297:, and as a result had experienced a period of strength and power throughout the Dynasty's existence. Following its defeat and disintegration the Sanhaja were left divided and weak. The more aggressive and warlike of the Sanhaja clans dominated the smaller and weaker groups, demanding tribute. Some of the weaker groups, having failed to preserve their independence, turned away from violence and instead devoted themselves to Islamic learning and piety. These groups became known as the Zawaya, or Maraboutic tribes. A relationship then formed between stronger warrior clans, who cared little for Islam, and the pious Zawaya. Arab nomads known as the Hassan later arrived in the south-western Saharan region in the 15th century and proceeded to dominate. A Moorish society then developed, consisting of the Hassan, the Zawaya, and the Lahma; client groups subservient to both the Hassan and the Zawaya.
381:. Nasr went by numerous self-appointed titles, such as Sayyiduna (our master), Imamund (our Imam), and Mushi al-Din (he who spreads the faith), before finally settling on Nasir al-Din (protector of the faith). Nasr demanded the loyalty of all of the Zawaya, forcing every Zawaya leader to swear allegiance to him. His government was composed of himself, a Vizier, and 4 Qadi's, and tasked itself with enforcing order in the southern Sudan, known as Qibla. Nasr set himself the goals of fighting those who he believed had neglected Islam and oppressed Muslims, uniting the various groups of the region in a single state, and creating a new and divinely guided order.
564:
had to accommodate passing
Hassani for three days. The Zawaya were also broken up as a group amongst the Hassani, with each Hassani group having its own Zawaya. In general however the conditions endured by the Zawaya differed little from those experienced before the war. Although defeated, the war had the result of adding militancy to the Zawaya religious teaching, which in turn spread to neighbouring countries in the
490:
negotiate. An agreement was reached between the Hassan and the Zawaya whereby the Hassan would recognise the spiritual authority of the Zawaya Imam, and in return the Imam would give up all political claims, including his ability to levy zakat. However the majority of the Zawaya, who still followed the militarism of Nasr ad-Din, were opposed to any compromising with the Hassan, and deposed al-Amin. The Zawaya elected
521:
469:
Sahara sided with Nasr, although some remained neutral, and others supported the Hassan, with a Zawaya scholar from
Shinqit issuing a fatwa against Nasr, stating that he was not a Caliph and had no right to impose the zakat. This fatwa led to Hãdi, the Trarza chief, sending troops to seize animals that had already been sent as zakat.
377:. Nasr had begun his preaching by calling for repentance, but as his movement grew amongst his tribe, the Banu Dayman, and amongst wider Zawaya society, Nasr began calling for the formation of an Islamic state. The state that Nasr advocated would be above tribal and ethnic tensions and would resemble the ideal society of the early
309:
was depriving Moors of the slave labour they had relied on for centuries as well as the cereals from the agriculturalists along the
Senegal. The nomadic desert groups north of the Senegal were heavily reliant on these cereals for survival. Berber society was then caught between the southern movement
563:
As a result of their absolute defeat the Zawaya relinquished all claims to political or military authority and paid tribute to the Hassan for their protection. Hassani warriors were given the right to drink the milk from Zawaya herds and access to a third of the water from Zawaya wells. Zawaya also
641:
With their victory the Trarza and Brakna Moors became active and permanent fixtures of the
Senegambian political mix, exerting constant military pressure on their neighbors to the south and dominating the lucrative gum trade. With the traditional Wolof and Fula aristocracy re-entrenched, the slave
501:
In
Senegal the marabout movement had brought practically all commerce at Saint-Louis to a standstill. As the Zawaya grip loosened, the French found opportunities to militarily reinforce the deposed monarchies. With their support Yerim Kode betrayed the Muslims, and soon Jolof, Cayor, and Futa Toro
468:
The Hassan were united in their opposition to Nasr. Most of the burden of fighting fell to the
Emirate of Trarza, although the Emirate of Brakna sent Trarza reinforcements and helped immobilise Zawaya in their own regions to prevent them from joining the forces of Nasr. Most Zawaya of the Southern
300:
Successive
Hassani rulers exerted pressure on the Zawaya, demanding tribute. The tribute was ostensibly payment for protection, however the Hassan were often either incapable or unwilling to protect their clients, resulting in Zawaya commerce and agriculture being frequently disrupted by raids and
497:
Uthman revived the policy of militarism and non-negotiation with the Hassan. He also reintroduced the zakat, which he demanded from weaker tribes and factions. These weaker groups resisted, joining together and seeking the support of Hadi. Hadi's forces then proceeded to wipe out the Zawaya's tax
304:
Tensions between the Hassan and the Zawaya had also been exacerbated by an economic crisis; the two groups had previously complemented each other, with the Hassan being largely nomadic, whilst the Zawaya were agriculturalists along the
Senegal. The French had established a trading post on the
489:
Following Nasr's death the Zawaya elected al-Faqih al-Amin. al-Amin had been born Sidi al-Fadil, and was descended from Zawaya employed by the Hassan chiefs. It was therefore hoped that al-Amin would be able to bring the Hassan to terms, who having been beaten in three battles, were ready to
950:
642:
trade boomed and wars and raiding between the kingdoms became endemic. The lower classes bore the brunt of both the attacks from
Mauritania and the slave raids, and increasingly turned to Islam as a potential political counterweight to the established regimes.
498:
collecting expedition. Uthman was in turn killed fighting the Wolof, and was succeeded by a string of 3 Imams including Munir ad-Din, Nasir ad-Din's brother. The
Imamate was eventually defeated by the combined forces of the Hassan and the rebelling tribes.
404:
for the gum trade along the Senegal. French river trade had grown massively since the beginning of the century, so control of the entrepôts strengthened Nasr financially while offsetting Hassaniya control the ports on the Saharan coast.
653:. The Marabout war inspired an increasingly militant tone of Islamic preaching and created links between Berber and Torodbe groups, both of which helped set in motion and invigorate internal conflicts that would eventually lead to the
465:, to help him resist Nasr ad-Din. Tradition maintains that the war between Nasr ad-Din and Trarza broke out as a result of the Bubba's call for help from Trarza, resulting in the war being called Shurbubba, or "the war of Bubba."
359:
who was among a group of invaders of Futa Toro. The Torodbe may well have already been a distinct group when the Denianke conquered Futa Toro in the early 1500s. The Torodbe clerical clans supported Nasr against the aristocracy.
273:, in Western Sahara). Al Aroussi, with his two sons Shanan Al Aroussi and Sidi Tounsi Al Aroussi, led a powerful force of the Hassani tribe, the Aroussi Army, to conquer the Berber Imarat in current Mauritania and gain access to
393:, restrict themselves to four wives, and stop pillaging and enslaving their own subjects. These entreaties, sent to rulers who alreadt identified as Muslims, were ignored, and preaching turned to violent conquest.
480:
positioned just north of the mouth of the Senegal river. The Zawaya were victorious in all three of the battles, but Nasr was killed in the final battle in August 1674 along with many of his closest followers.
408:
With the promise to end endemic raiding and the large-scale export of slaves (though not slavery itself), the movement became a revolution, with local Muslims and the peasantry flocking to al-Din's banner. In
301:
general insecurity. The Hassan were thus seen as legitimate targets for jihad, given that they were seen as failing to oblige their obligations under Islam, even though they remained nominally Muslim.
305:
Atlantic at Saint-Louis in 1659, and this was in turn pulling the trade along the Senegal towards the Atlantic, disrupting the traditional trade along the Senegal. In particular the monopoly of
1332:
389:
Nasr's movement began as a movement for Islamic reform and renewal. He sent emissaries and preachers to the Senegambian royal courts to demand they more closely follow the tenets of
606:, when France imposed itself militarily on all tribes, and so broke the power of the Hassane. Still, the traditional roles of the tribes remain important socially in these areas.
445:. When the successor, chosen by Yacine Bubu, was in turn caught drinking alcohol and killed by the clerics, she and her faction within the ruling class looked to the king of
571:
The war ended in defeat for the Berber tribes, and they were from that point on forced to surrender their arms and submit to the warrior Arab tribes, to whom they paid the
351:, later spreading throughout the Fulbe territories. Two of the Torodbe clans in Futa Toro claimed to be descended from a seventh century relative of one of the
1063:
373:
A Zawaya scholar, born as Ashfaga but also known as Awbek, began to gain prominence amongst the Zawaya, eventually being known by just his title:
417:, and the marabouts, led by Ennahouy Abdilby, quickly gained control. Strengthened with Torodbe recruits, Nasr's army overwhelmed and killed the
1286:
pupils who supported themselves in that way. The label of begging was likely applied by the Denanke court who made fun of the Muslim underclass.
1230:
1203:
1176:
779:
1327:
1155:
868:
737:
1337:
1322:
1347:
494:
Uthman as his replacement. Uthman had previously served as Nasr al-Din's Vizier and had been one of his closest companions.
341:
were all complicit in the ongoing manhunts and economic and social dislocations. A class of Muslim scholars called the
433:, where a man named Suranko was, according to legend, miraculously cured of blindness and then enthroned as ruler. In
1220:
461:
on the tributary tribes north of the Senegal river. One of these tributary tribes, the Bubba, called on Hadi, the
269:
The war was led by Sidi Ibrahim Al Aroussi, son of the famous Cheikh Sidi Ahmed Al Aroussi (died in 1593, near to
472:
The ensuing conflict saw the forces of Nasr and those of Hãdi clash in three battles; the first near the port of
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149:
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Arab warriors and Berber marabouts, plus the subordinate znaga, existed in Mauritania up until the
543:
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28:
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Even more important was that the Arab victory brought about widespread cultural and linguistic
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Nasr then turned his attention to strengthening the rule of his Islamic state, and imposed the
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Nasr avoided an early confrontation with the powerful Hassan and also gained control of the
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56:
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General History of Africa Vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century
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441:, allied with Ndiaye Sall and the marabout party to overthrow and kill the reigning
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425:, Fara Kumba Mbodj, replacing him with a puppet, Yerim Kode, who took the title of
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In the wake of their defeat, some Torodbe migrated south to found the state of
951:"The Lingeer's Jihad: Challenging a Male-Normative Reading of African History"
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tributary tax. They would remain in roles as either exploited semi-sedentary
429:, meaning 'master of prayer.' Al Fadel ibn Abu Yadel led the invasion of the
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Berber tribal confederation had played a key role in the formation of the
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dialect of the Beni Hassan. It is still spoken as the main language in
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and other Berber tongues to the Arabic language, in the form of the
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Klein, Martin A. (2005). "Futa-Tooro: Early Nineteenth Century".
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the population rose massively against the rule of the Denianke
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Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad: The Precolonial State of Bundu
732:. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 11.
514:
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of the Hassan Arabs and the loss of trade due to Saint-Louis.
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484:
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tribes), or, higher up on the social ladder, as religious (
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Fage, J.D.; Gray, Richard; Oliver, Roland Anthony (2003).
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tribes and Muslim populations in the river valley, led by
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Mauritania and Western Sahara, as well as in parts of
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were also back in the hands of their former rulers.
485:
Nasr's succession and downfall of the Islamic state
258:, as well as the traditional aristocracies of the
325:had created a profound crisis. The rulers of the
1333:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa
863:. University of California Press. p. 141.
21:
1282:, meaning to beg for alms in reference to the
1225:. Vol. 1. Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 541.
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1018:
929:
843:
8:
1139:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
771:The Atlantic World and Virginia: 1550 – 1624
254:immigrant tribes, foremost of which was the
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214:, took place between 1644 and 1677 in the
18:
1147:The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4
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449:for armed support against the marabouts.
613:, with Berber tribes surrendering their
321:states of the Senegal river valley, the
1278:The name "Torodbe" comes from the verb
1271:
1137:Senegambia and the Atlantic slave trade
718:
396:By focusing on the states south of the
476:and the second near the salt mines of
262:states on the other, supported by the
1106:
1091:
1035:
997:
898:
828:
774:. UNC Press Books. pp. 151–152.
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7:
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1068:Library of Congress Country Studies
807:Library of Congress Country Studies
16:War in north-west Africa, 1644–1674
364:The Jihad of Nasr ad-Din 1673–1674
230:valley. It was fought between the
14:
1165:Gomez, Michael A. (2002-07-04).
887:Overview of Fuuta Tooro - Jamtan
595:) tribes. This division between
519:
82:of Mauritania and Western Sahara
1222:Encyclopedia of African History
1195:The Cambridge History of Africa
649:and others continued on to the
1198:. Cambridge University Press.
1171:. Cambridge University Press.
1150:. Cambridge University Press.
1:
803:"Mauritania – Arab Invasions"
768:Peter Cooper Mancall (2007).
726:Robert Earl Handloff (1990).
205:Mauritanian Thirty Years' War
195:(variously transliterated as
1192:Gray, Richard (1975-09-18).
1051:Fage, Gray & Oliver 2003
1019:Fage, Gray & Oliver 2003
930:Fage, Gray & Oliver 2003
844:Fage, Gray & Oliver 2003
542:or discuss the issue on the
369:Proselytizing of Nasr ad-Din
949:Thomas, Douglas H. (2021).
729:Mauritania: a country study
637:In the Senegal river valley
347:seem to have originated in
281:", in Senegal and Mali).
1394:
534:towards certain viewpoints
437:, Yacine Bubu, the former
1328:Wars involving Mauritania
1248:"Overview of Fuuta Tooro"
859:Ogot, Bethwell A (1999).
143:
92:
34:
26:
1135:Barry, Boubacar (1998).
247:, on one hand; and the
218:areas of what is today
176:Sidi Ibrahim Al Aroussi
1338:17th century in Africa
1323:17th-century conflicts
279:the Land of the Blacks
184:Sidi Tounsi Al Aroussi
144:Commanders and leaders
1348:Berbers in Mauritania
203:), also known as the
1064:"Mauritania – Moors"
708:References and notes
323:Atlantic slave trade
970:10.1017/hia.2021.10
540:improve the article
453:War with the Hassan
1094:, p. 541-542.
700:Successors of the
226:as well as in the
29:the General Crisis
1232:978-1-57958-245-6
1205:978-0-521-20413-2
1178:978-0-521-52847-4
958:History in Africa
781:978-0-8078-3159-5
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295:Almoravid dynasty
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180:Shanan Al Aroussi
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1082:
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1079:
1070:. Archived from
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1016:
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743:
723:
577:agriculturalists
556:
553:
547:
523:
522:
515:
431:Kingdom of Jolof
327:Denianke kingdom
169:
158:
36:
35:
19:
1393:
1392:
1388:
1387:
1386:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1368:1670s in Africa
1363:1660s in Africa
1358:1650s in Africa
1353:1640s in Africa
1318:1670s conflicts
1313:1660s conflicts
1308:1650s conflicts
1303:1640s conflicts
1293:
1292:
1291:
1290:
1284:Qur'anic school
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1098:
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1062:
1061:
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1053:, pp. 202.
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1021:, pp. 201.
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1004:
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982:
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953:
948:
947:
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932:, pp. 200.
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846:, pp. 199.
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5:
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1378:1674 in Africa
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1373:1644 in Africa
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1343:Berber history
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1121:, p. 206.
1111:
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1038:, pp. 53.
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1002:
1000:, pp. 52.
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913:, p. 205.
903:
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758:, pp. 50.
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686:Western Sahara
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220:Mauritania
53:Mauritania
1266:Footnotes
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978:246702643
911:Gray 1975
713:Citations
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581:fishermen
544:talk page
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1240:2013
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