996:
1024:
1179:
903:, which had now developed shrine rooms with Buddha images (easily added to older examples), and largely taken over their function for assemblies. The stupa itself had been replaced as a focus for devotion and meditation by the Buddha image, and in Cave 10, as in other late chaityas (for example Cave 26 at Ajanta, illustrated here), there is a large seated Buddha taking up the front of the stupa. Apart from this, the form of the interior is not much different from the earlier examples from several centuries before. But the form of the windows on the exterior has changed greatly, almost entirely dropping the imitation of wooden architecture, and showing a decorative treatment of the wide surround to the chaitya arch that was to be a major style in later temple decoration.
538:
829:
570:
813:
522:
801:
885:
486:
506:
586:
861:
341:
554:
59:
43:
743:
845:
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31:
174:, either immediately around the stupa, or around the passage behind the columns. On the outside, there is a porch, often very elaborately decorated, a relatively low entranceway, and above this often a gallery. The only natural light, apart from a little from the entrance way, comes from a large horseshoe-shaped window above the porch, echoing the curve of the roof inside. The overall effect is surprisingly similar to smaller Christian churches from the
2602:
185:, a strongly contrasting type of building with a low-ceilinged rectangular central hall, with small cells opening, off it, often on all sides. These often have a shrine set back at the centre of the back wall, containing a stupa in early examples, or a Buddha statue later. The vihara was the key building in Buddhist monastic complexes, used to live, study and pray in. Typical large sites contain several viharas for every chaitya.
789:
2625:
2550:
1111:
1122:, the meaning of the word "chaitya" is different. A Nepalese chaitya is not a building, but a shrine monument that consists of a stupa-like shape on top of a plinth, often very elaborately ornamented. They are typically placed in the open air, often in religious compounds, averaging around four to eight feet in height. They are constructed in the memory of a dead person by his or her family by the
353:
2569:
2484:
2503:
2436:
432:, now entirely lost. A large horseshoe-shaped window, the chaitya-window, was set above the arched doorway and the whole portico-area was carved to imitate a multi-storeyed building with balconies and windows and sculptured men and women who observed the scene below. This created the appearance of an ancient Indian mansion. This, like a similar facade at the
2417:
2710:
2531:
944:
2672:
151:, the original timber ribs survive; elsewhere marks on the ceiling show where they once were. Later, these ribs were rock-cut. Often, elements in wood, such as screens, porches, and balconies, were added to stone structures. The surviving examples are similar in their broad layout, though the design evolved over the centuries.
2691:
2653:
143:. Scholars agree that the standard form follows a tradition of free-standing halls made of wood and other plant materials, none of which has survived. The curving ribbed ceilings imitate timber construction. In the earlier examples, timber was used decoratively, with wooden ribs added to stone roofs. At the
443:
In Bhaja, as in other chaityas, the entrance acted as the demarcation between the sacred and the profane. The stupa inside the hall was now completely removed from the sight of anyone outside. In this context, in the first century CE, the earlier veneration of the stupa changed to the veneration of
395:
Early chaityas enshrined a stupa with space for congregational worship by the monks. This reflected one of the early differences between early
Buddhism and Hinduism, with Buddhism favoring congregational worship in contrast to Hinduism's individual approach. Early chaitya grhas were cut into living
2216:, "In the British Museum we find a Lycian building, the roof of which is clearly the descendant of an ancient South Asian style.", "For this is the so-called "Tomb of Payava" a Graeco-Indian Pallava if ever there was one." in "Masks and metaphysics in the ancient world: an anthropological view" in
407:
The earliest rock-cut chaityas, similar to free-standing ones, consisted of an inner circular chamber with pillars to create a circular path around the stupa and an outer rectangular hall for the congregation of the devotees. Over the course of time, the wall separating the stupa from the hall was
306:
in decoration, and evolved versions continue into Hindu and Jain decoration, long after actual chaitya halls had ceased to be built by
Buddhists. In these cases it can become an elaborate frame, spreading rather wide, around a circular or semi-circular medallion, which may contain a sculpture of a
649:, one of the first instances of a free-standing temple in India. Temple 40 has remains of three different periods, the earliest period dating to the Maurya age, which probably makes it contemporary to the creation of the Great Stupa. An inscription even suggests it might have been established by
657:
hall, probably made of timber. It was burnt down sometime in the 2nd century BCE. Later, the platform was enlarged to 41.76x27.74 metres and re-used to erect a pillared hall with fifty columns (5x10) of which stumps remain. Some of these pillars have inscriptions of the 2nd century BCE.
621:
A number of freestanding constructed chaitya halls built in durable materials (stone or brick) have survived, the earliest from around the same time as the earliest rock-cut caves. There are also some ruins and groundworks, such as a circular type from the 3rd century BCE, the
419:
is perhaps the earliest surviving chaitya hall, constructed in the second century BCE. It consists of an apsidal hall with a stupa. The columns slope inwards in the imitation of wooden columns that would have been structurally necessary to keep a roof up. The ceiling is
606:
1048:, while describing the very progressive evolution from wooden architecture to stone architecture in various ancient civilizations, has commented that "In India, the form and construction of the older Buddhist temples resemble so singularly these examples in Lycia".
661:
The base and reconstructed columns on three sides of Temple 18 at Sanchi were presumably completed by wood and thatch; this dates from the 5th century CE, perhaps rebuilt on earlier foundations. This stands next to Temple 17, a small flat-roofed temple with a lower
1088:. Both Greek and Persian influences can be seen in the reliefs sculpted on the sarcophagus. The structural similarities with Indian Chaityas, down to many architectural details such as the "same pointed form of roof, with a ridge", are further developed in
626:, in which a central stupa was surrounded by 27 octagonal wooden pillars, and then enclosed in a circular brick wall, forming a circular procession path around the stupa. Other significant remains of the bases of structural chaityas including those at
1178:
1166:
chaityas are boundary markers for sacred sites, generally made in sets of four, placed on the site boundary at the four cardinal directions. They generally take a pillar-like form, often topped with a stupa, and are carved on the body.
1092:. Fergusson went on to suggest an "Indian connection", and some form of cultural transfer across the Achaemenid Empire. Overall, the ancient transfer of Lycian designs for rock-cut monuments to India is considered as "quite probable".
2160:
M. Caygill, The
British Museum A-Z compani (London, The British Museum Press, 1999) E. Slatter, Xanthus: travels and discovery (London, Rubicon Press, 1994) A.H. Smith, A catalogue of sculpture in -1, vol. 2 (London, British Museum,
1071:
The Lycian tombs, dated to the 4th century BCE, are either free-standing or rock-cut barrel-vaulted sarcophagi, placed on a high base, with architectural features carved in stone to imitate wooden structures. There are
569:
205:
term for a mound or pedestal or "funeral pile". It is a sacred construction of some sort, and has acquired different more specific meanings in different regions, including "caityavṛkṣa" for a sacred tree.
828:
158:, the act of circumambulating or walking around the stupa, was an important ritual and devotional practice, and there is always clear space to allow this. The end of the hall is thus rounded, like the
537:
521:
1023:
959:
has often been remarked on. These are crude huts built with wicker bent to produce arch-shaped roofs, but the models for the chaitya were presumably larger and much more sophisticated structures.
585:
314:–500), where four horizontal zones of the decoration use repeated "chaitya arch" motifs on an otherwise plain band (two on the projecting porch, and two above). There is a head inside each arch.
812:
653:, the father of Ashoka. The original 3rd century BCE temple was built on a high rectangular stone platform, 26.52x14x3.35 metres, with two flights of stairs to the east and the west. It was an
1098:
David Napier has also proposed a reverse relationship, claiming that the Payava tomb was a descendant of an ancient South Asian style, and that the man named "Payava" may actually have been a
112:
itself, and the Indian buildings are chaitya halls, but this distinction is often not observed. Outside India, the term is used by
Buddhists for local styles of small stupa-like monuments in
995:
689:
structure was probably added from the 6th century CE, when the temple was converted into a Hindu temple. The apsidal structure seems to be contemporary to the great apsidal temple found in
268:
in Hindu texts varies with context and has the general meaning of any "holy place, place of worship", a "memorial", or as signifying any "sanctuary" for human beings, particularly in the
388:, a non-Buddhist religious and philosophical group of the period. According to many scholars, these became "the prototype for the Buddhist caves of the western Deccan", particularly the
910:, of the 7th or 8th century. This is apsidal, with rounded ends at the sanctuary end to a total of three layers: the enclosure to the sanctuary, a wall beyond this, and a pteroma or
2087:
The
Illustrated Handbook of Architecture Being a Concise and Popular Account of the Different Styles of Architecture Prevailing in All Ages and All Countries by James Fergusson
553:
221:
or temples where monks stayed. It also meant where the Jain idol was placed in a temple, but broadly it was a symbolism for any temple. In some texts, these are referred to as
758:
505:
930:
tower, relatively small by later standards, and the mandapa has a flat roof. How long construction of chaitya halls in plant materials continued in villages is not known.
485:
860:
1150:
on the chaitya's four directions, mainly after the twelfth century. They are constructed with beautifully carved stone and mud mortar. They are said to consist of the
844:
726:
162:
in
Western architecture. There are always columns along the side walls, going up to the start of the curved roof, and a passage behind the columns, creating
742:
124:
and elsewhere. In
Thailand a stupa itself, not a stupa hall, is called a chedi, a local Thai word derived from the Pali Cetiya. In the historical texts of
800:
2395:
776:
627:
1716:
1689:
1662:
1537:
1412:
1352:
1290:
1260:
987:), suggests that the designs of the Lycian rock-cut tombs traveled to India, or that both traditions derived from a common ancestral source.
2142:"The Lycian tombs at Pinara and Xanthos, on the south-coast of Asia Minor, were excavated like the early Indian rock-hewn chaitya-hall" in
788:
1797:
1204:
666:
at the front, of the basic type that came to dominate both
Buddhist and Hindu temples in the future. The two types were used in the
2295:
2229:
2066:
1975:
1948:
1918:
1860:
1833:
1743:
1635:
1584:
1382:
1014:
440:
noted in the nineteenth century: "Everywhere ... in India architectural decoration is made up of small models of large buildings".
1758:
2423:
1786:
2815:
2587:
2388:
2355:
2341:
2327:
2309:
1073:
468:
2367:
1064:
present some analogy with the early Indian rock-cut caitya-halls", one of many common elements between Early Indian and
708:
Another Hindu temple which was converted from a
Buddhist chaityagriha structure is the very small Kapoteswara temple at
702:
140:
1450:
1041:
979:, with the Indian architectural design of the Chaitya (starting at least a century later from circa 250 BCE, with the
851:
437:
67:
767:
646:
1472:
or semi-dome, around which the aisle is carried... Fifteen pillars on each side separate the nave from the aisle..."
2820:
154:
The halls are high and long, but rather narrow. At the far end stands the stupa, which is the focus of devotion.
2810:
2735:
2381:
819:
709:
360:; the stupa incorporates a large Buddha statue and there are aisles behind the columns, their walls adorned with
108:
at the end opposite the entrance, and a high roof with a rounded profile. Strictly speaking, the chaitya is the
2302:
Indian Temple
Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries
2195:
An historical inquiry into the true principles of beauty in art, more especially with reference to architecture
479:. Many pillars have capitals on them, often with carvings of a kneeling elephant mounted on bell-shaped bases.
685:
design. This structure is still standing, but is now located at the back of the building, since a flat-roofed
899:, in the first half of the 7th century. By this time the role of the chaitya hall was being replaced by the
335:
884:
2237:
340:
681:. It was initially a free-standing apsidal structure, which is characteristic of early Buddhist apsidal
2412:
1877:
58:
2241:
907:
888:
302:), or chandrashala around the large window above the entrance frequently appears repeated as a small
2740:
1049:
303:
284:
in Sanskrit connotes a "tumulus, sanctuary or shrine", both in Buddhist and non-Buddhist contexts.
277:
51:
2199:
2178:
1252:
Relics, Ritual, and Representation in Buddhism: Rematerializing the Sri Lankan Theravada Tradition
947:
A Toda temple or milk store hut in Nilgiri Hills. Only the priest may enter through the tiny door.
42:
2745:
273:
716:; here the chamber is straight at both ends, but with a rounded brick vault for its roof, using
307:
figure or head. An earlier stage is shown here in the entrance to Cave 19 at the Ajanta Caves (
30:
38:; wooden architecture imitated in stone, with decorative roof timbers in wood. 2nd century BCE.
2608:
2490:
2459:
2351:
2337:
2323:
2313:
2305:
2291:
2225:
2062:
2056:
1971:
1944:
1938:
1914:
1908:
1856:
1850:
1829:
1739:
1712:
1706:
1685:
1658:
1631:
1625:
1580:
1533:
1481:
1408:
1402:
1378:
1348:
1286:
1256:
701:. The front of the apsidal temple is decorated with a chaitya-arch, similar to those found in
674:
610:
1823:
229:, meaning shrines for an Arhat or Jina. Major ancient Jaina archaeological sites such as the
2404:
2091:
2018:
1461:
1143:
923:
678:
476:
472:
377:
93:
63:
2112:
1794:
2620:
2601:
2516:
1801:
1790:
1762:
1214:
1147:
713:
2172:
1151:
2624:
2193:
2705:
2052:
1627:
India: An Archaeological History: Palaeolithic Beginnings to Early Historic Foundations
1446:
1209:
1095:
1085:
1077:
1030:
1010:
1002:
976:
705:. The Trivikrama Temple is considered as the oldest standing structure in Maharashtra.
605:
445:
175:
1755:
2804:
2697:
2659:
1163:
1123:
984:
956:
733:
623:
492:
425:
373:
1783:
2755:
2638:
2549:
2511:
2479:
1139:
1127:
1110:
1065:
667:
464:
460:
421:
357:
322:
Early Chaitya halls are known from the 3rd century BCE. They generally followed an
230:
171:
47:
2085:
951:
The broad resemblance between chaityas and the traditional huts still made by the
237:
show Caitya-tree, Caitya-stupa, Caitya arches with Mahendra-dvajas and meditating
2219:
2145:
2127:
2106:
1965:
1679:
1652:
1574:
1554:
1527:
1372:
1342:
1280:
1250:
906:
The last stage of the freestanding chaitya hall temple may be exemplified by the
2716:
2633:
2537:
2253:
2048:
1454:
980:
952:
698:
576:
560:
512:
456:
433:
416:
345:
238:
148:
144:
35:
645:
has also been dated, at least partially, to the 3rd century BCE: the so-called
2777:
2750:
2568:
2483:
1099:
1061:
972:
911:
352:
260:
is any 'piled up monument' or 'sacred tree' under which to meet or meditate.
2760:
2648:
2597:
2556:
2348:
The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu
2218:
Malik, Subhash Chandra; Arts, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the (2001).
919:
867:
650:
631:
409:
261:
155:
121:
17:
2444:
895:
Apparently the last rock-cut chaitya hall to be constructed was Cave 10 at
2502:
2435:
1599:
918:
with pillars running all round the building. This was the main space for
2678:
2616:
2498:
2431:
927:
595:, the last chaitya hall built, the Buddha image now dominating the stupa.
528:
385:
293:
253:
202:
129:
117:
97:
2370:
compiled by students of School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi
1825:
The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology
2667:
2545:
2526:
2416:
2013:
1185:
1131:
1081:
1057:
1006:
926:. Above the round-ended sanctuary, now a room with a doorway, rises a
749:
686:
663:
654:
638:
614:
323:
234:
210:
125:
2709:
770:
was a 3rd-century BCE apsidal temple, one of the first known in India.
424:
with ancient wooden ribs set into them. The walls are polished in the
2772:
2765:
2686:
2582:
2577:
2454:
1654:
The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion
1219:
1199:
1076:
to the free-standing structures. One of the free-standing tombs, the
1053:
1052:
and others also noted that "Lycian excavated and monolithic tombs at
915:
900:
896:
871:
764:
717:
697:, which is dated to 30 BCE-50 CE. It would have been built under the
694:
690:
642:
592:
544:
496:
449:
429:
381:
361:
182:
88:
2373:
1255:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–38, 89–90 with footnotes.
943:
2530:
2730:
2671:
2564:
2464:
1224:
1135:
1119:
1109:
968:
942:
883:
677:, also named "Ter Temple", is a now a Hindu temple in the city of
604:
351:
339:
249:
163:
113:
109:
101:
57:
41:
29:
2014:
Review: The Art of Indian Asia: Its Mythology and Transformations
2690:
2652:
1469:
1465:
835:
392:
halls excavated between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE.
167:
159:
105:
2377:
2322:, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art,
2469:
2717:
Fire temple or Agiary or Atashkadeh or Atashgah or Dar-e Mehr
1480:, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1977,
1407:. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 147–149 with footnote 150.
50:, also with four zones using small repeated "chaitya arch"
2224:. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. p. 10.
1812:
Buddhist Architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, p.147
178:
period, though early chaityas are many centuries earlier.
92:) refers to a shrine, sanctuary, temple or prayer hall in
2198:. London, Longmans, Brown, Green, and Longmans. pp.
448:. Chaityas were commonly part of a monastic complex, the
372:
hall date to the 3rd century BCE. These are the rock-cut
1940:
Southern India: A Guide to Monuments Sites & Museums
396:
rock as caves. These served as a symbol and sites of a
1344:
Jaina Art and Architecture: Northern and Eastern India
136:
refers to a temple, sanctuary or any sacred monument.
782:
Reconstruction of Sanchi Temple 40 (3rd century BCE).
2723:
2704:
2685:
2666:
2647:
2615:
2596:
2563:
2544:
2525:
2497:
2478:
2430:
2411:
2320:
The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent
1681:
The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent
1396:
1394:
1324:
1279:Robert E. Buswell Jr.; Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013).
527:Chaitya arch around the window, and repeated as a
364:sculptures. A smaller adaption of the Karli model.
1579:. BRILL Academic. pp. 63–72 with footnotes.
455:The most important of rock-cut complexes are the
1244:
1242:
1240:
575:Decorative chaitya arches and lattice railings,
380:and Sudama Cave), excavated during the reign of
368:The earliest surviving spaces comparable to the
326:plan, and were either rock-cut or freestanding.
280:, both professors of Buddhist Studies, the term
139:Most early examples of chaitya that survive are
1730:
1728:
1568:
1566:
1458:
1005:, a Lykian aristocrat, about 375-360 BCE, from
1084:, and dated to 375-360 BCE, is visible at the
2389:
1711:. Oxford University Press. pp. 445–446.
1521:
1519:
866:Excavated remains of a structural chaitya at
511:Rock-cut circular Chaitya hall with pillars,
8:
2336:, 2004, Thames & Hudson (World of Art),
1784:Group of Buddhist Monuments, Guntupalli. ASI
1708:The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism
1336:
1334:
1274:
1272:
428:style. It was faced by a substantial wooden
256:. In early Buddhist and Hindu literature, a
132:, including those relating to architecture,
2008:
2006:
1943:. Roli Books Private Limited. p. 142.
1849:Abram, David; (Firm), Rough Guides (2003).
1427:Michell, 66, 374; Harle, 48, 493; Hardy, 39
1285:. Princeton University Press. p. 161.
850:Conjectural reconstruction of Temple 18 by
181:Chaityas appear at the same sites like the
2396:
2382:
2374:
1366:
1364:
806:The ancient Buddhist chaitya house at Ter.
563:; the umbrella over the stupa is also wood
170:, and allowing ritual circumambulation or
2793:Sorted alphabetically except the last one
2171:Fergusson, James; Burgess, James (1880).
408:removed to create an apsidal hall with a
62:Development of the chaitya arch from the
2132:. Asiatic Society of Bombay. p. 61.
2129:Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay
1630:. Oxford University Press. p. 421.
794:Trivikrama Temple with its chaitya arch.
732:Remains of the circular Chaitya hall in
288:The "chaitya arch" as a decorative motif
264:and other scholars state the meaning of
1559:. P.V. Research Institute. p. 125.
1532:. Abhinav Publications. pp. 9–14.
1236:
1174:
1046:" Illustrated Handbook of Architecture"
722:
481:
298:The "chaitya arch", gavaksha (Sanscrit
209:According to K.L. Chanchreek, in early
2061:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 707.
2043:
2041:
1828:(in Arabic). SAGE Publications India.
1154:— earth, air, fire, water, and space.
1029:Reconstruction drawing of the tomb by
967:The similarity of the 4th century BCE
344:Drawing of the "Great Chaitya" at the
2212:According to David Napier, author of
2080:
2078:
1932:
1930:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1684:. Yale University Press. p. 48.
1619:
1617:
7:
2634:Heathen hof or Germanic pagan temple
2254:"Shikarakuta (small temple) Chaitya"
2108:History of Indian and Indonesian art
1464:in its arrangement; consisting of a
1377:. BRILL Academic. pp. 418–419.
1282:The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism
1184:Cambodian sanctuary marker chaitya,
531:motif with railings, Cave 9, Ajanta.
100:, where it refers to a space with a
2126:Bombay, Asiatic Society of (1974).
2022:, vol. 38, no. 2, 1956, pp. 126–127
1138:, among other people of Nepal. The
748:Relief of a circular chaitya hall,
630:, with many small round bases, and
617:at left was a later Hindu addition.
543:The window at the chaitya Cave 10,
27:Prayer hall from Buddhist tradition
2214:Masks, Transformation, and Paradox
2035:, p. 134, Bharati Book Stall, 1984
1657:. BRILL Academic. pp. 26–27.
1468:and side-aisles terminating in an
1205:Index of Buddhism-related articles
1146:started adding images of the four
25:
2609:Mandi or Mashkhanna or Beth Manda
2144:Joveau-Dubreuil, Gabriel (1976).
2708:
2689:
2670:
2651:
2623:
2600:
2567:
2548:
2538:Jain temple or Derasar or Basadi
2529:
2501:
2482:
2434:
2415:
2334:Art and Architecture of Cambodia
2105:Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1972).
2058:A Global History of Architecture
2055:; Prakash, Vikramaditya (2017).
1970:. South Asia Books. p. 72.
1611:Michell, 69, 342; Harle, 48, 119
1177:
1022:
994:
859:
843:
827:
811:
799:
787:
775:
757:
741:
725:
584:
568:
552:
536:
520:
504:
484:
46:Outside the chaitya at Cave 19,
2177:. London : Allen. p.
1526:Umakant Premanand Shah (1987).
818:Remains of the chaitya hall in
559:Timber ribs on the roof at the
412:around the nave and the stupa.
147:and the "Great Chaitya" of the
2304:, 1995, Abhinav Publications,
1624:Chakrabarty, Dilip K. (2009).
703:Buddhist rock-cut architecture
469:Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
1:
2724:Varying religions and beliefs
1738:. Thames and Hudson: London.
1074:numerous rock-cut equivalents
613:, 1st century BCE; the lower
348:, when built, in about 120 CE
308:
96:. The term is most common in
2445:Buddhist Monastery or Vihāra
1705:Michael K. Jerryson (2017).
834:Sanchi, Temple 18, from the
436:is an early example of what
141:Indian rock-cut architecture
2090:. J. Murray. 1859. p.
1736:Early Buddhist Rock Temples
1445:Michell, 66–67; Harle, 48;
1080:, a Lykian aristocrat from
820:Chejarla Kapoteswara temple
2837:
2368:Evolution of Chaitya Halls
2012:J. Leroy Davidson (1956),
1602:, Encyclopaedia Britannica
1404:The Hindu Temple, Volume 1
838:end. Partly reconstructed.
601:Freestanding chaitya halls
495:, dedicated in 257 BCE by
333:
318:Development of the chaitya
291:
201:meaning "heaped-up", is a
2788:
2236:. David Napier biography
2192:Fergusson, James (1849).
2174:The cave temples of India
1913:. Grafikol. p. 237.
1401:Stella Kramrisch (1946).
1347:. Shree. pp. 21–22.
1305:Michell, 66–67; Harle, 48
1090:The cave temples of India
2698:Taoist temple or Dàoguàn
2332:Jessup, Helen Ibbetson,
1937:Michell, George (2013).
1852:The Rough Guide to India
1553:Mohan Lal Mehta (1969).
1453:on the Great Chaitya at
1341:K.L. Chanchreek (2004).
1114:Nepalese form of chaitya
971:barrel-vaulted tombs of
2517:Balinese temple or Pura
2424:Baháʼí House of Worship
2350:, 1989, Penguin Books,
1967:Buddhism in South India
1876:Marshall, John (1955).
1822:Singh, Upinder (2016).
1678:James C. Harle (1994).
1651:Pia Brancaccio (2010).
1460:"It resembles an early
880:End of the chaitya hall
491:Rock-cut hall, Sudama,
356:The chaitya Cave 26 at
336:Buddhist caves in India
2660:Shinto Shrine or Jinja
2512:Hindu temple or Mandir
1907:Le, Huu Phuoc (2010).
1573:M. Sparreboom (1985).
1486:
1249:Kevin Trainor (1997).
1115:
1060:on the south coast of
948:
892:
618:
591:Stupa inside Cave 10,
365:
349:
330:Rock-cut chaitya halls
193:"Caitya", from a root
71:
55:
39:
2816:Buddhist architecture
2150:. Akshara. p. 4.
1910:Buddhist Architecture
1113:
946:
891:, 7th or 8th century.
887:
608:
400:congregational life (
355:
343:
61:
45:
33:
2286:Dehejia, V. (1997).
2273:Jessup, 109–110, 209
1964:Ahir, D. C. (1992).
1734:Dehejia, V. (1972).
1576:Chariots in the Veda
1504:Harle (1994), 26, 48
908:Durga temple, Aihole
889:Durga temple, Aihole
34:An early chaitya at
2290:. Phaidon: London.
2221:Mind, Man, and Mask
1774:Quoted in Hardy, 18
1050:Ananda Coomaraswamy
985:Barabar caves group
854:(now dated earlier)
670:by both religions.
66:on, from a book by
2053:Jarzombek, Mark M.
2049:Ching, Francis D.K
1800:2014-09-26 at the
1789:2013-12-30 at the
1761:2013-08-10 at the
1756:ASI, "Bhaja Caves"
1371:Jan Gonda (1980).
1327:. 17 January 2023.
1188:style, c. 975–1010
1116:
949:
893:
736:, 3rd century BCE.
619:
366:
350:
72:
56:
40:
2821:Newa architecture
2798:
2797:
2557:Synagogue or Shul
2460:Shaolin Monastery
2405:Places of worship
2346:Michell, George,
2312:, 9788170173120,
1718:978-0-19-936238-7
1691:978-0-300-06217-5
1664:978-90-04-18525-8
1539:978-81-7017-208-6
1529:Jaina Iconography
1414:978-81-208-0223-0
1354:978-81-88658-51-0
1292:978-1-4008-4805-8
1262:978-0-521-58280-3
1102:named "Pallava".
675:Trivikrama Temple
611:Trivikrama Temple
579:, 1st century BCE
515:, 1st century BCE
274:Robert E. Buswell
16:(Redirected from
2828:
2811:Buddhist temples
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2147:Vedic antiquites
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2031:Narayan Sanyal,
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2019:The Art Bulletin
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1855:. Rough Guides.
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1462:Christian church
1443:
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1418:
1398:
1389:
1388:
1368:
1359:
1358:
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1314:Harle (1994), 48
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1303:
1297:
1296:
1276:
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1266:
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1144:Kathmandu Valley
1026:
998:
924:circumambulation
863:
847:
831:
815:
803:
791:
779:
761:
752:, circa 100 BCE.
745:
729:
679:Ter, Maharashtra
609:Chaitya hall in
588:
572:
556:
540:
524:
508:
488:
477:Pandavleni Caves
473:Aurangabad Caves
378:Lomas Rishi Cave
313:
310:
250:Vedic literature
94:Indian religions
78:, chaitya hall,
64:Lomas Rishi Cave
21:
2836:
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2825:
2801:
2800:
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2794:
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2621:modern paganism
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2069:
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2033:Immortal Ajanta
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1879:Guide to Sanchi
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278:Donald S. Lopez
272:. According to
248:appears in the
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1078:tomb of Payava
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2756:Sacred space
2741:Architecture
2639:Magic circle
2480:Christianity
2449:
2413:Baháʼí Faith
2347:
2333:
2319:
2314:google books
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2258:. Retrieved
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1117:
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950:
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707:
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660:
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465:Ellora Caves
461:Ajanta Caves
454:
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231:Kankali Tila
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172:pradakhshina
153:
138:
133:
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82:, (Sanskrit:
79:
75:
73:
48:Ajanta Caves
18:Chaityagriha
1495:Michell, 67
1455:Karla Caves
981:Lomas Rishi
953:Toda people
914:as an open
852:Percy Brown
699:Satavahanas
683:caityagriha
577:Bedse Caves
561:Karla Caves
513:Tulja Caves
457:Karla Caves
434:Bedse Caves
417:Bhaja Caves
346:Karla Caves
227:jina-caitya
149:Karla Caves
145:Bhaja Caves
68:Percy Brown
36:Bhaja Caves
2805:Categories
2778:Sun temple
2751:Cult image
2356:0140081445
2342:050020375X
2328:0300062176
2310:8170173124
2288:Indian Art
2281:References
2260:2012-04-24
2111:. p.
1991:Harle, 132
1148:Tathagatas
1062:Asia Minor
1040:Early on,
973:Asia Minor
912:ambulatory
718:corbelling
628:Guntupalle
334:See also:
312: 475
2761:Sanctuary
2649:Shintoism
2598:Mandaeism
1152:Mahābhūta
1044:, in his
939:Toda huts
934:Parallels
920:parikrama
868:Lalitgiri
768:Temple 40
651:Bindusara
647:Temple 40
632:Lalitgiri
410:colonnade
262:Jan Gonda
244:The word
189:Etymology
156:Parikrama
122:Indonesia
2679:Gurdwara
2617:Paganism
2499:Hinduism
2432:Buddhism
1798:Archived
1787:Archived
1759:Archived
1475:—
1449:quoting
1194:See also
1158:Cambodia
928:Shikhara
710:Chezarla
547:, c. 650
529:gavaksha
475:and the
402:uposatha
386:Ajivikas
294:gavaksha
254:Hinduism
219:ayatanas
203:Sanskrit
130:Hinduism
118:Cambodia
98:Buddhism
86:; Pāli:
2668:Sikhism
2588:Gongbei
2546:Judaism
2527:Jainism
2450:Chaitya
1325:"Chedi"
1186:Khleang
1171:Gallery
1142:of the
1132:Gurungs
1124:Sherpas
1082:Xanthos
1058:Xanthos
1015:Room 20
1007:Xanthos
955:of the
874:, India
750:Bharhut
687:mandapa
664:mandapa
655:apsidal
639:apsidal
615:mandapa
426:Mauryan
390:chaitya
370:chaitya
324:apsidal
300:gavākṣa
235:Mathura
134:chaitya
126:Jainism
76:chaitya
2773:Temple
2766:Shrine
2746:Asylum
2687:Taoism
2619:&
2583:Dargah
2578:Mosque
2491:Church
2455:Pagoda
2354:
2340:
2326:
2308:
2294:
2228:
2065:
1974:
1947:
1917:
1859:
1832:
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1688:
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1634:
1600:Caitya
1583:
1536:
1411:
1381:
1351:
1289:
1259:
1220:Pagoda
1200:Cetiya
1136:Newars
1128:Magars
1054:Pinara
969:Lycian
916:loggia
901:vihara
897:Ellora
872:Odisha
765:Sanchi
695:Taxila
691:Sirkap
643:Sanchi
593:Ellora
545:Ellora
497:Ashoka
450:vihara
430:facade
398:sangha
382:Ashoka
362:relief
358:Ajanta
282:caitya
266:caitya
258:caitya
246:caitya
215:caitya
183:vihara
164:aisles
89:Cetiya
84:Caitya
52:motifs
2791:Note:
2731:Altar
2565:Islam
2465:Stupa
2202:–320.
2161:1900)
1482:p.225
1231:Notes
1225:Stupa
1120:Nepal
1106:Nepal
1068:art.
304:motif
233:near
217:mean
114:Nepal
110:stupa
102:stupa
2736:Cult
2352:ISBN
2338:ISBN
2324:ISBN
2306:ISBN
2292:ISBN
2242:here
2240:and
2238:here
2226:ISBN
2063:ISBN
1972:ISBN
1945:ISBN
1915:ISBN
1857:ISBN
1830:ISBN
1740:ISBN
1713:ISBN
1686:ISBN
1659:ISBN
1632:ISBN
1581:ISBN
1534:ISBN
1470:apse
1466:nave
1409:ISBN
1379:ISBN
1349:ISBN
1287:ISBN
1257:ISBN
1056:and
1001:The
836:apse
673:The
276:and
211:Jain
195:cita
168:nave
160:apse
128:and
106:apse
2470:Wat
2200:316
2179:120
2092:212
1118:In
922:or
712:in
637:An
404:).
252:of
225:or
197:or
2807::
2113:12
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2016:,
2005:^
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