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most efficient transport network. There are maximum central places possible located on the main transport routes connecting the higher order center. The transportation principle involves the minimization of the length of roads connecting central places at all hierarchy levels. In this system of nesting, the lower order centres are all located along the roads linking the higher order centres. This alignment of places along a road leads to minimization of road length. However, for each higher order centre, there are now four centres of immediate lower order, as opposed to three centres under the marketing principle.
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362:, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing economic services to surrounding areas. Christaller explained that a large number of small settlements will be situated relatively close to one another for efficiency, and because people don't want to travel far for everyday needs, like getting bread from a bakery. But people would travel further for more expensive and infrequent purchases or specialized goods and services which would be located in larger settlements that are farther apart.
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825:(see K=4 above) usually have six thoroughfares through them—the thoroughfares including highways, rivers, railroads, and canals. They are most efficient and can deliver the lowest cost services because transportation is cheaper. Those having settled on the market principle (K=3 above) have more expensive services and goods, as they were founded at times when transportation was more primitive. In Appalachia, for example, the market principle still prevails and rural medical care is much more expensive.
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601:= 7 administrative principle (or political-social principle), settlements are nested according to sevens. The market areas of the smaller settlements are completely enclosed within the market area of the larger settlement. Since tributary areas cannot be split administratively, they must be allocated exclusively to a single higher-order place. Efficient administration is the control principle in this hierarchy.
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Smith was able to delineate medical care regions (the range), describe the hierarchy of medical services, the population base required of each medical specialty (threshold), the efficiency of regions, and the importance of how an area was settled to the delivery of medical care, that is, according to
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Closure problem. Christaller's original scheme implies an infinite landscape. Although each market has finite size, the total system has no boundaries to it. Neither
Christaller, nor the early related literature provide any guidance as to how the system can be "contained". Openshaw and Veneris (2003)
813:
For example, orthopedic surgeons are found in ski areas, obstetricians in the suburbs, and boutique specialties such as hypnosis, plastic surgery, psychiatry are more likely to be found in high income areas. It was possible to estimate the size of population (threshold) needed to support a specialty,
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Christaller also erred in the assumption that cities "emerge". In
California and much of the United States, many cities were situated by the railroads at the time the tracks were laid. In California, towns founded by the railroads were 12 miles apart, the amount of track a section crew could maintain
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At the base of the hierarchy pyramid are shopping centres, newsagents etc. which sell low order goods. These centres are small. At the top of the pyramid are centres selling high order goods. These centres are large. Examples for low order goods and services are: newspaper stalls, groceries, bakeries
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Openshaw and
Veneris (2003) succeeded in linking these two major regional theories in a clear and theoretically consistent way: using the data they derived from the operationalization of CPT, they experimented with several SIM. Following a thorough investigation via computer simulation, they reached
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Calculating inter- and intra-zonal costs/distances. Christaller assumed freedom of movement in all directions, which would imply "airline" distances between centres. At the same time, he provided specific road networks for the CP system, which do not allow for airline distances. This is a major flaw
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Newer theoretical developments have shown that it is possible to overcome the static aspect of CPT. Veneris (1984) developed a theoretical model which starts with (a) a system of evenly distributed ("medieval") towns; (b) new economic activities are located in some towns thus causing differentiation
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CPT is often criticized as being "unrealistic". However, several studies show that it can describe existing urban systems. An important issue is that
Christaller's original formulation is incorrect in several ways (Smith). These errors become apparent if we try to make CPT "operational", that is if
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Economic status of consumers in an area is also important. Consumers of higher economic status tend to be more mobile and therefore bypass centers providing only lower order goods. The application of central place theory must be tempered by an awareness of such factors when planning shopping center
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The validity of the place theory may vary with local factors, such as climate, topography, history of development, technological improvement and personal preference of consumers and suppliers. However, it is still possible to discern
Christaller patterns in most distributions of urban centres, even
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In the orderly arrangement of an urban hierarchy, seven different principal orders of settlement have been identified by
Christaller, providing different groups of goods and services. Settlement are regularly spaced - equidistant spacing between same order centers, with larger centers farther apart
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K' 4 transport principle, the market area of a higher-order place includes a half of the market area of each of the six neighbouring lower-order places, as they are located on the edges of hexagons around the high-order settlements. This generates a hierarchy of central places which results in the
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In medical care regions described by Smith, there is a hierarchy of services, with primary care ideally distributed throughout an area, middle sized cities offering secondary care, and metropolitan areas with tertiary care. Income, size of population, population demographics, distance to the next
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The central place theory has been criticized for being static; it does not incorporate the temporal aspect in the development of central places. Furthermore, the theory holds up well when it comes to agricultural areas, but not industrial or postindustrial areas due to their diversified nature of
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Her work is important for the study of physician location—where physicians choose to practice and where their practices will have a sufficient population size to support them. The income level of the population determines whether sufficient physicians will practice in an area and whether public
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The result of these consumer preferences is that a system of centers of various sizes will emerge. Each center will supply particular types of goods forming levels of hierarchy. In the functional hierarchies, generalizations can be made regarding the spacing, size and function of settlements.
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offered there was more important as a measure of the importance of a city in attracting consumers. In applying CPT to describe the delivery of medical care in
California, Smith counted the number of physician specialties to determine the importance of a city in the delivery of medical care.
663:(higher order); district and local shopping centers supply, increasingly, convenience (lower order) goods. These centers provided for in the new town plan are not free from outside competition. The impacts of surrounding existing centers on the new town centers cannot be ignored.
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Another example of the use of CPT was in the delineation of
Medical Care Regions in California. A hierarchy of primary, secondary and tertiary care cities was described, and the population size and income needed to support each medical care specialty in California determined.
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According to Margot Smith, Walter
Christaller erred in his development of CPT in 1930 by using size of population and number of telephones in determining the importance of a city. Smith recognized that although population size was important to the area served by a city, the
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we try to derive numerical data out of the theoretical schemata. These problems have been identified for by
Veneris (1984) and subsequently by Openshaw and Veneris (2003), who provided also theoretically sound and consistent solutions, based on a K=3, 37-centre CP system:
524:= 3, the market area of a higher-order place (node) occupies one-third of the market area of each of the consecutive lower size place (node) that lies on its neighbour; the lower size nodes (6 in numbers and second larger circles) are located at the corner of a largest
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It was once thought that central place theory is not compatible with spatial interaction models (SIM). It is paradoxical however that some times towns or shopping centres are planned with CPT, and subsequently evaluated with SIM.
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is a good example of a K=4 Transport Model Central Place, although it is surrounded by 7, rather than 6, settlements. Each satellite is 10–15 miles from Cambridge and each lies on a major road leading out of Cambridge:
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Purchasing power and density affect the spacing of centers and hierarchical arrangements. Sufficient densities will allow, for example, a grocery store, a lower order function, to survive in an isolated location.
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in the 1850s; larger towns were 60 miles apart, the distance a steam engine could travel before needing water. Older towns were founded a day's horse ride apart by the Spanish priests who founded early missions.
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of the Netherlands provide an isotropic plane on which settlements have developed and in certain areas 6 small towns can be seen surrounding a larger town, especially in the Noord-Oostpolder and Flevoland.
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The higher the order of the goods and services (more durable, valuable and variable), the larger the range of the goods and services, the longer the distance people are willing to travel to acquire them.
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Smith, Margot W. The Distribution of Medical Care in Central California: a Social and Economic Analysis, Thesis, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, 1977 - 1004 pages
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Market area studies provide another technique for using central place theory as a retail location planning tool. The hierarchy of shopping centers has been widely used within the planning of "
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Smith, Margot W. Physician's Specialties and Medical Trade Areas: An Application of Central Place Theory. Papers and Proceedings of Applied Geography Conferences, Vol. 9, West Point NY 1986.
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which neither Christaller, nor early related literature have identified. Openshaw and Veneris (2003) calculate costs/distances which are consistent with the Christallerian principles.
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though these patterns will often be distorted by the terrain or imperfect because of suboptimal (with regard to the optimal distribution of centres) historical development decisions.
498:-values which show how much the sphere of influence of the central places takes in — the central place itself counts as 1 and each portion of a satellite counts as its portion:
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and post offices. Examples for high order goods and services include jewelry, large shopping malls and arcades. They are supported by a much larger threshold population and demand.
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identified three different types of closure, namely (a) isolated state, (b) territorial closure and (c) functional closure. Each closure type implies different population patterns.
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and also to link specialties that needed to cooperate and locate near each other, such as hematology, oncology, and pathology, or cardiology, thoracic surgery and pulmonology.
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As all of the satellite settlements are on transport links, this is a good example of a K=4 CPT model (although in this case it is K=4.5 due to 7 rather than 6 settlements).
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The larger the settlements grow in size, the greater the distance between them, i.e. villages are usually found close together, while cities are spaced much further apart.
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Generating trips. Following the basic Christallerian logic and the closure types identified, Openshaw and Veneris (2003) calculate trip patterns between the 27 centres.
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The distribution of medical care in California followed patterns having to do with the settlement of cities. Cities and their hinterlands having characteristics of the
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Smith, Margot W. A Guide to the Delineation of Medical Care Regions, Medical Trade Areas and Hospital Service Areas. Public Health Reports, 94:3:247 May 1979
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Range is the maximum distance consumers are prepared to travel to acquire goods - at some point the cost or inconvenience will outweigh the need for the good.
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Openshaw S, Veneris Y, 2003, "Numerical experiments with central place theory and spatial interaction modelling" Environment and Planning A 35(8) 1389–1403 (
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He deduced that settlements would tend to form in a triangular/hexagonal lattice, as it is the most efficient pattern to serve areas without any overlap.
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As a settlement increases in size, the number of higher-order services will also increase, i.e. a greater degree of specialization occurs in the services.
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and evolution into a hierarchical ("industrial") city system; (c) further differentiation leads into a post-hierarchical ("postindustrial") city system.
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Smith, Margot W. The Economics of Physician Location, Western Regional Conference, American Association of Geographers, Chicago, Illinois, 1979
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around low value the high-order settlement. Each high-order settlement gets one-third of each satellite settlement (which are 6 in total), thus
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The larger the settlements are in size, the fewer in number they will be, i.e. there are many small villages, but few large cities.
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Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand. They minimize the distance to be travelled
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354:. It was introduced in 1933 to explain the spatial distribution of cities across the landscape. The theory was first analyzed by
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Veneris, Y, 1984, Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modelling, PhD Thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
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service center, all had an influence on the number and kind of specialists located in a population center. (Smith, 1977, 1979)
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than smaller centers. Settlements have hexagonal market areas, and are most efficient in number and functions.
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is the minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a particular good or service.
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no provider of goods or services is able to earn excess profit (each supplier has a monopoly over a hinterland)
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788:'s "tree" city, while (c) is similar to his "lattice" system (following his dictum "the city is not a tree").
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shows settlements in different levels that are consistent with the Central place theory
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The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of
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To develop the theory, Christaller made the following simplifying assumptions:
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Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.
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all settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern
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various services or their varied distribution of natural resources.
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have a similar purchasing power and demand for goods and services.
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post-hierarchical system. Furthermore, stage (b) corresponds to
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The importance of a city and other theoretical considerations
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transport cost is directly proportional to distance travelled
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subsidy is needed to maintain the health of the population.
641:: this limits the extent of market areas in all directions
549:= 3 marketing network the distance traveled is minimized.
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Walter Christaller: Hierarchical Patterns of Urbanization
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Geographical theory of spatial distribution of cities
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The different layouts predicted by Christaller have
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Central place theory and spatial interaction models
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434:The theory then relied on two concepts:
142:This article includes a list of general
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829:Making central place theory operational
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582:= 7 administrative principle
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1234:Conservation development
953:. Routledge. p. 73.
951:Encyclopedia of the City
397:distance decay mechanism
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1905:List of urban theorists
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1311:Transportation planning
1301:Sustainable development
965:"Ăšstav pro archeologii"
885:Demographic gravitation
505:= 3 marketing principle
163:more precise citations.
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949:Caves, R. W. (2004).
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1947:
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1890:Patrick Geddes
1887:
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1870:Kevin A. Lynch
1867:
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1850:Guy Benveniste
1847:
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1827:
1825:Colin Buchanan
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1820:Clarence Stein
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1815:Clarence Perry
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1760:Urban vitality
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1653:Gentrification
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1514:Cities by type
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1069:Urban planning
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1007:External links
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88:citation style
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1591:Urban village
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1570:Model village
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1529:
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1504:Urban renewal
1502:
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1441:Structuralism
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1203:Redevelopment
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861:Gravity model
858:
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844:
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746:
743:
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731:
729:- A1301 south
728:
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719:
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661:durable goods
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633:accessibility
630:
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623:
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619:
615:
611:
604:
602:
600:
597:According to
593:= 7 principle
592:
588:
581:
578:
576:
575:
571:According to
567:= 4 principle
566:
562:
555:
552:
550:
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543:
531:
527:
523:
516:= 3 principle
515:
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107:February 2016
100:
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84:This article
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67:
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58:
57:
52:
51:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
2233:
2210:
2191:
2119:Architecture
2092:Nazi Germany
1900:Thomas Adams
1880:Loretta Lees
1875:Le Corbusier
1845:Edmund Bacon
1810:Andrés Duany
1765:Urbanization
1751:Urban sprawl
1716:Rural flight
1696:Permeability
1691:Model cities
1563:Logging camp
1522:Company town
1436:Smart growth
1426:New Urbanism
1208:Urban design
959:
950:
944:
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868:
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822:
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690:
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477:
473:
455:
439:
435:
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372:
369:
341:geographical
339:is an urban
336:
335:
193:
175:
166:
147:
113:
104:
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
2112:disciplines
1935:Jane Jacobs
1860:James Rouse
1741:Urban decay
1726:Third place
1701:Placemaking
1551:Pit village
1541:Global city
741:- A428 west
711:- A10 north
697:East Anglia
639:Competition
483:Predictions
358:geographer
258:Megalopolis
243:Conurbation
161:introducing
2250:Categories
1855:Ian McHarg
1800:Theorists/
1577:(New town)
1536:Ghost town
1375:Concepts/
1111:Urban area
979:References
905:Zipf's law
778:von ThĂĽnen
645:Technology
605:Evaluation
248:Metropolis
144:references
99:footnoting
50:improve it
2144:Geography
2056:Barcelona
2035:Singapore
2010:Australia
2003:Countries
1617:Cityscape
1384:Movements
759:Criticism
721:Haverhill
715:Newmarket
701:Cambridge
653:new towns
447:Threshold
436:threshold
408:consumers
379:isotropic
169:July 2023
56:talk page
2212:Category
2061:Shanghai
1963:Training
1605:Concepts
1596:Boomtown
1586:Arcology
1558:Man camp
1526:Monotown
1479:Ekistics
1461:Theories
1377:theories
1218:Urbanism
1167:branches
1136:Planning
1131:Land use
1085:Theories
878:See also
782:Löschian
739:St Neots
667:Examples
626:Land use
253:Megacity
220:Ekistics
95:citation
2234:Commons
2110:Related
1923:Critics
1676:LEED-ND
1174:General
1104:General
1095:Outline
1080:History
895:Fractal
745:St Ives
733:Royston
685:polders
537:⁄
526:hexagon
157:improve
2082:Africa
2066:Sydney
2049:Cities
2030:Serbia
2025:Russia
1996:Places
1792:People
1779:Zoning
1662:Infill
1126:Suburb
356:German
344:theory
146:, but
2075:Other
2015:China
1451:YIMBY
1421:NIMBY
1227:Rural
1199:(Eur)
1165:Major
1090:Index
968:(PDF)
922:Notes
631:Poor
440:range
350:in a
271:Lists
1644:(US)
1251:(UK)
1188:(US)
1116:City
859:and
693:Fens
691:The
438:and
406:all
97:and
709:Ely
695:of
442:.
2252::
1772:/
1753:/
1669:/
1655:/
1524:/
930:^
59:.
1061:e
1054:t
1047:v
987:)
970:.
599:K
591:K
580:K
565:K
554:K
547:K
539:3
535:1
530:K
522:K
514:K
503:K
496:K
385:)
325:e
318:t
311:v
200:)
194:(
182:)
176:(
171:)
167:(
153:.
120:)
114:(
109:)
105:(
101:.
91:.
66:)
62:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
