257:: The primary use of gustation as a type of chemoreception is for the detection of tasteants. Aqueous chemical compounds come into contact with chemoreceptors in the mouth, such as taste buds on the tongue, and trigger responses. These chemical compounds can either trigger an appetitive response for nutrients, or a defensive response against toxins depending on which receptors fire. Fish and crustaceans, who are constantly in an aqueous environment, use their gustatory system to identify certain chemicals in the mixture for the purpose of localization and ingestion of food.
323:
others are rigid and do not bend with contact. They are mostly found in the mouthparts, but can also occur on the antennae or legs of some insects. There is a collection of dendrites located near the pores of the receptors, yet the distribution of these dendrites changes depending on the organism being examined. The method of transduction of the signal from the dendrites differs depending on the organism and the chemical it is responding to.
307:. GPCR's are intramembrane proteins than bind to an extracellular ligand- in this case chemicals from food- and begin a diverse array of signaling cascades that can result in an action potential registering as input in an organism's brain. Large quantities of chemoreceptors with discrete ligand-binding domains provide for the five basic tastes: sour, salty, bitter, sweet, and
238:(VNO). It was initially thought that the MOE is responsible for the detection of odorants, while the VNO detects pheromones. The current view, however, is that both systems can detect odorants and pheromones. Olfaction in invertebrates differs from olfaction in vertebrates. For example, in insects, olfactory sensilla are present on their antennae.
260:
Insects use contact chemoreception to recognize certain chemicals such as cuticular hydrocarbons and chemicals specific to host plants. Contact chemoreception is more commonly seen in insects but is also involved in the mating behavior of some vertebrates. The contact chemoreceptor is specific to one
537:
and coronary vasodilation through vagal stimulation and systemic vasoconstriction by sympathetic stimulation. In normal cases, if there is reflexive increase in respiratory activity in response to chemoreceptor activation, the increased sympathetic activity on the cardiovascular system would act to
529:
and a decreased pH is relayed to cardiac centers by the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves to the medulla of the brainstem. This increases the sympathetic nervous stimulation on the heart and a corresponding increase in heart rate and contractility in most cases. These factors include activation of
322:
Contact
Chemoreception: Contact chemoreception is dependent on the physical contact of the receptor with the stimulus. The receptors are short hairs or cones that have a single pore at, or close to the tip of the projection. They are known as uniporous receptors. Some receptors are flexible, while
302:
serves as the primary gustatory sensory organ. As a muscle located in the mouth, it acts to manipulate and discern the composition of food in the initial stages of digestion. The tongue is rich in vasculature, allowing the chemoreceptors located on the top surface of the organ to transmit sensory
285:
often referred to as OSNs. Embedded in the olfactory epithelium are three types of cells: supporting cells, basal cells, and OSNs. While all three types of cells are integral to normal function of the epithelium, only OSN serve as receptor cells, i.e. responding to the chemicals and generating an
294:
act as distance chemoreceptors. For example, antennae on moths are made up of long feathery hairs that increase sensory surface area. Each long hair from the main antenna also has smaller sensilla that are used for volatile olfaction. Since moths are mainly nocturnal animals, the development of
335:
Chemoreception is important for the detection of food, habitat, conspecifics including mates, and predators. For example, the emissions of a predator's food source, such as odors or pheromones, may be in the air or on a surface where the food source has been. Cells in the head, usually the air
179:
receptors can either be integrated in plant cells or situate outside the cell, in order to facilitate chemical structure and composition. There are 5 major categories of hormones that are unique to plants which once bound to the receptor, will trigger a response in target cells. These include
319:.Gustatory chemosensors are not just present on the tongue but also on different cells of the gut epithelium where they communicates the sensory information to several effector systems involved in the regulation of appetite, immune responses, and gastrointestinal motility.
520:
The response to stimulation of chemoreceptors on the heart rate is complicated. Chemoreceptors in the heart or nearby large arteries, as well as chemoreceptors in the lungs, can affect heart rate. Activation of these peripheral chemoreceptors from sensing decreased
331:
it is natural that detection and passing on of the external input will involve chemical events. The chemistry of the environment is, of course, relevant to survival, and detection of chemical input from the outside may well articulate directly with cell chemicals.
410:
Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation. In adult tissues, these cilia regulate cell proliferation in response to external stimuli, such as tissue damage. In humans, improper functioning of primary cilia is associated with important diseases known as
115:
Bacteria utilize complex long helical proteins as chemoreceptors, permitting signals to travel long distances across the cell's membrane. Chemoreceptors allow bacteria to react to chemical stimuli in their environment and regulate their movement accordingly. In
155:
Plants have various mechanisms to perceive danger in their environment. Plants are able to detect pathogens and microbes through surface level receptor kinases (PRK). Additionally, receptor-like proteins (RLPs) containing
493:, decreased O2), and eventually desensitize, partly due to redistribution of bicarbonate out of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and increased renal excretion of bicarbonate. These are sensitive to pH and CO
303:
information to the brain. Salivary glands in the mouth allow for molecules to reach chemoreceptors in an aqueous solution. The chemoreceptors of the tongue fall into two distinct superfamilies of
336:
passages or mouth, have chemical receptors on their surface that change when in contact with the emissions. It passes in either chemical or electrochemical form to the central processor, the
533:
However, if respiratory activity is arrested (e.g. in a patient with a high cervical spinal cord injury), then the primary cardiac reflex to transient hypercapnia and hypoxia is a profound
610:
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comprise only 57% of chemoreceptors, while in bacteria the percentage rises to 87%. This is an indicator that chemoreceptors play a heightened role in the sensing of
171:
Plant receptor kinases are also used for growth and hormone induction among other important biochemical processes. These reactions are triggered by a series of
327:
When inputs from the environment are significant to the survival of the organism, the input must be detected. As all life processes are ultimately based on
3161:
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of the blood. This can be a direct consequence of an increase in carbon dioxide concentration, because aqueous carbon dioxide in the presence of
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in the nasal cavity. Within the olfactory system there are two anatomically distinct organs: the main olfactory epithelium (MOE) and the
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and detect changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid. They have also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia (elevated CO
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Berk, James L.; Levy, Matthew N. (1977). "Profound Reflex
Bradycardia Produced by Transient Hypoxia or Hypercapnia in Man".
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detects all three. They do not desensitize. Their effect on breathing rate is less than that of the central chemoreceptors.
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226:: Olfaction involves the ability to detect chemicals in the gaseous state. In vertebrates, the olfactory system detects
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R. Mitchell, David (10 April 2012). "The
Evolution of Eukaryotic Cilia and Flagella as Motile and Sensory Organelles".
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Shi, P.; Zhang, J. (2009). "Extraordinary
Diversity of Chemosensory Receptor Gene Repertoires Among Vertebrates".
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Nurse, Colin A.; Piskuric, Nikol A. (January 2013). "Signal processing at mammalian carotid body chemoreceptors".
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Haffani, Yosr Z.; Silva, Nancy F.; Goring, Daphne R. (2 February 2011). "Receptor kinase signalling in plants".
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311:. The salty and sour tastes work directly through the ion channels, the sweet and bitter taste work through
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Samanta, Dipanjan; P. Borbat, Peter; Dzikovski, Boris; H. Freed, Jack; R. Crane, Brian (9 February 2015).
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949:"Bacterial chemoreceptor dynamics correlate with activity state and are coupled over long distances"
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Chemoreceptors that regulate the depth and rhythm of breathing are broken down into two categories.
75:, a chemoreceptor detects changes in the normal environment, such as an increase in blood levels of
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Haupt, S. Shuichi; Sakurai, Takeshi; Namiki, Shigehiro; Kazawa, Tomoki; Kanzaki, Ryohei (2010).
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stretch receptors due to increased ventilation and the release of circulating catecholamines.
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Saunders, Cecil J.; Christensen, Michael; Finger, Thomas E.; Tizzano, Marco (22 April 2014).
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475:, respectively, to increase breathing rate and the volume of the lungs during inhalation.
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200:. Once bound, hormones can induce, inhibit, or maintain function of the target response.
168:(DAMPS) which consequently initiates the plant's innate immunity for a defense response.
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147:. The motile function of these cilia is lost in favour of their sensory specialization.
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733:"Cholinergic neurotransmission links solitary chemosensory cells to nasal inflammation"
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1111:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 607. pp. 130–140.
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or induced) to generate a biological signal. This signal may be in the form of an
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Steensels, S.; Depoortere, I. (10 February 2018). "Chemoreceptors in the Gut".
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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1255:. Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation. Vol. 47. pp. 57–75.
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Hazelbauer, Gerald L.; Falke, Joseph J.; Parkinson, John S. (January 2008).
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827:"Bacterial chemoreceptors: high-performance signaling in networked arrays"
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and H ion concentration. They also sense decrease in partial pressure of O
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630:"Peripheral Chemoreceptors: Function and Plasticity of the Carotid Body"
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detects changes in blood oxygen and carbon dioxide, but not pH, while
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Armitage, Lynne; Leyser, Ottoline (2021). "Plant hormone receptors".
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348:) makes body actions that will engage the food and enhance survival.
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80:
48:
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The response is that the respiratory centre (in the medulla), sends
277:. Volatile chemical stimuli enter the nose and eventually reach the
694:. Advances in Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. Vol. 63. pp. 23–43.
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Rawson, Nancy E.; Yee, Karen K. (2006). "Transduction and Coding".
208:
There are two main classes of chemoreceptor: direct and distance.
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1999:
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Zipfel, Cyril (July 2014). "Plant pattern-recognition receptors".
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Lumb, Andrew B.; Horner, Deborah (2013). "Pulmonary
Physiology".
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1008:"Exploring the (Almost) Unknown: Archaeal Two-Component Systems"
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274:
227:
56:
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273:
Olfaction: In terrestrial vertebrates, olfaction occurs in the
1712:
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which are initiated by plant chemically sensitive receptors.
432:
in the blood. To do this, they monitor the concentration of
437:
1530:
1253:
Chemosensory
Systems in Mammals, Fishes, and Insects
295:
greater olfaction aids them in navigating the night.
59:
if the chemoreceptor is a specialized cell, such as
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1998:
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628:Kumar, Prem; Prabhakar, Nanduri R. (January 2012).
611:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
98:, chemoreceptors are essential in the mediation of
83:(hypoxia), and transmits that information to the
1303:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 636–654.
298:Gustation: In many terrestrial vertebrates, the
79:(hypercapnia) or a decrease in blood levels of
685:
683:
281:which houses the chemoreceptor cells known as
2789:
1551:
884:"Bacterial chemoreceptors and chemoeffectors"
8:
1058:Satir, Peter; Christensen, Søren T. (2008).
792:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology
485:are located on the ventrolateral surface of
1326:"Olfactory information processing in moths"
1060:"Structure and function of mammalian cilia"
1053:
1051:
315:, and the savory sensation is activated by
2796:
2782:
2774:
2298:
2114:
1995:
1695:
1686:
1587:
1558:
1544:
1536:
1398:Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia
882:Bi, Shuangyu; Lai, Luhua (February 2015).
1522:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
1134:
1083:
1031:
982:
972:
915:
858:
766:
756:
663:
503:: consists of aortic and carotid bodies.
87:which engages body responses to restore
1529:Association of Chemoreception Sciences
620:
538:increase heart rate and contractility.
387:in the brain that receives inputs from
286:action potential that travels down the
16:Sensory receptor that detects chemicals
162:pathogen-associated molecular patterns
1776:Somatosensory system (sense of touch)
1375:10.1146/annurev-physiol-021317-121332
1109:Eukaryotic Membranes and Cytoskeleton
372:, but to a lesser degree than for pCO
344:. The resulting output from the CNS (
139:, present in many types of mammalian
7:
3162:oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve
1761:Vestibular system (sense of balance)
888:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
166:damage-associated molecular patterns
1301:The Insects: Structure and Function
3088:hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
1756:Auditory system (sense of hearing)
1406:10.1016/B978-1-4377-1679-5.00025-9
1332:. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis.
424:Particular chemoreceptors, called
14:
1771:Gustatory system (sense of taste)
1766:Olfactory system (sense of smell)
436:in the blood, which decrease the
2023:Infrared sensing in vampire bats
290:to reach the brain. In insects,
1751:Visual system (sense of vision)
1064:Histochemistry and Cell Biology
364:detect changes primarily in pCO
158:ligand binding receptor domains
831:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
1:
1893:Auditory perception (hearing)
1330:The Neurobiology of Olfaction
2539:Olfactory reference syndrome
2316:Alice in Wonderland syndrome
1117:10.1007/978-0-387-74021-8_11
1006:Krell, Tino (1 April 2007).
804:10.1016/j.semcdb.2012.09.006
399:, and communicates with the
47:, if the chemoreceptor is a
3120:Ventilation/perfusion ratio
2971:pulmonary stretch receptors
2738:Sensory processing disorder
1908:Gustation (taste or flavor)
1898:Equilibrioception (balance)
1363:Annual Review of Physiology
589:Solitary chemosensory cells
564:Diffuse chemosensory system
313:G protein-coupled receptors
305:G protein-coupled receptors
3309:
3152:alveolar–arterial gradient
2692:Supernumerary phantom limb
2028:Infrared sensing in snakes
1888:Visual perception (vision)
1484:European Surgical Research
1195:Canadian Journal of Botany
843:10.1016/j.tibs.2007.09.014
559:Chemoreceptor trigger zone
403:(area postrema) to induce
381:chemoreceptor trigger zone
220:olfactory receptor neurons
3033:respiratory minute volume
2945:ventral respiratory group
2443:Microwave auditory effect
1610:Transduction (physiology)
1076:10.1007/s00418-008-0416-9
900:10.1007/s00018-014-1770-5
501:peripheral chemoreceptors
283:olfactory sensory neurons
2940:dorsal respiratory group
2834:obligate nasal breathing
2448:Music-specific disorders
1804:Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
1524:Medical Subject Headings
1430:"Central Chemoreceptors"
1238:10.1036/1097-8542.900137
1172:10.1016/j.it.2014.05.004
634:Comprehensive Physiology
376:and H ion concentration.
65:peripheral chemoreceptor
3142:pulmonary gas pressures
2428:Auditory verbal agnosia
2282:Juxtacapillary receptor
1295:Chapman, R. F. (1998).
1012:Journal of Bacteriology
974:10.1073/pnas.1414155112
758:10.1073/pnas.1402251111
428:, detect the levels of
214:distance chemoreceptors
122:transmembrane receptors
106:Cellular chemoreceptors
3286:Respiratory physiology
2896:mechanical ventilation
2805:Respiratory physiology
2423:Auditory hallucination
2033:Surface wave detection
1638:Multimodal integration
1531:http://www.achems.org/
483:central chemoreceptors
346:central nervous system
85:central nervous system
51:, or in the form of a
3147:alveolar gas equation
3083:pulmonary circulation
2682:Phantom limb syndrome
2630:Tactile hallucination
1819:Glossopharyngeal (IX)
1620:Active sensory system
554:Chemosensory clusters
549:Cell surface receptor
245:direct chemoreceptors
3281:Analytical chemistry
3202:respiratory quotient
3057:body plethysmography
2976:Hering–Breuer reflex
2851:pulmonary surfactant
2491:Labyrinthine fistula
2458:Spatial hearing loss
2157:Campaniform sensilla
1872:Somatosensory cortex
1400:. pp. 445–457.
1160:Trends in Immunology
646:10.1002/cphy.c100069
420:Control of breathing
279:olfactory epithelium
151:Plant chemoreceptors
128:signals in archaea.
55:that can activate a
3045:Lung function tests
2879:hyperresponsiveness
2277:Nociceptin receptor
2147:Merkel nerve ending
2132:Mechanotransduction
1434:pathwaymedicine.org
1024:10.1128/JB.00774-17
965:2015PNAS..112.2455S
749:2014PNAS..111.6075S
461:intercostal muscles
27:, is a specialized
3212:diffusion capacity
3207:arterial blood gas
3187:carbonic anhydrase
2921:pneumotaxic center
2639:Nociception (pain)
2231:Olfactory receptor
2183:Photoreceptor cell
2137:Lamellar corpuscle
2061:Photomorphogenesis
1923:nociception (pain)
1615:Sensory processing
1261:10.1007/400_2008_4
442:carbonic anhydrase
383:is an area of the
173:signaling pathways
37:chemical substance
3271:Sensory receptors
3258:
3257:
3166:Oxygen saturation
3132:zones of the lung
2871:airway resistance
2771:
2770:
2756:Biases and errors
2751:
2750:
2687:Somatoparaphrenia
2656:Pain dissociation
2501:Ménière's disease
2433:Cortical deafness
2311:Visual impairment
2290:
2289:
2152:Bulbous corpuscle
2142:Tactile corpuscle
2110:sensory receptors
2102:
2101:
1985:
1984:
1938:
1937:
1903:Olfaction (smell)
1857:Vestibular cortex
1839:Cerebral cortices
1676:
1675:
1663:Motion perception
1496:10.1159/000127928
1310:978-0-521-57890-5
1270:978-3-540-69918-7
1126:978-0-387-74020-1
743:(16): 6075–6080.
700:10.1159/000093749
655:978-0-470-65071-4
604:Vomeronasal organ
569:Haptic technology
487:medulla oblongata
469:intercostal nerve
444:reacts to form a
261:type of chemical.
236:vomeronasal organ
145:cellular antennae
63:, or an internal
3298:
3067:nitrogen washout
2926:apneustic center
2841:respiratory rate
2798:
2791:
2784:
2775:
2418:Auditory agnosia
2350:Optic neuropathy
2299:
2167:Stretch receptor
2115:
2013:Magnetoreception
2008:Electroreception
1996:
1918:mechanoreception
1867:Gustatory cortex
1862:Olfactory cortex
1696:
1687:
1605:Sensory receptor
1588:
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1469:
1463:www.columbia.edu
1455:
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1436:. Archived from
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1315:
1314:
1297:"Chemoreception"
1292:
1283:
1282:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1190:
1184:
1183:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1138:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1087:
1055:
1046:
1045:
1035:
1003:
997:
996:
986:
976:
959:(8): 2455–2460.
944:
938:
937:
919:
879:
873:
872:
862:
822:
816:
815:
787:
781:
780:
770:
760:
728:
722:
721:
687:
678:
677:
667:
625:
594:Sensory receptor
574:Molecular sensor
459:to the external
457:nervous impulses
255:gustatory system
224:olfactory system
53:neurotransmitter
45:action potential
29:sensory receptor
23:, also known as
3308:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3297:
3296:
3295:
3261:
3260:
3259:
3254:
3245:oxygen toxicity
3221:
3109:ventilation (V)
3097:
3093:pulmonary shunt
3071:
3062:peak flow meter
2982:
2900:
2807:
2802:
2772:
2767:
2747:
2696:
2665:
2634:
2586:
2553:
2505:
2467:
2399:
2390:Stereoblindness
2331:Color blindness
2286:
2263:
2240:
2212:
2171:
2119:Mechanoreceptor
2108:
2098:
2094:Machine hearing
2089:Computer vision
2084:Robotic sensing
2070:
2047:
1981:
1934:
1876:
1852:Auditory cortex
1833:
1780:
1743:Sensory systems
1737:
1672:
1624:
1582:
1580:
1573:
1564:
1516:
1511:
1481:
1480:
1476:
1467:
1465:
1457:
1456:
1452:
1443:
1441:
1428:
1427:
1423:
1416:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1340:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1311:
1294:
1293:
1286:
1271:
1250:
1249:
1245:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1207:10.1139/b03-126
1192:
1191:
1187:
1157:
1156:
1152:
1127:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1057:
1056:
1049:
1005:
1004:
1000:
946:
945:
941:
881:
880:
876:
824:
823:
819:
789:
788:
784:
730:
729:
725:
710:
692:Taste and Smell
689:
688:
681:
656:
627:
626:
622:
618:
608:
544:
528:
524:
518:
496:
492:
422:
401:vomiting center
375:
371:
367:
354:
288:olfactory nerve
270:
251:Taste receptors
206:
153:
134:
113:
108:
61:taste receptors
17:
12:
11:
5:
3306:
3305:
3302:
3294:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3263:
3262:
3256:
3255:
3253:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3241:
3240:
3229:
3227:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3219:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3191:chloride shift
3184:
3181:Haldane effect
3178:
3173:
3168:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3111:
3105:
3103:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3079:
3077:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3038:FEV1/FVC ratio
3035:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2992:
2990:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2978:
2968:
2967:
2966:
2961:
2953:chemoreceptors
2949:
2948:
2947:
2942:
2930:
2929:
2928:
2923:
2910:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2899:
2898:
2893:
2892:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2861:elastic recoil
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2837:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2808:
2803:
2801:
2800:
2793:
2786:
2778:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2673:
2671:
2670:Proprioception
2667:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2642:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2596:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2563:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2515:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2477:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2409:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2307:
2305:
2296:
2292:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2284:
2279:
2273:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2256:
2250:
2248:
2246:Thermoreceptor
2242:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2226:Taste receptor
2222:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2123:
2121:
2112:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2080:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2057:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2004:
2002:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1952:Proprioception
1948:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1843:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1831:
1826:
1824:Trigeminal (V)
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1795:
1793:
1782:
1781:
1779:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1747:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1704:
1702:
1700:Sensory organs
1693:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1671:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1634:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1596:
1594:
1585:
1575:
1574:
1565:
1563:
1562:
1555:
1548:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1527:
1520:Chemoreceptors
1515:
1514:External links
1512:
1510:
1509:
1474:
1450:
1421:
1414:
1388:
1369:(1): 117–141.
1353:
1338:
1316:
1309:
1284:
1269:
1243:
1230:Access Science
1220:
1185:
1166:(7): 345–351.
1150:
1125:
1099:
1047:
998:
939:
894:(4): 691–708.
874:
817:
782:
723:
708:
679:
654:
640:(1): 141–219.
619:
617:
614:
607:
606:
601:
596:
591:
586:
581:
576:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
545:
543:
540:
526:
525:, increased CO
522:
517:
514:
513:
512:
498:
494:
490:
430:carbon dioxide
421:
418:
417:
416:
408:
377:
373:
369:
365:
358:Carotid bodies
353:
350:
325:
324:
320:
296:
269:
268:Sensory organs
266:
265:
264:
263:
262:
258:
241:
240:
239:
205:
202:
152:
149:
133:
130:
112:
111:In prokaryotes
109:
107:
104:
77:carbon dioxide
69:carotid bodies
67:, such as the
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3304:
3303:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3233:high altitude
3231:
3230:
3228:
3226:Insufficiency
3224:
3217:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3197:oxyhemoglobin
3195:
3192:
3188:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3100:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3074:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2985:
2977:
2974:
2973:
2972:
2969:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2937:
2936:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2903:
2897:
2894:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2866:hysteresivity
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2799:
2794:
2792:
2787:
2785:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2754:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2728:Hallucination
2726:
2724:
2723:Derealization
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2699:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2677:Asomatognosia
2675:
2674:
2672:
2668:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2615:Hyperesthesia
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2600:Astereognosis
2598:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2556:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2496:Labyrinthitis
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2470:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2308:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2297:
2293:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2218:Chemoreceptor
2215:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2176:Photoreceptor
2174:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2162:Slit sensilla
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2105:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1988:
1978:
1977:Visceral pain
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1941:
1929:
1928:thermoception
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1847:Visual cortex
1845:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1809:Olfactory (I)
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1794:
1792:
1791:spinal nerves
1788:
1783:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1648:Consciousness
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1556:
1554:
1549:
1547:
1542:
1541:
1538:
1532:
1528:
1525:
1521:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1475:
1464:
1460:
1454:
1451:
1440:on 2021-04-13
1439:
1435:
1431:
1425:
1422:
1417:
1415:9781437716795
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1392:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1339:9781420071979
1335:
1331:
1327:
1320:
1317:
1312:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1291:
1289:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1154:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1128:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1103:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1070:(6): 687–93.
1069:
1065:
1061:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1002:
999:
994:
990:
985:
980:
975:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
943:
940:
935:
931:
927:
923:
918:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
878:
875:
870:
866:
861:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
821:
818:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
786:
783:
778:
774:
769:
764:
759:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
727:
724:
719:
715:
711:
709:3-8055-8123-8
705:
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531:
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474:
473:phrenic nerve
470:
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435:
434:hydrogen ions
431:
427:
419:
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409:
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378:
363:
362:aortic bodies
359:
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195:
191:
187:
186:abscisic acid
183:
178:
177:Plant hormone
174:
169:
167:
163:
159:
150:
148:
146:
142:
138:
137:Primary cilia
132:In eukaryotes
131:
129:
127:
123:
119:
110:
105:
103:
101:
97:
92:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
21:chemoreceptor
3137:gas exchange
3102:Interactions
3027:calculations
2988:Lung volumes
2952:
2951:
2932:
2913:
2884:constriction
2846:respirometer
2661:Phantom pain
2646:Hyperalgesia
2620:Hypoesthesia
2438:Hearing loss
2259:TRP channels
2236:Osmoreceptor
2217:
2203:Photopigment
2127:Baroreceptor
2066:Gravitropism
2038:Frog hearing
2018:Echolocation
1814:Facial (VII)
1490:(2): 75–84.
1487:
1483:
1477:
1466:. Retrieved
1462:
1453:
1442:. Retrieved
1438:the original
1433:
1424:
1397:
1391:
1366:
1362:
1356:
1329:
1319:
1300:
1252:
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1229:
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1198:
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1108:
1102:
1067:
1063:
1015:
1011:
1001:
956:
952:
942:
891:
887:
877:
834:
830:
820:
798:(1): 22–30.
795:
791:
785:
740:
736:
726:
691:
637:
633:
623:
609:
532:
519:
509:carotid body
477:
454:
423:
413:ciliopathies
334:
326:
244:
243:Examples of
213:
212:Examples of
207:
170:
164:(PAMPS) and
154:
144:
135:
114:
93:
24:
20:
18:
3276:Gas sensors
3176:Bohr effect
3076:Circulation
2812:Respiration
2743:Synesthesia
2651:Hypoalgesia
2625:Paresthesia
2610:Formication
2605:CMT disease
2572:Hypergeusia
2395:Visual snow
2370:Photophobia
2365:Papilledema
2355:Oscillopsia
2341:Hemeralopia
2208:Aureochrome
2043:Toad vision
1967:Suffocation
1881:Perceptions
1459:"Chapter 4"
837:(1): 9–19.
535:bradycardia
505:Aortic body
450:bicarbonate
342:spinal cord
190:gibberellin
143:, serve as
89:homeostasis
57:nerve fiber
25:chemosensor
3265:Categories
3238:death zone
3157:hemoglobin
3052:spirometry
3011:dead space
2964:peripheral
2889:dilatation
2875:bronchial
2856:compliance
2829:exhalation
2824:inhalation
2763:Pareidolia
2718:Allochiria
2701:Multimodal
2582:Parageusia
2577:Hypogeusia
2549:Phantosmia
2529:Hyperosmia
2473:Vestibular
2453:Palinopsia
2413:Amblyaudia
2360:Palinopsia
2345:Nyctalopia
2269:Nociceptor
2076:Artificial
1799:Optic (II)
1630:Perception
1579:Processes
1571:perception
1468:2017-01-29
1444:2021-03-16
616:References
516:Heart rate
467:, via the
352:Physiology
232:pheromones
100:chemotaxis
73:physiology
41:endogenous
33:transduces
3114:Perfusion
2559:Gustatory
2511:Olfactory
2375:Photopsia
2321:Amaurosis
2295:Disorders
2188:Cone cell
2107:Types of
1718:Inner ear
1653:Cognition
1643:Awareness
1592:Sensation
1567:Sensation
908:1420-9071
851:0968-0004
584:Olfaction
465:diaphragm
329:chemistry
317:glutamate
247:include:
194:cytokinin
126:cytosolic
3291:Vomiting
3125:V/Q scan
2544:Parosmia
2534:Hyposmia
2524:Dysosmia
2463:Tinnitus
2405:Auditory
2380:Polyopia
2336:Diplopia
2193:Rod cell
1991:Nonhuman
1944:Internal
1785:Sensory
1691:External
1600:Stimulus
1583:concepts
1383:29029594
1348:21882429
1279:19145414
1215:53062169
1201:: 1–15.
1180:24946686
1145:17977465
1094:18365235
1042:29339416
993:25675479
934:15976114
926:25374297
917:11113376
869:18165013
812:23022231
777:24711432
718:16733331
674:23728973
542:See also
471:and the
463:and the
405:vomiting
397:hormones
292:antennae
198:ethylene
160:capture
96:bacteria
3250:hypoxia
3171:2,3-BPG
2959:central
2934:medulla
2906:Control
2713:Agnosia
2592:Tactile
2567:Ageusia
2519:Anosmia
2481:Vertigo
2385:Scotoma
2326:Anopsia
1787:cranial
1658:Feeling
1136:3322410
1085:2386530
1033:5847645
984:4345563
961:Bibcode
860:2890293
768:4000837
745:Bibcode
665:3919066
391:-borne
385:medulla
253:in the
222:in the
204:Classes
118:archaea
2819:breath
2303:Visual
2254:Cilium
2000:Animal
1972:Nausea
1962:Thirst
1957:Hunger
1829:Spinal
1668:Qualia
1526:(MeSH)
1504:852474
1502:
1412:
1381:
1346:
1336:
1307:
1277:
1267:
1213:
1178:
1143:
1133:
1123:
1092:
1082:
1040:
1030:
991:
981:
932:
924:
914:
906:
867:
857:
849:
810:
775:
765:
716:
706:
672:
662:
652:
448:and a
446:proton
309:savory
300:tongue
196:, and
81:oxygen
49:neuron
31:which
2198:ipRGC
2053:Plant
1913:Touch
1728:Mouth
1682:Human
1211:S2CID
1018:(7).
930:S2CID
599:Taste
452:ion.
426:ASICs
393:drugs
389:blood
338:brain
228:odors
216:are:
182:auxin
141:cells
71:. In
3216:DLCO
3116:(Q)
2915:pons
2733:HSAN
2708:Aura
2486:BPPV
2343:and
1789:and
1733:Skin
1723:Nose
1713:Ears
1708:Eyes
1581:and
1569:and
1500:PMID
1410:ISBN
1379:PMID
1344:PMID
1334:ISBN
1305:ISBN
1275:PMID
1265:ISBN
1176:PMID
1141:PMID
1121:ISBN
1090:PMID
1038:PMID
989:PMID
922:PMID
904:ISSN
865:PMID
847:ISSN
808:PMID
773:PMID
714:PMID
704:ISBN
670:PMID
650:ISBN
579:Odor
379:The
360:and
275:nose
230:and
3021:PEF
3001:FRC
1492:doi
1402:doi
1371:doi
1257:doi
1234:doi
1203:doi
1168:doi
1131:PMC
1113:doi
1080:PMC
1072:doi
1068:129
1028:PMC
1020:doi
1016:200
979:PMC
969:doi
957:112
912:PMC
896:doi
855:PMC
839:doi
800:doi
763:PMC
753:doi
741:111
696:doi
660:PMC
642:doi
395:or
340:or
94:In
3267::
3016:CC
3006:Vt
2996:VC
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1486:.
1461:.
1432:.
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1299:.
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1088:.
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682:^
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438:pH
192:,
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3189:(
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