1370:. They do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes, and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called tribes of the United States or British India provide good examples of this). The British favored the label "aboriginal tribe" for some communities.
189:
1240:, Fried provided numerous examples of tribes that encompassed members who spoke different languages and practiced different rituals, or who shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes in which people followed different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries, heterogeneity and dynamism, and are not parochial.
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persuasive. These communities were to have seats in the legislatures and positions in government employment 'reserved' for them. Each of the assembly members prepared a list of communities that deserved special protections. These names were listed in a "Schedule" (appendix) to the
Constitution. So these came to be called the 'Scheduled Tribes', often abbreviated to ST.
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Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would
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continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to coordinate production and distribution of food in times
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Part of the difficulty with the term is that it seeks to construct and apply a common conceptual framework across diverse cultures and peoples. Different anthropologists studying different peoples therefore draw conflicting conclusions about the nature, structure and practices of tribes. Writing on
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In fact, there is no absolute necessity for a tribal stage as defined by
Sahlins and Service, no necessity, that is, for such a stage to appear in the transit from a single settlement with embedded political organization, to a complex-state structured polity. Such a developmental process could have
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India adopted a republican constitution in 1950, after three years of debate in its
Constituent Assembly. During the debate, Jaipal Singh, a member of Munda tribe from Central India advocated for special provisions for the 'Adibasi' -- a translation into Hindi of 'aboriginal'. His arguments proved
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The tribe, a long respected category of analysis in anthropology, has recently been the object of some scrutiny by anthropologists ... Doubts about the utility of the tribe as an analytical category have almost certainly arisen out of the rapid involvement of peoples, even in the remotest parts of
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and defending territory, with these being replaced by states functions and institutions, such as taxation, law courts and the military. Most have suffered decline and loss of cultural identity. Some have adapted to the new political context and transformed their culture and practices in order to
927:. Its definition is contested, in part due to conflicting theoretical understandings of social and kinship structures, and also reflecting the problematic application of this concept to extremely diverse human societies. The concept is often contrasted by anthropologists with other social and
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the globe, in political, economic and sometimes direct social relationship with industrial nations. The doubts, however, are based ultimately on the definition and meaning which different scholars give to the term 'tribe', its adjective 'tribal', and its abstract form 'tribalism'.
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Fried proposed that most surviving tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, developed as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak
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gone on within a unit that we may conceptualize as a city-state, such a unit as
Jericho might have become in its later stages ⊠tribalism can be viewed as reaction to the formation of complex political structure rather than a necessary preliminary stage in its evolution.
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Tribes are therefore considered to be a political unit formed from an organisation of families (including clans and lineages) based on social or ideological solidarity. Membership of a tribe may be understood as being based on factors such as
951:. These terms are similarly disputed. In some cases tribes have legal recognition and some degree of political autonomy from national or federal government, but this legalistic usage of the term may conflict with anthropological definitions.
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the
Kurdish peoples, anthropologist Martin van Bruinessen argued, "the terms of standard anthropological usage, 'tribe', 'clan' and 'lineage' appear to be a straitjacket that ill fits the social reality of Kurdistan".
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Considerable debate has accompanied efforts to define and characterize tribes. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a primordial social structure from which all subsequent civilizations and states developed.
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The term "tribe" was in common use in the field of anthropology until the late 1950s and 1960s. The continued use of the term has attracted controversy among anthropologists and other academics active in the
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because tribal peoples have a special status acknowledged in international law as well as problems in addition to those faced by the wider category of indigenous peoples."
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1925:, Cornell University Press. Chapter 12, beginning on p. 276, explores the meaning of the word origin and social context of a tribe in ancient Greece and beyond.
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Few tribes today remain isolated from the development of the modern state system. Tribes have lost their legitimacy to conduct traditional functions, such as
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Despite the membership boundaries for a tribe being conceptually simple, in reality they are often vague and subject to change over time. In his 1975 study,
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There are further negative connotations of the term "tribe" that have reduced its use. Writing in 2013, scholar
Matthew Ortoleva noted that "like the word
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Robert J. McCarthy, The Bureau of Indian
Affairs and the Federal Trust Obligation to American Indians, 19 BYU J. PUB. L. 1 (December, 2004)
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argued in 1967 that bands organized into tribes in order to resist the violence and exploitation of early kingdoms and states. He wrote:
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Mitchell, Clyde J. (1970). "Tribe and Social Change in South
Central Africa: A Situational Approach" in Gutkind, Peter C. W. Editor.
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have a leadership that could co-ordinate economic production and military activities.
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Proceedings, American
Ethnological Society. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
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Agha, shaikh, and state : the social and political structures of Kurdistan
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of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus.
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research challenging the utility of the concept. In 1970, anthropologist
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Indian Land Tenure: Bibliographical Essays and a Guide to the Literature
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1174:("race"), language, dwelling place, political group, religious beliefs,
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1889:"Relating Global Tensions: Modern Tribalism and Postmodern Nationalism"
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The Evolution of Political Society: An Essay in Political Anthropology
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Ortoleva, Matthew (2013). "We Face East" in Goggin, Peter N. Editor.
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1932:. Clearwater, NY: Tribe. pp. 101â02, 180â82, 186â87, 191â93.
1761:(paperback ed.). New York: Harper Collins. pp. 126â128.
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survive, whilst others have secured legal rights and protections.
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India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy
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Primitive social organization : an evolutionary perspective
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Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages
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for societies in all human cultures, based on the evolution of
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33:"Tribals" redirects here. For the ancient Thracian tribe, see
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is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of
1947:
1826:, translated by Elizabeth Palmer. London: Faber and Faber.
1876:
Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In
1121:. This system of classification contains four categories:
1079:('rendered in three, tripartite division'; compare with
1005:) or if the form is a result of borrowing directly from
1786:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 720â724.
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says "It is important to make the distinction between
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groups, being hierarchically larger than a lineage or
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1250 may be a direct representation of Latin plural
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1985:
111:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1842:Origines de la formation des noms en indo-européen
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1255:is a word that has connotations of colonialism."
919:. The predominant worldwide usage of the term in
1420:Federally recognized tribes in the United States
1137:Tribal societies with some limited instances of
1198:
1784:The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Constitution
1963:
1718:Environmental Rhetoric and Ecologies of Place
904:at Bzheta in Shkreli territory, Albania, 1908
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26:"Tribal" redirects here. For other uses, see
8:
1535:
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1937:Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice
1309:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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1041:to be a compound formed from two elements:
1032:
1018:
984:
74:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1970:
1956:
1948:
1935:Renfrew, Colin & Paul G. Bahn (2008).
1653:. New York: Random House. pp. 169â70.
962:relationship with the federal government.
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854:
796:Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems
262:
1912:
1329:Learn how and when to remove this message
251:Learn how and when to remove this message
233:Learn how and when to remove this message
171:Learn how and when to remove this message
1385:of North America, tribes are considered
1340:
891:
196:This article includes a list of general
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816:Political and Legal Anthropology Review
276:
1742:"Terminology - Survival International"
1349:, around the start of the 21st century
982:, which ultimately derives from Latin
472:Societies without hierarchical leaders
7:
1583:participating institution membership
1307:adding citations to reliable sources
109:adding citations to reliable sources
1665:The Passing of Tribal Man in Africa
1824:Indo-European Language and Society
202:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
1206:Controversy and usage deprecation
1057:, a verbal root meaning 'to be'.
790:Political economy in anthropology
55:This article has multiple issues.
1605:. Leiden · Boston. p. 629.
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187:
85:
44:
1864:Essays on the Problem of Tribe,
1851:. Cummings Publishing Company.
1694:Bruinessen, Martin van (1992).
96:needs additional citations for
63:or discuss these issues on the
1939:. New York: Thames and Hudson
1684:. Cummings Publishing Company
1626:Service, Elman Rogers (1962).
652:Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges
1:
823:Journal of Legal Anthropology
491:The Art of Not Being Governed
1879:. London: Sage Publications.
1541:"FAQ About Native Americans"
1923:Greek Mythology and Poetics
1068:is held to derive from the
1009:(the Middle English plural
2987:
2339:Countries by ethnic groups
2334:Contemporary ethnic groups
1755:Guha, Ramachandra (2008).
974:stems from Middle English
829:Journal of Law and Society
549:Colonialism and resistance
32:
25:
18:
1862:Helm, June, ed., (1968).
1847:Fried, Morton H. (1975).
1649:Fried, Morton H. (1967).
1570:Oxford English Dictionary
992:Oxford English Dictionary
503:Non-western state systems
479:African Political Systems
1782:Choudhry, Sujit (2016).
1680:Morton H. Fried (1972).
1147:tribal societies led by
1111:system of classification
970:The modern English word
960:government-to-government
923:is in the discipline of
2451:Torres Strait Islanders
2296:Ethnopsychopharmacology
2040:In-group and out-groups
1575:Oxford University Press
1517:Twelve Tribes of Israel
1238:The Notion of the Tribe
1012:
1000:
977:
528:and the State in Africa
217:more precise citations.
28:Tribal (disambiguation)
2971:Political anthropology
2697:Cultural appropriation
2597:Lineage-bonded society
1921:Nagy, Gregory (1990).
1905:10.1080/13207870124780
1383:Native American tribes
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1257:Survival International
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956:Native American tribes
954:In the United States,
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770:Circumscription theory
557:Europe and the People
526:Technology, Tradition,
21:Tribe (disambiguation)
2722:Ethnic interest group
2557:Ethnicity in censuses
2507:Cultural assimilation
2008:Ethnolinguistic group
1928:Sutton, Imre (1975).
1440:New Tribal Revolution
1344:
1086:'trinity, district',
1037:is generally held by
935:, but smaller than a
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844:cultural anthropology
632:E. E. Evans-Pritchard
485:Papuan Big man system
2935:Minzu (anthropology)
2904:Separatist movements
2767:Ethnographic village
2592:Legendary progenitor
2227:Transidioethnography
2030:Hyphenated ethnicity
2025:Ethnographic realism
2018:Ethnoreligious group
1450:Pantribal sodalities
1303:improve this section
1117:and the role of the
637:Wolfgang Fikentscher
612:Henri J. M. Claessen
367:Pantribal sodalities
105:improve this article
19:For other uses, see
2966:Self-sustainability
2802:Multinational state
2797:Model minority myth
2684:Multiethnic society
2602:Linguistic homeland
2013:Ethnonational group
1849:The Notion of Tribe
1682:The Notion of Tribe
1573:(Online ed.).
1507:Anarcho-primitivism
1131:that are generally
1070:Proto-Indo-European
990:. According to the
780:Leftâright paradigm
2782:Middleman minority
2742:Ethnic pornography
2737:Ethnic nationalism
2642:Pantribal sodality
2582:Imagined community
2107:Symbolic ethnicity
2035:Indigenous peoples
2003:Ethnographic group
1485:Tribal sovereignty
1460:Segmentary society
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1347:uncontacted tribes
1180:cultural practices
1023:). Modern English
906:
890:
775:Legal anthropology
677:Thomas Blom Hansen
607:Robert L. Carneiro
396:Segmentary lineage
333:Leveling mechanism
283:legal anthropology
16:Human social group
2943:
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2864:Ethnic stereotype
2777:Indigenous rights
2762:Ethnographic film
2747:Ethnic theme park
2707:Dominant minority
2702:Diaspora politics
2692:Consociationalism
2627:National language
2512:Cultural identity
2502:Cross-race effect
2446:Aboriginal groups
1838:Benveniste, Ămile
1820:Benveniste, Ămile
1612:978-90-04-16797-1
1581:(Subscription or
1470:Stateless society
1387:sovereign nations
1339:
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1225:J. Clyde Mitchell
1215:with scholars of
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587:Georges Balandier
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2244:Ethnolinguistics
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1698:. Zed Books.
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1288:This section
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1159:Civilizations
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1107:Elman Service
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898:Shkreli tribe
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727:Elman Service
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662:David Graeber
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617:Jean Comaroff
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597:Fredrik Barth
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535:Legal systems
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445:Legal culture
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440:Customary law
438:
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426:Theatre state
424:
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416:House society
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411:Petty kingdom
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314:Social status
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121:
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116:Find sources:
110:
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94:This article
92:
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77:
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68:
67:
62:
61:
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51:
42:
41:
36:
29:
22:
2909:Xenocentrism
2859:Ethnic slurs
2849:Ethnic party
2812:Ideology and
2732:Ethnic media
2674:White ethnic
2667:Neotribalism
2622:Nation state
2562:Ethnofiction
2493:ethnogenesis
2464:
2457:
2438:
2407:Central Asia
2399:
2352:
2345:
2328:
2301:Ethnoscience
2291:Ethnopoetics
2239:Ethnohistory
2177:Ethnogeology
2165:Ethnozoology
2155:Ethnoecology
2145:Ethnobiology
2130:Anthropology
2111:
2082:Panethnicity
1998:Ethnic group
1936:
1929:
1922:
1899:(1): 11â31.
1896:
1892:
1875:
1863:
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1823:
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1650:
1644:
1627:
1621:
1601:
1591:
1568:
1557:
1545:. Retrieved
1500:Neotribalism
1475:Tribal chief
1465:Social group
1410:Band society
1380:
1376:
1372:
1364:
1352:
1325:
1319:October 2021
1316:
1301:Please help
1289:
1264:
1260:
1252:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1235:
1209:
1199:
1194:Morton Fried
1184:
1164:
1141:and prestige
1109:presented a
1100:
1090:
1083:
1077:tri-dÊ°hâu/o-
1076:
1061:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1045:'three' and
1042:
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1024:
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983:
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969:
953:
925:anthropology
917:social group
909:
907:
828:
821:
814:
794:
702:Sidney Mintz
692:Ralph Linton
687:Edmund Leach
647:Morton Fried
642:Meyer Fortes
592:F. G. Bailey
524:
489:
477:
462:Case studies
421:Ethnic group
400:
391:Band society
266:
247:
229:
220:
201:
167:
158:
148:
141:
134:
127:
115:
103:Please help
98:verification
95:
71:
64:
58:
57:Please help
54:
2844:Ethnic joke
2652:Tribal name
2637:Origin myth
2612:Mythomoteur
2537:Ethnic flag
2522:Development
2207:Netnography
2182:Ethnography
2172:Ethnocinema
2150:Ethnobotany
2077:Nationality
1885:James, Paul
1871:James, Paul
1480:Tribal name
1435:Micronation
1271:Present-day
1139:social rank
1133:egalitarian
896:Men of the
672:Ulf Hannerz
667:Lesley Gill
215:introducing
2950:Categories
2919:Xenophobia
2914:Xenophilia
2889:Indigenism
2824:Allophilia
2757:Ethnocracy
2647:Statistext
2577:Historical
2470:Indigenous
2422:South Asia
2358:Indigenous
2092:Population
1914:1885/41671
1814:References
1585:required.)
1547:August 21,
1368:leadership
1265:indigenous
1170:("clan"),
1149:chieftains
1145:Stratified
996:Old French
884:Tribes of
564:Cargo cult
467:Acephelous
357:Matriarchy
352:Patriarchy
339:Leadership
223:April 2020
198:references
131:newspapers
60:improve it
2961:Ethnology
2879:Ethnocide
2752:Ethnoburb
2657:Tribalism
2440:Australia
2432:West Asia
2412:East Asia
2383:Caribbean
2368:Greenland
2249:Ethnology
2122:Ethnology
2060:Influence
1979:Ethnicity
1722:Routledge
1720:, p. 95.
1704:555395702
1667:, p. 83.
1636:318447878
1495:Tribalism
1345:A map of
1290:does not
1172:ethnicity
1039:linguists
966:Etymology
941:ethnicity
908:The term
752:Eric Wolf
324:Age grade
278:Political
161:July 2018
66:talk page
2899:Nativism
2567:Ethnonym
2532:Ethnarch
2488:Identity
2475:European
2353:Americas
2197:Critical
2192:Clinical
1986:Concepts
1887:(2001).
1873:(2006).
1840:(1935).
1822:(1973).
1599:(2008).
1393:See also
1153:Chiefdom
1088:Sanskrit
1073:compound
1031:. Latin
937:chiefdom
809:Journals
406:Chiefdom
383:Polities
269:a series
267:Part of
35:Triballi
2928:Related
2587:Kinship
2527:Endonym
2517:Demonym
2465:Oceania
2222:Salvage
1564:"tribe"
1381:In the
1359:justice
1355:tithing
1311:removed
1296:sources
1227:wrote:
1178:and/or
1168:kinship
1081:Umbrian
929:kinship
921:English
888:, India
514:Mandala
347:Big man
328:Age set
211:improve
145:scholar
120:"Tribe"
2956:Tribes
2459:Europe
2373:Mexico
2363:Canada
2347:Africa
2212:Online
2072:Nation
1855:
1830:
1790:
1765:
1728:
1702:
1634:
1609:
1430:Meenas
1261:tribal
1249:Indian
1091:trĂdha
1064:tribus
1060:Latin
1034:tribus
1020:tribƫs
1013:tribuz
986:tribus
945:nation
840:Social
509:Negara
200:, but
147:
140:
133:
126:
118:
2607:Mores
2329:World
2232:Video
2112:Tribe
1669:Brill
1579:
1524:Notes
1445:Nomad
1151:(see
1129:bands
1119:state
1084:trifu
1025:tribe
1007:Latin
1001:tribu
978:tribu
972:tribe
949:state
914:human
910:tribe
498:State
401:Tribe
372:Chief
362:Elder
319:Caste
152:JSTOR
138:books
2401:Asia
2097:Race
1993:Clan
1853:ISBN
1828:ISBN
1788:ISBN
1763:ISBN
1726:ISBN
1700:OCLC
1632:OCLC
1607:ISBN
1549:2022
1294:any
1292:cite
1263:and
1253:ribe
1219:and
1043:tri-
933:clan
842:and
543:Kapu
124:news
2490:and
1909:hdl
1901:doi
1305:by
1047:bhu
1029:-us
947:or
280:and
107:by
2952::
1907:.
1895:.
1891:.
1724:.
1567:.
1532:^
1251:,
1182:.
1055:fu
1053:,
1051:bu
1049:,
943:,
939:,
271:on
69:.
1971:e
1964:t
1957:v
1917:.
1911::
1903::
1897:9
1859:.
1844:.
1834:.
1796:.
1771:.
1744:.
1706:.
1671:.
1638:.
1615:.
1577:.
1551:.
1332:)
1326:(
1321:)
1317:(
1313:.
1299:.
1155:)
1075:*
869:e
862:t
855:v
326:/
254:)
248:(
236:)
230:(
225:)
221:(
207:.
174:)
168:(
163:)
159:(
149:·
142:·
135:·
128:·
101:.
76:)
72:(
37:.
30:.
23:.
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