pygmies in Central African Forests" 662:, with a divergence time between 170,000 and 100,000 years ago. 428:

Dembner (1996) reported a universal "disdain for the term 'pygmy

3311: 1308: 1240: 49: 3112:"Caged Congolese teen: Why a zoo took 114 years to apologise" 3277:

Kiss of Life for DR Congo Pygmies by Badylon Kawanda Bakiman

4083:

An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People

3282:

African Pygmies: Hunter-Gatherer Peoples of Central Africa

3281: 1045:

Additional evidence suggests that, when compared to other

830:

groups. L1c prevalence was variously reported as: 100% in

3303:

Undated footage of Pygmy tribe constructing a vine bridge

1839:

Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East

1759:

Van Beek, Walter E.A.; Banga, Pieteke M. (Mar 11, 2002).

1168:, Ugandan backed rebel groups were accused by the UN of 37:"African Pygmy" redirects here. For the goat breed, see 3138: 3136: 3134: 3132: 3061:"DR Congo: Ethnic Militias Attack Civilians in Katanga" 2465:

S. Bahuchet/MNHN Common Origins of Pygmies and Bantus.

4165:

The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy

2757:"Ultraviolet light levels available in the rainforest" 1704:"Continuity of the Middle Stone Age into the Holocene" 361:, as used to refer to diminutive people, derives from 2481:

Molecular Biology and Evolution 2007 24(10):2180–2195

1386:

Historical Dictionary of the Central African Republic

826:

is strongly associated with pygmies, especially with

3289:

Smithsonian Magazine, December 2008 by Paul Raffaele

1164:

In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, during the

943:

unit, existing locally before 8000 BP, and a modern

390:. The word is derived from πυγμή pygmē, a term for " 4215: 4074: 3643: 3541: 3397: 3354: 344:, northeastern Congo) posing with bows and arrows ( 328:

Pygmy family posing with a European man for scale (

3177: 3175: 3173: 394:" (lit. "fist"), suggesting a diminutive height. 2149:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: New York, p. 154, 1837:"Mbuti, Twa, and Mbenga". In Stokes (ed.) 2009. 1505:"As the World Intrudes, Pygmies Feel Endangered" 3086:"In Congo, Wars Are Small and Chaos Is Endless" 2413:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2188:Are the African Pygmies an ethnographic fiction 1070: 3238:"Deforestation Threatens Pygmies, Study Finds" 3080: 3078: 2114:Genetics and linguistics in sub-Saharan Africa 2053:Genetics and linguistics in sub-Saharan Africa 1602: 1600: 1598: 881:Patin, et al. (2009) suggest two unique, late 4109:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races 3323: 2401: 2399: 2397: 2395: 1022:is produced, resulting in restricted dietary 893:Ancient DNA was able to be obtained from two 249:, and to the present time widely affected by 27:Group of ethnicities native to Central Africa 8: 1460:; Menozzi, Paolo; and Piazza Alberto (1994) 1384:(2006); Richard Bradshaw, Juan Fandos-Rius, 1376: 1374: 399:Travels Into the Interior of Southern Africa 1923: 1921: 1650: 1648: 463:(the plural form of Aka/Yaka), used in the 381: 375: 228:They are notable for, and named for, their 30:For short-statured peoples in general, see 4101:Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question 3330: 3316: 3308: 3055: 3053: 2962:"Congo rebels are eating pygmies, UN says" 2941:Patrick Saidi Hemedi (November 16, 2022). 2772:HOMO: Journal of Comparative Human Biology 2633: 2631: 4125:The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century 3145:"Pygmies in the Congo Basin and Conflict" 2864: 2854: 2731: 2712:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 2671: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2621: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2587: 2577: 2535: 2442: 2432: 2375: 2317: 2307: 2258: 2248: 2206:"A New Recording Of Mauritanian Rock Art" 2022: 1996: 1954: 1893: 1727: 1578: 1568: 1483: 1481: 1423: 453:(the plural form of Mbenga), used in the 1462:The History and Geography of Human Genes 2979:Clayton, Jonathan (December 16, 2004). 1520: 1518: 1477: 1370: 481:The Congo Pygmy speak languages of the 409:. In the 1860s, two Western explorers, 304:with Central African hunter-gatherers. 3716:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon 2041: 2030: 1503:Kristof, Nicholas D. (June 16, 1997). 1126:Enslavement, cannibalism, and genocide 1014:light available beneath the canopy of 288:earlier than 32,000 BP and dwelled in 2090:Igbo Language Roots and (Pre)-History 405:of the interior of Africa, until the 7: 3063:. Human Rights Watch. 11 August 2015 2342:Weber, J. L; Williams, S. M (2009). 1231:Movement for the Liberation of Congo 4268:Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness 2894:Pygmies, performed by Aka Pygmies, 2755:O'Dea, Julian (December 21, 2009). 2058:Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca (1986). 2056:, Cambridge-Bergen, June 24, 2004. 1607:MacDonald, Kevin C. (Sep 2, 2003). 1222:Minority Rights Group International 751:may have spoken a set of presently 3034:Peta, Basildon (January 9, 2003). 2650:(7792). Nature Research: 665–669. 2638:Lipson, Mark; et al. (2020). 2204:Abd-El-Moniem, Hamdi Abbas Ahmed. 1826:The Scottish Geographical Magazine 25: 4173:The Myth of the Twentieth Century 4093:The Outline of History of Mankind 2999:"DR Congo Pygmies 'exterminated'" 1440:Racism Against Indigenous Peoples 980:Southern African hunter-gatherers 695:Classification of Pygmy languages 477:Classification of Pygmy languages 4141:Heredity in Relation to Eugenics 3184:. fpcn-global.org. April 6, 2008 2088:(1989), 9–10 (cited after 1490:"Congo's Pygmies live as slaves" 1488:Thomas, Katie (March 12, 2007). 1159:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1114:, a Cameroonian musical artist. 985:Central African hunter-gatherers 759:. In the northeastern region of 340:A group of Pygmy men from Nala ( 220:are also grouped under the term 114:, traditionally subsisting on a 18:Central African hunter-gatherers 3293:Survival International: Pygmies 3017:"DR Congo Pygmies appeal to UN" 2960:James Astill (8 January 2003). 2477:Sarah A. Tishkoff et al. 2007, 2467:http://www2.cnrs.fr/en/1164.htm 1302:Along with Raja Sheshadri, the 933:Central African hunter-gatherer 544:. These groups are speakers of 425:populations of Southeast Asia. 298:Bantu-speaking agriculturalists 4133:Race Life of the Aryan Peoples 3339:Historical definitions of race 1804:. Online Etymology Dictionary. 1702:Scerri, Eleanor M. L. (2021). 1212:to recognize cannibalism as a 1121:Contemporary issues in society 407:exploration of the Congo basin 273:. The number does not include 1: 4157:The Passing of the Great Race 3208:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68849-1 1661:African Archaeological Review 1288:Dzanga-Sangha Special Reserve 749:West African hunter-gatherers 345: 282:West African hunter-gatherers 4056:Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer 2856:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000519 2579:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000448 2309:10.1371/journal.pone.0007888 2250:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002641 1815:"The Pygmy tribes of Africa" 1570:10.1371/journal.pone.0144499 1247:often exploit and allegedly 1226:International Criminal Court 1063:insulin-like growth factor 1 866:. Mitochondrial haplogroups 685:, adopting their languages. 673:phyla beginning after about 316:Congo Pygmy father and son ( 284:may have dwelled in western 271:Democratic Republic of Congo 253:at the hands of neighboring 3771:Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt 3736:Houston Stewart Chamberlain 3686:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 2816:10.1016/j.ymgme.2009.05.009 2168:Archaeology and language IV 1828:8 (1892), 289–301, 345–357. 1290:in Central African Republic 386:), a term for "dwarf" from 4305: 1947:10.1016/j.cell.2012.07.009 1720:10.1038/s41598-020-79418-4 1129: 1081: 994: 692: 474: 330:Collier's New Encyclopedia 242:anatomically modern humans 36: 29: 3866:Georges Vacher de Lapouge 3345: 2664:10.1038/s41586-020-1929-1 2129:Paris: Unesco/Parthenon. 1878:10.1038/s41586-020-1929-1 1813:Schlichter, Henry. 1892. 1765:. Routledge. p. 66. 1762:The Dogon and their trees 1655:MacDonald, Kevin (1997). 1267:Systematic discrimination 574:Central Sudanic languages 174:the central and southern 4238:History of anthropometry 4006:Charles Gabriel Seligman 3831:Frederick Ludwig Hoffman 3519:Sinodonty and Sundadonty 3143:Sheshadri, Raja (2005). 1771:10.4324/9780203036129-10 1621:10.4324/9780203202913-11 1187:province there has been 874:are prevalent among the 593:, speakers of the Bantu 465:Central African Republic 148:Central African Republic 100:Central African foragers 84:Central African Republic 3696:Daniel Garrison Brinton 3298:Pygmy Survival Alliance 2434:10.1073/pnas.0711467105 2368:10.1126/science.1172257 2145:Ruhlen, Merritt (1994) 1998:10.1126/science.aao6266 1494:The News & Observer 1458:Cavalli-Sforza, L. Luca 1349:Ethnic groups of Africa 858:, respectively, 97% in 677:, and, beginning about 642:peoples of the central 4041:Thomas Griffith Taylor 3796:Reginald Ruggles Gates 2040:Cite journal requires 1446:vol. 2 (2005), p. 104. 1291: 1236:Starting in 2013, the 1214:crime against humanity 1093: 1075: 1006: 973:Bantu-speaking peoples 846:, 97% and 100% in the 757:West African languages 382: 376: 352: 333: 321: 87: 72: 53: 4181:Annihilation of Caste 4085:in Different Climates 4036:William Graham Sumner 4016:Samuel Stanhope Smith 3961:James Cowles Prichard 3593:Racial discrimination 2921:Minority Rights Group 2904:Pierre-Laurent Aimard 2186:Blench, Roger. 1999. 1444:Property and Equality 1396:Nature Communications 1282: 1140:Cannibalism in Africa 1130:Further information: 1092:Pygmy drummers (1930) 1091: 1004: 995:Further information: 719:linguistic substrates 693:Further information: 578:the widely scattered 339: 327: 315: 144:Republic of the Congo 78: 59: 47: 4233:Great chain of being 3951:Ludwig Hermann Plate 3916:Samuel George Morton 3731:Samuel A. Cartwright 3581:in the United States 1057:associated with low 1034:as an adaptation to 689:Linguistic substrate 318:Belgian Congo at War 4189:The Races of Europe 4117:The Races of Europe 3896:Dominick McCausland 3846:Thomas Henry Huxley 3791:Stanley Marion Garn 3671:Robert Bennett Bean 3399:Historical concepts 3287:The Pygmies' Plight 2917:"Republic of Congo" 2656:2020Natur.577..665L 2520:2015NatSR...512526S 2425:2008PNAS..105.1596Q 2360:2009Sci...324.1035T 2354:(5930): 1035–1044. 2300:2009PLoSO...4.7888L 1989:2017Sci...358..652S 1870:2020Natur.577..665L 1561:2016PLoSO..1144499O 1416:10.1038/ncomms10047 1408:2015NatCo...610047F 1210:UN Security Council 1065:and short stature. 1047:Sub-Saharan African 812:uniparental markers 810:. African pygmies' 631:Origins and history 419:The Heart of Africa 4061:Alexander Winchell 3991:Henric Sanielevici 3851:Calvin Ira Kephart 3821:Hans F. K. Günther 3806:Arthur de Gobineau 3706:Alice Mossie Brues 3603:Racial stereotypes 3244:. 25 January 2016. 3242:The New York Times 3046:on April 22, 2008. 2724:10.1002/ajpa.21512 2507:Scientific Reports 2095:2019-07-17 at the 2064:. Academic Press. 1820:2022-07-08 at the 1708:Scientific Reports 1673:10.1007/BF02968406 1354:Peopling of Africa 1292: 1132:Effacer le tableau 1094: 1007: 937:Basal West African 906:haplogroup L1c2a1b 862:(97%), and 82% in 644:African rainforest 550:Ubangian languages 415:Georg Schweinfurth 353: 334: 322: 88: 82:mother and child, 73: 54: 4276: 4275: 4205:The Race Question 4051:John H. Van Evrie 3976:William Z. Ripley 3946:Charles Pickering 3891:Felix von Luschan 3861:Robert E. Kuttner 3761:Charles Davenport 3630:Whiteness studies 3356:Color terminology 3348:Scientific racism 3202:(9526): 1937–46. 2890:(2003). Music by 2528:10.1038/srep12526 2071:978-0-12-164480-2 1983:(6363): 652–655. 1864:(7792): 665–670. 1327:percent in 2003. 1208:Makelo asked the 1146:Republic of Congo 1136:Slavery in Africa 910:macrohaplogroup B 902:haplogroup L0a2a1 791:speakers, of the 742:language isolates 731:Niger–Kordofanian 98:, variously also 16:(Redirected from 4296: 4084: 4031:Lothrop Stoddard 4026:Morris Steggerda 4001:Ilse Schwidetzky 3996:Heinrich Schmidt 3981:Alfred Rosenberg 3941:Isaac La Peyrère 3746:Carleton S. Coon 3721:Charles Caldwell 3676:François Bernier 3559:in Latin America 3332: 3325: 3318: 3309: 3264: 3263: 3252: 3246: 3245: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3191: 3185: 3179: 3168: 3167: 3165: 3164: 3155:. Archived from 3149:ICE Case Studies 3140: 3127: 3126: 3124: 3123: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3082: 3073: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3057: 3048: 3047: 3042:. Archived from 3031: 3025: 3024: 3013: 3007: 3006: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2976: 2970: 2969: 2957: 2951: 2950: 2938: 2932: 2931: 2929: 2928: 2913: 2907: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2868: 2858: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2798: 2792: 2786: 2780: 2779: 2767: 2761: 2760: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2735: 2709: 2700: 2694: 2693: 2675: 2635: 2606: 2605: 2591: 2581: 2556: 2550: 2549: 2539: 2497: 2491: 2488: 2482: 2475: 2469: 2463: 2457: 2456: 2446: 2436: 2419:(5): 1596–1601. 2403: 2390: 2389: 2379: 2338: 2332: 2331: 2321: 2311: 2279: 2273: 2272: 2262: 2252: 2227: 2221: 2220: 2210: 2201: 2195: 2184: 2178: 2164: 2158: 2143: 2137: 2123: 2117: 2110: 2104: 2082: 2076: 2075: 2049: 2043: 2038: 2036: 2028: 2026: 2010: 2000: 1968: 1958: 1925: 1916: 1915: 1897: 1848: 1842: 1835: 1829: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1793: 1792: 1756: 1750: 1749: 1731: 1699: 1693: 1692: 1652: 1643: 1642: 1604: 1593: 1592: 1582: 1572: 1539: 1533: 1522: 1513: 1512: 1501: 1496:. Archived from 1485: 1465: 1453: 1447: 1437: 1427: 1378: 1253:Katanga Province 1032:insular dwarfism 836:Aka (Ba-Benzélé) 777:Middle Stone Age 712:honey harvesting 699:Substantial non- 637:Middle Stone Age 566:Ituri Rainforest 431: 385: 379: 350: 347: 238:Middle Stone Age 21: 4304: 4303: 4299: 4298: 4297: 4295: 4294: 4293: 4289:African Pygmies 4279: 4278: 4277: 4272: 4211: 4149:Castes in India 4070: 4066:Ludwig Woltmann 4021:Herbert Spencer 3911:Lewis H. Morgan 3881:Cesare Lombroso 3756:Jan Czekanowski 3741:Sonia Mary Cole 3681:Renato Biasutti 3639: 3618:Nazism and race 3537: 3514:Proto-Mongoloid 3393: 3350: 3341: 3336: 3273: 3268: 3267: 3262:. 13 July 2017. 3254: 3253: 3249: 3236: 3235: 3231: 3193: 3192: 3188: 3180: 3171: 3162: 3160: 3142: 3141: 3130: 3121: 3119: 3110: 3109: 3105: 3095: 3093: 3092:. 30 April 2016 3084: 3083: 3076: 3066: 3064: 3059: 3058: 3051: 3040:The Independent 3033: 3032: 3028: 3015: 3014: 3010: 3005:. July 6, 2004. 2997: 2996: 2992: 2978: 2977: 2973: 2959: 2958: 2954: 2940: 2939: 2935: 2926: 2924: 2915: 2914: 2910: 2902:, performed by 2888:African Rhythms 2886: 2882: 2849:(6): e1000519. 2836: 2835: 2831: 2804:Mol Genet Metab 2800: 2799: 2795: 2787: 2783: 2769: 2768: 2764: 2754: 2753: 2749: 2707: 2702: 2701: 2697: 2637: 2636: 2609: 2572:(4): e1000448. 2558: 2557: 2553: 2499: 2498: 2494: 2489: 2485: 2476: 2472: 2464: 2460: 2405: 2404: 2393: 2340: 2339: 2335: 2281: 2280: 2276: 2243:(4): e1002641. 2229: 2228: 2224: 2211:. p. 221. 2208: 2203: 2202: 2198: 2185: 2181: 2165: 2161: 2144: 2140: 2124: 2120: 2111: 2107: 2097:Wayback Machine 2084:Igor Kopytoff, 2083: 2079: 2072: 2061:African pygmies 2057: 2039: 2029: 2011: 1969: 1927: 1926: 1919: 1850: 1849: 1845: 1836: 1832: 1822:Wayback Machine 1812: 1808: 1800: 1796: 1781: 1758: 1757: 1753: 1701: 1700: 1696: 1654: 1653: 1646: 1631: 1606: 1605: 1596: 1555:(1): e0144499. 1541: 1540: 1536: 1524:S. A. Dembner, 1523: 1516: 1502: 1487: 1486: 1479: 1474: 1469: 1468: 1454: 1450: 1389: 1379: 1372: 1367: 1345: 1333: 1304:fPcN-Global.org 1269: 1220:. According to 1181:Congo Civil War 1142: 1128: 1123: 1086: 1080: 999: 993: 964:Bantu expansion 891: 793:Central Sudanic 773: 721:. According to 697: 691: 679:3,500 years ago 675:5,500 years ago 667:Central Sudanic 640:hunter-gatherer 633: 587:Great Lakes Twa 487:Central Sudanic 479: 473: 429: 411:Paul Du Chaillu 388:Greek mythology 348: 310: 263:Central Sudanic 247:Bantu expansion 232:(described as " 120:hunter-gatherer 92:African Pygmies 63:dancers in the 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4302: 4300: 4292: 4291: 4281: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4271: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4219: 4217: 4213: 4212: 4210: 4209: 4201: 4193: 4185: 4177: 4169: 4161: 4153: 4145: 4137: 4129: 4121: 4119:(Ripley, 1899) 4113: 4105: 4097: 4089: 4078: 4076: 4072: 4071: 4069: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4011:Giuseppe Sergi 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3971:Gustaf Retzius 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3921:Josiah C. Nott 3918: 3913: 3908: 3906:Ashley Montagu 3903: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3886:Bertil Lundman 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3836:Earnest Hooton 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3801:George Gliddon 3798: 3793: 3788: 3786:Francis Galton 3783: 3778: 3776:Anténor Firmin 3773: 3768: 3766:Joseph Deniker 3763: 3758: 3753: 3751:Georges Cuvier 3748: 3743: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3647: 3645: 3641: 3640: 3638: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3626: 3625: 3623:Racial hygiene 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3590: 3585: 3584: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3572: 3571: 3566: 3556: 3547: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3536: 3535: 3534: 3533: 3523: 3522: 3521: 3516: 3506: 3501: 3500: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3474: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3444: 3439: 3434: 3429: 3424: 3414: 3409: 3403: 3401: 3395: 3394: 3392: 3391: 3386: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3360: 3358: 3352: 3351: 3346: 3343: 3342: 3337: 3335: 3334: 3327: 3320: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3290: 3284: 3279: 3272: 3271:External links 3269: 3266: 3265: 3247: 3229: 3186: 3169: 3128: 3103: 3074: 3049: 3026: 3023:. 23 May 2003. 3008: 2990: 2971: 2952: 2933: 2923:. 19 June 2015 2908: 2880: 2829: 2793: 2781: 2762: 2747: 2718:(3): 390–401. 2695: 2607: 2551: 2492: 2483: 2470: 2458: 2391: 2333: 2274: 2222: 2196: 2179: 2159: 2138: 2118: 2112:R. 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Blench, 2105: 2077: 2070: 2042:|journal= 2024:10.1101/145409 1941:(3): 457–469. 1917: 1843: 1830: 1806: 1794: 1779: 1751: 1694: 1667:(3): 192–196. 1644: 1629: 1594: 1534: 1514: 1509:New York Times 1500:on 2009-02-28. 1476: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1448: 1369: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1362: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1344: 1341: 1332: 1329: 1286:living in the 1268: 1265: 1216:and an act of 1166:Ituri Conflict 1127: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1082:Main article: 1079: 1076: 1051:growth hormone 992: 989: 890: 887: 844:Bedzan (Tikar) 842:, 100% of the 824:haplogroup L1c 822:Mitochondrial 772: 769: 723:Merritt Ruhlen 690: 687: 632: 629: 628: 627: 626: 625: 604:the "Pygmoid" 602: 576: 568:, speakers of 552: 516:, the Bayaka ( 475:Main article: 472: 469: 455:Kongo language 309: 306: 294:forest–savanna 286:Central Africa 280:Additionally, 226: 225: 172: 151: 108:Central Africa 52:are not shown. 39:American Pygmy 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4301: 4290: 4287: 4286: 4284: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4243:Miscegenation 4241: 4239: 4236: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4224: 4221: 4220: 4218: 4214: 4208: 4206: 4202: 4200: 4198: 4194: 4192: 4190: 4186: 4184: 4182: 4178: 4176: 4174: 4170: 4168: 4166: 4162: 4160: 4158: 4154: 4152: 4150: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4077: 4073: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4046:Paul Topinard 4044: 4042: 4039: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3986:Benjamin Rush 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3956:Alfred Ploetz 3954: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3936:Oscar Peschel 3934: 3932: 3931:Roger Pearson 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3901:John Mitchell 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 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