2246:, developed in the 1980s. In a RICH detector, a cone of Cherenkov light is produced when a high-speed charged particle traverses a suitable medium, often called radiator. This light cone is detected on a position sensitive planar photon detector, which allows reconstructing a ring or disc, whose radius is a measure for the Cherenkov emission angle. Both focusing and proximity-focusing detectors are in use. In a focusing RICH detector, the photons are collected by a spherical mirror and focused onto the photon detector placed at the focal plane. The result is a circle with a radius independent of the emission point along the particle track. This scheme is suitable for low refractive index radiators—i.e. gases—due to the larger radiator length needed to create enough photons. In the more compact proximity-focusing design, a thin radiator volume emits a cone of Cherenkov light which traverses a small distance—the proximity gap—and is detected on the photon detector plane. The image is a ring of light whose radius is defined by the Cherenkov emission angle and the proximity gap. The ring thickness is determined by the thickness of the radiator. An example of a proximity gap RICH detector is the High Momentum Particle Identification Detector (HMPID), a detector currently under construction for ALICE (
1207:). This means that, when a charged particle (usually electrons) passes through a medium at a speed greater than the phase velocity of light in that medium, that particle emits trailing radiation from its progress through the medium rather than in front of it (as is the case in normal materials with, both permittivity and permeability positive). One can also obtain such reverse-cone Cherenkov radiation in non-metamaterial periodic media where the periodic structure is on the same scale as the wavelength, so it cannot be treated as an effectively homogeneous metamaterial.
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emission, where the detected signal can be imaged at the entry and exit surfaces of the tissue. The
Cherenkov light emitted from patient's tissue during radiation therapy is a very low light level signal but can be detected by specially designed cameras that synchronize their acquisition to the linear accelerator pulses. The ability to see this signal shows the shape of the radiation beam as it is incident upon the tissue in real time.
31:
1982:
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249:. The light was observed using a camera imaging system called a CDose, which is specially designed to view light emissions from biological systems. For decades, patients had reported phenomena such as "flashes of bright or blue light" when receiving radiation treatments for brain cancer, but the effects had never been experimentally observed.
1916:. Radioactive atoms such as phosphorus-32 are readily introduced into biomolecules by enzymatic and synthetic means and subsequently may be easily detected in small quantities for the purpose of elucidating biological pathways and in characterizing the interaction of biological molecules such as affinity constants and dissociation rates.
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nuclei. On the other hand, the phenomenon can be explained both qualitatively and quantitatively if one takes into account the fact that an electron moving in a medium does radiate light even if it is moving uniformly provided that its velocity is greater than the velocity of light in the medium."
559:
In their original work on the theoretical foundations of
Cherenkov radiation, Tamm and Frank wrote, "This peculiar radiation can evidently not be explained by any common mechanism such as the interaction of the fast electron with individual atom or as radiative scattering of electrons on atomic
1972:
External beam radiation therapy has been shown to induce a substantial amount of
Cherenkov light in the tissue being treated, due to electron beams or photon beams with energy in the 6 MV to 18 MV ranges. The secondary electrons induced by these high energy x-rays result in the Cherenkov light
1883:
is directly related to the velocity of the disruption. The
Cherenkov angle is zero at the threshold velocity for the emission of Cherenkov radiation. The angle takes on a maximum as the particle speed approaches the speed of light. Hence, observed angles of incidence can be used to compute the
1546:
1936:
More recently, Cherenkov light has been used to image substances in the body. These discoveries have led to intense interest around the idea of using this light signal to quantify and/or detect radiation in the body, either from internal sources such as injected
3620:
Jarvis, Lesley A; Zhang, Rongxiao; Gladstone, David J; Jiang, Shudong; Hitchcock, Whitney; Friedman, Oscar D; Glaser, Adam K; Jermyn, Michael; Pogue, Brian W (2014). "Cherenkov Video
Imaging Allows for the First Visualization of Radiation Therapy in Real Time".
3165:
Tendler, Irwin I.; Hartford, Alan; Jermyn, Michael; LaRochelle, Ethan; Cao, Xu; Borza, Victor; Alexander, Daniel; Bruza, Petr; Hoopes, Jack; Moodie, Karen; Marr, Brian P.; Williams, Benjamin B.; Pogue, Brian W.; Gladstone, David J.; Jarvis, Lesley A. (2020).
1864:) would be observed. However, X-rays can be generated at special frequencies just below the frequencies corresponding to core electronic transitions in a material, as the index of refraction is often greater than 1 just below a resonant frequency (see
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field is asymmetric along the direction of motion of the particle, as the particles of the medium do not have enough time to recover to their "normal" randomized states. This results in overlapping waveforms (as in the animation) and
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that have characteristic spectral peaks, Cherenkov radiation is continuous. Around the visible spectrum, the relative intensity per unit frequency is approximately proportional to the frequency. That is, higher frequencies (shorter
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of the medium) by looking at whether this particle emits
Cherenkov light in a certain medium. Knowing particle momentum, one can separate particles lighter than a certain threshold from those heavier than the threshold.
438:, that is the velocity of the charged particle is less than that of the speed of light in the medium, then the polarization field which forms around the moving particle is usually symmetric. The corresponding emitted
2148:
The simplest type of particle identification device based on a
Cherenkov radiation technique is the threshold counter, which answers whether the velocity of a charged particle is lower or higher than a certain value
2043:
with enormous velocities. The
Cherenkov radiation emitted in the atmosphere by these charged particles is used to determine the direction and energy of the cosmic ray or gamma ray, which is used for example in the
393:). When any charged particle passes through a medium, the particles of the medium will polarize around it in response. The charged particle excites the molecules in the polarizable medium and on returning to their
545:, one can also obtain a variety of other anomalous Cherenkov effects, such as radiation in a backwards direction (see below) whereas ordinary Cherenkov radiation forms an acute angle with the particle velocity.
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observed a pale blue light in a highly concentrated radium solution in 1910, but did not investigate its source. In 1926, the French radiotherapist Lucien Mallet described the luminous radiation of
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spectrum—it is only with sufficiently accelerated charges that it even becomes visible; the sensitivity of the human eye peaks at green, and is very low in the violet portion of the spectrum.
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Astrophysics observatories using the
Cherenkov technique to measure air showers are key to determining the properties of astronomical objects that emit very-high-energy gamma rays, such as
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859:
170:. Cherenkov saw a faint bluish light around a radioactive preparation in water during experiments. His doctorate thesis was on luminescence of uranium salt solutions that were excited by
397:, the molecules re-emit the energy given to them to achieve excitation as photons. These photons form the spherical wavefronts which can be seen originating from the moving particle. If
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varies with frequency (and hence with wavelength) in such a way that the intensity cannot continue to increase at ever shorter wavelengths, even for very relativistic particles (where
1817:
1340:
Radiation with the same properties of typical
Cherenkov radiation can be created by structures of electric current that travel faster than light. By manipulating density profiles in
553:
3109:
Malaca, Bernardo; Pardal, Miguel; Ramsey, Dillon; Pierce, Jacob R.; Weichman, Kale; Andryiash, Igor A.; Mori, Warren B.; Palastro, John P.; Fonseca, Ricardo; Vieira, Jorge (2023).
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Genevet, P.; Wintz, D.; Ambrosio, A.; She, A.; Blanchard, R.; Capasso, F. (2015). "Controlled steering of Cherenkov surface plasmon wakes with a one-dimensional metamaterial".
1274:
1199:(materials with a subwavelength microstructure that gives them an effective "average" property very different from their constituent materials, in this case having negative
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waves generated by the aircraft travel at the speed of sound, which is slower than the aircraft, and cannot propagate forward from the aircraft, instead forming a conical
1670:
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Liu, H.; Zhang, X.; Xing, B.; Han, P.; Gambhir, S. S.; Cheng, Z. (21 May 2010). "Radiation-luminescence-excited quantum dots for in vivo multiplexed optical imaging".
3560:
Spinelli, Antonello Enrico; Ferdeghini, Marco; Cavedon, Carlo; Zivelonghi, Emanuele; Calandrino, Riccardo; Fenzi, Alberto; Sbarbati, Andrea; Boschi, Federico (2013).
1608:
2008:
decay. The glow continues after the chain reaction stops, dimming as the shorter-lived products decay. Similarly, Cherenkov radiation can characterize the remaining
1294:
2064:. Cherenkov radiation emitted in tanks filled with water by those charged particles reaching earth is used for the same goal by the Extensive Air Shower experiment
367:
1763:) are more intense in Cherenkov radiation. This is why visible Cherenkov radiation is observed to be brilliant blue. In fact, most Cherenkov radiation is in the
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of light. The phase velocity can be altered dramatically by using a periodic medium, and in that case one can even achieve Cherenkov radiation with
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may be bunched up, but they do not coincide or cross, and there are therefore no interference effects to consider. In the reverse situation, i.e.
234:
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2012:
of spent fuel rods. This phenomenon is used to verify the presence of spent nuclear fuel in spent fuel pools for nuclear safeguards purposes.
1541:{\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}E}{dx\,d\omega }}={\frac {q^{2}}{4\pi }}\mu (\omega )\omega {\left(1-{\frac {c^{2}}{v^{2}n^{2}(\omega )}}\right)}}
3781:
2661:
2626:
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3681:"Initial Clinical Experience of Cherenkov Imaging in External Beam Radiation Therapy Identifies Opportunities to Improve Treatment Delivery"
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The effect can be intuitively described in the following way. From classical physics, it is known that accelerating charged particles emit
606:
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and emit optical shocks at the Cherenkov angle. Electrons are still subluminal, hence the electrons that compose the structure at a time
3922:
3080:
Bugaev, S. P.; Kanavets, V. I.; Klimov, A. I.; Koshelev, V. I.; Cherepenin, V. A. (1983). "Relativistic multiwave Cerenkov generator".
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93 (1967) 385. V sbornike: Pavel Alekseyevich Čerenkov: Chelovek i Otkrytie pod redaktsiej A. N. Gorbunova i E. P. Čerenkovoj, M.,
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of an electrically charged elementary particle by the properties of the Cherenkov light it emits in a certain medium. If the
2954:
1049:. The latter is designed to introduce a gradient of phase retardation along the trajectory of the fast travelling particle (
334:
4370:
2958:
2422:
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2081:
522:. In a similar way, a charged particle can generate a "shock wave" of visible light as it travels through an insulator.
1866:
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283:), the speed in a material may be significantly less, as it is perceived to be slowed by the medium. For example, in
1243:. In such a system, this effect can be derived from conservation of the energy and momentum where the momentum of a
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2427:
163:
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Macleod, Alexander J.; Noble, Adam; Jaroszynski, Dino A. (2019). "Cherenkov radiation from the quantum vacuum".
703:
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4181:
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673:
138:, the sharp sound heard when faster-than-sound movement occurs. The phenomenon is named after Soviet physicist
4091:
1928:
Cherenkov light emission imaged from the chest wall of a patient undergoing whole breast irradiation, using 6
1773:
317:
3806:
Smith, S. J.; Purcell, E. M. (1953). "Visible Light from Localized Surface Charges Moving across a Grating".
863:
The left corner of the triangle represents the location of the superluminal particle at some initial moment (
4121:
3915:
870:). The right corner of the triangle is the location of the particle at some later time t. In the given time
2290:
1391:
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in that medium. A classic example of Cherenkov radiation is the characteristic blue glow of an underwater
4410:
4362:
4273:
3947:
3305:
Liu, Hongguang; Ren, Gang; Liu, Shuanglong; Zhang, Xiaofen; Chen, Luxi; Han, Peizhen; Cheng, Zhen (2010).
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1912:
Cherenkov radiation is widely used to facilitate the detection of small amounts and low concentrations of
155:
2763:
1856:
frequencies, the refractive index becomes less than 1 (note that in media, the phase velocity may exceed
1223:
decreases and the velocity of charged particles can exceed the phase velocity while remaining lower than
1045:
Cherenkov radiation can also radiate in an arbitrary direction using properly engineered one dimensional
445:
400:
4366:
4101:
2902:
2301:
2251:
2092:, a former solar tower refurbished to work as a non-imaging Cherenkov observatory, which was located in
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35:
2033:
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2707:
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1938:
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without violating relativity) and hence no X-ray emission (or shorter wavelength emissions such as
1752:
1613:
1341:
1301:
1216:
1083:), reversing or steering Cherenkov emission at arbitrary angles given by the generalized relation:
745:
178:
of the radiation and came to the conclusion that the bluish glow was not a fluorescent phenomenon.
2552:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
2448:
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186:
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1306:
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314:(can be polarized electrically) medium with a speed greater than light's speed in that medium.
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3522:
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3430:
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2622:
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2526:
2499:
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2402:
2311:
2284:
2100:
2061:
1997:
1989:
1942:
1163:{\displaystyle \cos \theta ={\frac {1}{n\beta }}+{\frac {n}{k_{0}}}\cdot {\frac {d\phi }{dx}}}
489:
230:
215:
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in 1904, but both had been quickly dismissed following the relativity theory's restriction of
211:
2468:
1593:
1176:. The angle stays the same, meaning that subsequent waves generated between the initial time
4233:
3825:
3723:
3658:"Technical Note: Time-gating to medical linear accelerator pulses: Stray radiation detector"
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2571:
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2005:
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Note that since this ratio is independent of time, one can take arbitrary times and achieve
697:
542:
390:
207:
119:
99:
51:
3223:
Bolotovskii, B. M. (2009). "Vavilov – Cherenkov radiation: Its discovery and application".
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1888:
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3727:
3703:
2678:"For the first time, scientists capture light flashes from human eye during radiotherapy"
344:
3821:
3792:
3719:
3580:
3465:
3362:
Zhong, Jianghong; Qin, Chenghu; Yang, Xin; Zhu, Shuping; Zhang, Xing; Tian, Jie (2011).
3322:
3307:"Optical imaging of reporter gene expression using a positron-emission-tomography probe"
3238:
3168:"Experimentally Observed Cherenkov Light Generation in the Eye During Radiation Therapy"
3095:
3007:
2915:
2833:
2708:"Experimentally Observed Cherenkov Light Generation in the Eye During Radiation Therapy"
2567:
2495:
Oliver Heaviside: The Life, Work, and Times of an Electrical Genius of the Victorian Age
492:
leads to an observed cone-like light signal at a characteristic angle: Cherenkov light.
4193:
4151:
4141:
4063:
4053:
4023:
3798:
3773:
3766:
3537:
3518:
3482:
3449:
3398:
3363:
3339:
3306:
3200:
3167:
2732:
2706:
Tendler, Irwin I.; Hartford, Alan; Jermyn, Michael; Pogue, Brian W. (25 October 2019).
2439:
2345:
2287:, about conjectural propagation of information or matter faster than the speed of light
2278:
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2211:
2193:
2001:
1848:
1825:
1741:
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1703:
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1573:
1553:
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1345:
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1220:
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576:
In the figure on the geometry, the particle (red arrow) travels in a medium with speed
530:
526:
372:
338:
263:
242:
159:
127:
115:
2812:
2281:, radiation produced when charged particles are decelerated by other charged particles
30:
4384:
4268:
4028:
4013:
3735:
3254:
3144:
3110:
3066:
2142:
2009:
1958:
3031:
2939:
2881:
Tamm, I.E.; Frank, I.M. (1937), "Coherent radiation of fast electrons in a medium",
2867:
2601:
1195:
A reverse Cherenkov effect can be experienced using materials called negative-index
4248:
4208:
4073:
3606:
3246:
3015:
2368:
2025:
1748:
1200:
1196:
1046:
394:
246:
151:
17:
3702:
Branger, E; Grape, S; Jacobsson Svärd, S; Jansson, P; Andersson Sundén, E (2017).
572:
The geometry of the Cherenkov radiation shown for the ideal case of no dispersion.
200:
Cherenkov radiation as conical wavefronts had been theoretically predicted by the
3900:
3634:
3183:
2962:
2779:
2723:
2651:
2520:
2493:
1887:
Cherenkov radiation can be generated in the eye by charged particles hitting the
930:
whereas the emitted electromagnetic waves are constricted to travel the distance
771:
We define the ratio between the speed of the particle and the speed of light as
3990:
1981:
1950:
1946:
1913:
1764:
219:
3136:
1924:
158:
winner, who was the first to detect it experimentally under the supervision of
4038:
3985:
3855:
3844:
3589:
3058:
3045:
Wang, Zhong-Yue (2016). "Generalized momentum equation of quantum mechanics".
2340:
2296:
2093:
2029:
1966:
1962:
1954:
1760:
1215:
The Cherenkov effect can occur in vacuum. In a slow-wave structure, like in a
1187:
will form similar triangles with coinciding right endpoints to the one shown.
519:
508:
504:
311:
194:
175:
135:
107:
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2585:
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instead of less energetic visible light, as done commonly. He discovered the
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2851:
2684:. American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 7 January 2020
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190:
181:
A theory of this effect was later developed in 1937 within the framework of
171:
123:
3642:
3598:
3546:
3491:
3473:
3407:
3348:
3291:
3283:
3209:
3111:"Coherence and superradiance from a plasma-based quasiparticle accelerator"
3023:
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2923:
2859:
2787:
2741:
2593:
2576:
2547:
2088:. Other projects operated in the past applying related techniques, such as
3434:
3421:
Sinoff, C. L (1991). "Radical irradiation for carcinoma of the prostate".
3388:
2616:
1941:
or from external beam radiotherapy in oncology. Radioisotopes such as the
1332:. This type of radiation (VCR) is used to generate high-power microwaves.
3975:
3960:
3450:"In vivo Cerenkov luminescence imaging: A new tool for molecular imaging"
2762:
Blumenthal, Deborah T.; Corn, Benjamin W.; Shtraus, Natan (August 2015).
2134:
2130:
2073:
2057:
2037:
511:
321:
Cherenkov radiation during Scheduled Refueling and Maintenance Outage of
307:
204:
103:
3423:
South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde
1996:
Cherenkov radiation is used to detect high-energy charged particles. In
306:. Cherenkov radiation results when a charged particle, most commonly an
298:
can accelerate to a velocity higher than this (although still less than
4253:
3448:
Mitchell, G. S; Gill, R. K; Boucher, D. L; Li, C; Cherry, S. R (2011).
2316:
2085:
2053:
201:
3330:
2425:(1934). "Visible emission of clean liquids by action of γ radiation".
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for particle identification. One could measure (or put limits on) the
568:
2104:
2089:
1244:
295:
268:
223:
337:
these waves will form spherical wavefronts which propagate with the
3127:
2998:
2811:
Luo, C.; Ibanescu, M.; Johnson, S. G.; Joannopoulos, J. D. (2003).
2522:
Radioactivity: Introduction and History, From the Quantum to Quarks
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1986:
1980:
1923:
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547:
515:
494:
316:
284:
29:
3748:
3505:
Das, S.; Thorek, D. L. J.; Grimm, J. (2014). "Cerenkov Imaging".
2137:
of the particle is measured independently, one could compute the
2255:
2138:
2049:
2045:
1969:
have been imaged in humans for diagnostic value demonstration.
341:
of that medium (i.e. the speed of light in that medium given by
302:, the speed of light in vacuum) during nuclear reactions and in
3904:
3704:"On Cherenkov light production by irradiated nuclear fuel rods"
2621:(1st ed.). New Delhi: New Age International. p. 189.
1920:
Medical imaging of radioisotopes and external beam radiotherapy
1884:
direction and speed of a Cherenkov radiation-producing charge.
2021:
1929:
3685:
International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics
3623:
International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics
3172:
International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics
2712:
International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics
985:{\displaystyle x_{\text{em}}=v_{\text{em}}t={\frac {c}{n}}t.}
54:
27:
Electromagnetic radiation from a charged particle in a medium
1365:
are different from the electrons in the structure at a time
3764:
Landau, L. D.; Liftshitz, E. M.; Pitaevskii, L. P. (1984).
3454:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A
2072:
and other projects. Similar methods are used in very large
1570:
emitted from Cherenkov radiation, per unit length traveled
69:
66:
57:
3749:
The High Momentum Particle Identification Detector at CERN
75:
1879:
As in sonic booms and bow shocks, the angle of the shock
2270:, similar radiation produced by fast uncharged particles
700:
of the medium. If the medium is water, the condition is
554:
University of Massachusetts Lowell Radiation Laboratory
3507:
Emerging Applications of Molecular Imaging to Oncology
1965:
have measurable Cherenkov emission and isotopes F and
1770:
There is a cut-off frequency above which the equation
1550:
The Frank–Tamm formula describes the amount of energy
2242:
The most advanced type of a detector is the RICH, or
2220:
2196:
2155:
2125:
Cherenkov radiation is commonly used in experimental
1828:
1776:
1726:
1706:
1682:
1649:
1616:
1596:
1576:
1556:
1400:
1390:
of Cherenkov radiation by a particle is given by the
1309:
1282:
1253:
1229:
1089:
1055:
1000:
936:
923:{\displaystyle x_{\text{p}}=v_{\text{p}}t=\beta \,ct}
880:
824:
777:
748:
706:
682:
658:
609:
582:
537:
minimum particle velocity, a phenomenon known as the
448:
403:
375:
347:
78:
72:
2955:"Topsy turvy: The first true "left handed" material"
1676:
of the material the charged particle moves through.
645:{\displaystyle {\frac {c}{n}}<v_{\text{p}}<c,}
63:
4318:
4282:
4169:
3999:
3946:
3939:
2437:Reprinted in Selected Papers of Soviet Physicists,
2401:(3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 637–638.
60:
3765:
2226:
2202:
2182:
2141:of the particle by its momentum and velocity (see
1834:
1811:
1732:
1712:
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1664:
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1602:
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1268:
1235:
1162:
1075:
1030:
984:
922:
853:
806:
760:
734:
688:
664:
644:
595:
475:
430:
381:
361:
241:discovered Cherenkov light being generated in the
2764:"Flashes of light-radiation therapy to the brain"
1031:{\displaystyle \cos \theta ={\frac {1}{n\beta }}}
807:{\displaystyle \beta ={\frac {v_{\text{p}}}{c}}.}
210:in papers published between 1888 and 1889 and by
2548:"Oliver Heaviside: an accidental time traveller"
226:irradiating water having a continuous spectrum.
1932:beam from a linear accelerator in radiotherapy.
541:. In a more complex periodic medium, such as a
34:Cherenkov radiation glowing in the core of the
3916:
854:{\displaystyle v_{\text{em}}={\frac {c}{n}}.}
8:
3857:Nuclear Reactor starting up (alternate link)
2293:, giving the spectrum of Cherenkov radiation
2004:(high-energy electrons) are released as the
3376:International Journal of Biomedical Imaging
1348:are created and may travel faster than the
3943:
3923:
3909:
3901:
2953:Schewe, P. F.; Stein, B. (24 March 2004).
2701:
2699:
2250:), one of the six experiments at the LHC (
1891:, giving the impression of flashes, as in
818:(denoted by blue arrows) travel at speed
735:{\displaystyle 0.75c<v_{\text{p}}<c}
525:The velocity that must be exceeded is the
3588:
3536:
3481:
3397:
3387:
3338:
3199:
3126:
2997:
2841:
2813:"Cerenkov Radiation in Photonic Crystals"
2731:
2575:
2219:
2195:
2172:
2160:
2154:
1827:
1792:
1775:
1725:
1705:
1681:
1648:
1615:
1595:
1575:
1555:
1514:
1504:
1493:
1487:
1475:
1444:
1438:
1425:
1408:
1401:
1399:
1344:setups, structures up to nanocoulombs of
1308:
1281:
1252:
1228:
1140:
1129:
1120:
1102:
1088:
1062:
1054:
1013:
999:
966:
954:
941:
935:
913:
898:
885:
879:
838:
829:
823:
790:
784:
776:
747:
720:
705:
681:
657:
627:
610:
608:
587:
581:
465:
453:
447:
420:
408:
402:
374:
351:
346:
134:. Its cause is similar to the cause of a
2806:
2804:
1812:{\displaystyle \cos \theta =1/(n\beta )}
197:, who also shared the 1958 Nobel Prize.
166:in 1934. Therefore, it is also known as
3794:Cerenkov Radiation and Its Applications
2369:"Cerenkov – Search | ScienceDirect.com"
2332:
2046:Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Technique
1316:
1260:
4264:Wireless electronic devices and health
3364:"Cerenkov Luminescence Tomography for
7:
4290:List of civilian radiation accidents
4259:Wireless device radiation and health
4254:Biological dose units and quantities
4204:Electromagnetic radiation and health
3869:"Cherenkov's Particles as Magnetons"
2145:), and hence identify the particle.
874:, the particle travels the distance
229:In 2019, a team of researchers from
154:scientist Pavel Cherenkov, the 1958
3768:Electrodynamics of Continuous Media
476:{\displaystyle v_{\text{p}}>c/n}
431:{\displaystyle v_{\text{p}}<c/n}
4239:Radioactivity in the life sciences
3519:10.1016/B978-0-12-411638-2.00006-9
3513:. Vol. 124. pp. 213–34.
2082:Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO)
1908:Detection of labelled biomolecules
1895:and possibly some observations of
1720:is the speed of the particle, and
25:
2519:L'Annunziata, Michael F. (2016).
2469:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1958"
994:So the emission angle results in
189:theory by Cherenkov's colleagues
150:The radiation is named after the
3083:Soviet Technical Physics Letters
1819:can no longer be satisfied. The
499:Animation of Cherenkov radiation
50:
3679:Jarvis, L. A. (April 1, 2021).
3047:Optical and Quantum Electronics
2653:The Physics of Nuclear Reactors
2498:. JHU Press. pp. 125–126.
2379:from the original on 2024-01-22
2248:A Large Ion Collider Experiment
2244:ring-imaging Cherenkov detector
2121:Ring imaging Cherenkov detector
3728:10.1088/1748-0221/12/06/T06001
3247:10.3367/UFNe.0179.200911c.1161
3016:10.1103/PhysRevLett.122.161601
2525:. Elsevier. pp. 547–548.
1806:
1797:
1659:
1653:
1626:
1620:
1526:
1520:
1469:
1463:
1269:{\displaystyle p=\hbar \beta }
114:) at a speed greater than the
1:
4406:Experimental particle physics
3656:Ashraf, M.R. (Dec 14, 2018).
2959:American Institute of Physics
2036:, it may produce an electron–
1632:{\displaystyle \mu (\omega )}
761:{\displaystyle n\approx 1.33}
3635:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2014.01.046
3569:Journal of Biomedical Optics
3311:Journal of Biomedical Optics
3184:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2019.10.031
2780:10.1016/j.radonc.2015.07.034
2724:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2019.10.031
2397:Jackson, John David (1999).
2111:Particle physics experiments
596:{\displaystyle v_{\text{p}}}
4127:Cosmic background radiation
3562:"First human Cerenkography"
3511:Advances in Cancer Research
1893:cosmic ray visual phenomena
552:Cherenkov radiation in the
239:Norris Cotton Cancer Center
218:particles until the 1970s.
168:Vavilov–Cherenkov radiation
4427:
4356:
4214:Lasers and aviation safety
3708:Journal of Instrumentation
3137:10.1038/s41566-023-01311-z
2428:Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR
2114:
2052:), by experiments such as
1665:{\displaystyle n(\omega )}
4354:
4244:Radioactive contamination
4097:Electromagnetic radiation
4087:
3867:Radović, Andrija (2002).
3590:10.1117/1.JBO.18.2.020502
3059:10.1007/s11082-015-0261-8
2768:Radiotherapy and Oncology
2656:. Springer. p. 191.
2618:Classical electrodynamics
2454:October 22, 2007, at the
2399:Classical electrodynamics
2346:Dictionary.com Unabridged
2183:{\displaystyle v_{0}=c/n}
1985:Cherenkov radiation in a
1325:{\displaystyle p=\hbar k}
1076:{\displaystyle d\phi /dx}
768:for water at 20 °C.
529:of light rather than the
490:constructive interference
96:electromagnetic radiation
40:Idaho National Laboratory
4357:See also the categories
4295:1996 Costa Rica accident
3956:Acoustic radiation force
3882:(4): 1–5. Archived from
3846:Nuclear Reactor start up
3710:(Submitted manuscript).
2070:Pierre Auger Observatory
2016:Astrophysics experiments
1191:Reverse Cherenkov effect
1041:Arbitrary emission angle
674:speed of light in vacuum
503:A common analogy is the
4269:Radiation heat-transfer
4122:Gravitational radiation
3830:10.1103/PhysRev.92.1069
2986:Physical Review Letters
2852:10.1126/science.1079549
2650:Marguet, Serge (2017).
2546:Nahin, Paul J. (2018).
2307:Non-radiation condition
2076:detectors, such as the
1867:Kramers–Kronig relation
1603:{\displaystyle \omega }
245:of patients undergoing
4310:1990 Zaragoza accident
4305:1984 Moroccan accident
4274:Linear energy transfer
3948:Non-ionizing radiation
3791:Jelley, J. V. (1958).
3474:10.1098/rsta.2011.0271
3317:(6): 060505–060505–3.
3284:10.1002/smll.200902408
2924:10.1038/nnano.2015.137
2577:10.1098/rsta.2017.0448
2228:
2204:
2184:
1993:
1933:
1836:
1813:
1734:
1714:
1690:
1666:
1633:
1604:
1584:
1564:
1542:
1326:
1290:
1289:{\displaystyle \beta }
1270:
1237:
1164:
1077:
1032:
986:
924:
855:
808:
762:
736:
690:
666:
646:
597:
573:
556:
500:
477:
432:
383:
363:
326:
42:
4300:1987 Goiânia accident
4102:Synchrotron radiation
4092:Earth's energy budget
4074:Radioactive materials
4069:Particle accelerators
3876:Journal of Theoretics
2903:Nature Nanotechnology
2883:Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR
2615:Sengupta, P. (2000).
2492:Nahin, P. J. (1988).
2447:, 1999, s. 149–153. (
2302:List of light sources
2252:Large Hadron Collider
2229:
2205:
2185:
1984:
1927:
1897:criticality accidents
1837:
1814:
1735:
1715:
1691:
1667:
1634:
1605:
1585:
1565:
1543:
1327:
1291:
1271:
1238:
1165:
1078:
1033:
987:
925:
856:
809:
763:
737:
691:
667:
647:
598:
571:
551:
498:
478:
433:
384:
364:
320:
304:particle accelerators
36:Advanced Test Reactor
33:
4371:Radiation protection
4224:Radiation protection
4112:Black-body radiation
4019:Background radiation
3934:(physics and health)
2322:Transition radiation
2218:
2194:
2153:
2020:When a high-energy (
1939:radiopharmaceuticals
1873:Anomalous dispersion
1826:
1774:
1724:
1704:
1680:
1647:
1614:
1594:
1574:
1554:
1398:
1336:Collective Cherenkov
1307:
1280:
1251:
1227:
1087:
1053:
998:
934:
878:
822:
775:
746:
704:
680:
656:
607:
580:
539:Smith–Purcell effect
446:
401:
373:
345:
323:Arkansas Nuclear One
310:, travels through a
4341:Radiation hardening
4283:Radiation incidents
4219:Medical radiography
4178:Radiation syndrome
4132:Cherenkov radiation
3822:1953PhRv...92.1069S
3720:2017JInst..12.6001B
3581:2013JBO....18b0502S
3466:2011RSPTA.369.4605M
3389:10.1155/2011/641618
3370:Radiopharmaceutical
3323:2010JBO....15f0505L
3239:2009PhyU...52.1099B
3096:1983PZhTF...9.1385B
3008:2019PhRvL.122p1601M
2916:2015NatNa..10..804G
2834:2003Sci...299..368L
2568:2018RSPTA.37670448N
2032:interacts with the
1852:is close to 1). At
1674:index of refraction
1342:plasma acceleration
1302:de Broglie relation
1217:traveling-wave tube
362:{\displaystyle c/n}
235:Dartmouth-Hitchcock
106:) passes through a
46:Cherenkov radiation
18:Cherenkov Radiation
4401:Special relativity
4391:Physical phenomena
4336:Radioactive source
4157:Radiation exposure
4137:Askaryan radiation
4117:Particle radiation
4001:Ionizing radiation
2291:Frank–Tamm formula
2268:Askaryan radiation
2224:
2200:
2180:
2117:Cherenkov detector
2101:supernova remnants
2034:Earth's atmosphere
1998:open pool reactors
1994:
1934:
1832:
1809:
1730:
1710:
1686:
1662:
1629:
1600:
1590:and per frequency
1580:
1560:
1538:
1392:Frank–Tamm formula
1388:frequency spectrum
1322:
1300:) rather than the
1286:
1266:
1233:
1160:
1073:
1028:
982:
920:
851:
804:
758:
732:
686:
662:
642:
593:
574:
557:
501:
473:
428:
379:
359:
335:Huygens' principle
327:
274:universal constant
187:special relativity
92:Cerenkov radiation
43:
4378:
4377:
4359:Radiation effects
4229:Radiation therapy
4165:
4164:
4107:Thermal radiation
4044:Neutron radiation
4009:Radioactive decay
3783:978-0-08-030275-1
3460:(1955): 4605–19.
3331:10.1117/1.3514659
3233:(11): 1099–1110.
2663:978-3-319-59559-7
2628:978-81-224-1249-9
2560:The Royal Society
2532:978-0-444-63489-4
2505:978-0-8018-6909-9
2312:Radioluminescence
2285:Faster-than-light
2227:{\displaystyle n}
2203:{\displaystyle c}
1835:{\displaystyle n}
1733:{\displaystyle c}
1713:{\displaystyle v}
1700:of the particle,
1689:{\displaystyle q}
1583:{\displaystyle x}
1563:{\displaystyle E}
1530:
1458:
1433:
1236:{\displaystyle c}
1174:similar triangles
1158:
1135:
1115:
1026:
974:
957:
944:
901:
888:
846:
832:
799:
793:
723:
689:{\displaystyle n}
665:{\displaystyle c}
630:
618:
590:
456:
411:
382:{\displaystyle n}
281:= 299,792,458 m/s
212:Arnold Sommerfeld
164:Lebedev Institute
86:) (also known as
16:(Redirected from
4418:
4396:Particle physics
4319:Related articles
4234:Radiation damage
4059:Nuclear reactors
3944:
3925:
3918:
3911:
3902:
3897:
3895:
3894:
3888:
3873:
3858:
3847:
3833:
3802:
3787:
3771:
3751:
3746:
3740:
3739:
3699:
3693:
3692:
3676:
3670:
3669:
3653:
3647:
3646:
3617:
3611:
3610:
3592:
3566:
3557:
3551:
3550:
3540:
3502:
3496:
3495:
3485:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3418:
3412:
3411:
3401:
3391:
3359:
3353:
3352:
3342:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3265:
3259:
3258:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3203:
3162:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3151:
3130:
3115:Nature Photonics
3106:
3100:
3099:
3077:
3071:
3070:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3001:
2981:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2970:
2961:. Archived from
2950:
2944:
2943:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2845:
2828:(5605): 368–71.
2817:
2808:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2759:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2735:
2703:
2694:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2579:
2543:
2537:
2536:
2516:
2510:
2509:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2465:
2459:
2436:
2423:Cherenkov, P. A.
2419:
2413:
2412:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2384:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2337:
2236:refractive index
2233:
2231:
2230:
2225:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2189:
2187:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2165:
2164:
2127:particle physics
2078:Super-Kamiokande
2006:fission products
1977:Nuclear reactors
1841:
1839:
1838:
1833:
1821:refractive index
1818:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1796:
1739:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1719:
1717:
1716:
1711:
1695:
1693:
1692:
1687:
1671:
1669:
1668:
1663:
1638:
1636:
1635:
1630:
1609:
1607:
1606:
1601:
1589:
1587:
1586:
1581:
1569:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1547:
1545:
1544:
1539:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1519:
1518:
1509:
1508:
1498:
1497:
1488:
1459:
1457:
1449:
1448:
1439:
1434:
1432:
1417:
1413:
1412:
1402:
1377:
1364:
1331:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1295:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1267:
1242:
1240:
1239:
1234:
1182:
1169:
1167:
1166:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1149:
1141:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1121:
1116:
1114:
1103:
1082:
1080:
1079:
1074:
1066:
1037:
1035:
1034:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1014:
991:
989:
988:
983:
975:
967:
959:
958:
955:
946:
945:
942:
929:
927:
926:
921:
903:
902:
899:
890:
889:
886:
869:
860:
858:
857:
852:
847:
839:
834:
833:
830:
813:
811:
810:
805:
800:
795:
794:
791:
785:
767:
765:
764:
759:
741:
739:
738:
733:
725:
724:
721:
698:refractive index
695:
693:
692:
687:
671:
669:
668:
663:
651:
649:
648:
643:
632:
631:
628:
619:
611:
602:
600:
599:
594:
592:
591:
588:
543:photonic crystal
482:
480:
479:
474:
469:
458:
457:
454:
437:
435:
434:
429:
424:
413:
412:
409:
391:refractive index
388:
386:
385:
380:
368:
366:
365:
360:
355:
290:
282:
208:Oliver Heaviside
126:in a medium) of
110:medium (such as
100:charged particle
85:
84:
81:
80:
77:
74:
71:
68:
65:
62:
59:
56:
21:
4426:
4425:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4416:
4415:
4381:
4380:
4379:
4374:
4373:
4350:
4346:Havana syndrome
4331:Nuclear physics
4314:
4278:
4171:
4161:
4147:Unruh radiation
4083:
4064:Nuclear weapons
4049:Nuclear fission
3995:
3935:
3929:
3892:
3890:
3886:
3871:
3866:
3856:
3845:
3841:
3836:
3809:Physical Review
3805:
3790:
3784:
3763:
3759:
3754:
3747:
3743:
3701:
3700:
3696:
3691:(5): 1627–1637.
3678:
3677:
3673:
3668:(2): 1044–1048.
3662:Medical Physics
3655:
3654:
3650:
3619:
3618:
3614:
3564:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3529:
3504:
3503:
3499:
3447:
3446:
3442:
3420:
3419:
3415:
3361:
3360:
3356:
3304:
3303:
3299:
3278:(10): 1087–91.
3267:
3266:
3262:
3226:Physics-Uspekhi
3222:
3221:
3217:
3164:
3163:
3159:
3149:
3147:
3108:
3107:
3103:
3079:
3078:
3074:
3044:
3043:
3039:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2968:
2966:
2952:
2951:
2947:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2880:
2879:
2875:
2843:10.1.1.540.8969
2815:
2810:
2809:
2802:
2792:
2790:
2761:
2760:
2756:
2746:
2744:
2705:
2704:
2697:
2687:
2685:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2649:
2648:
2644:
2629:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2533:
2518:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2477:
2475:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2456:Wayback Machine
2421:
2420:
2416:
2409:
2396:
2395:
2391:
2382:
2380:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2352:
2350:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2264:
2216:
2215:
2192:
2191:
2156:
2151:
2150:
2123:
2113:
2018:
1979:
1922:
1910:
1905:
1889:vitreous humour
1824:
1823:
1772:
1771:
1722:
1721:
1702:
1701:
1698:electric charge
1678:
1677:
1645:
1644:
1612:
1611:
1592:
1591:
1572:
1571:
1552:
1551:
1510:
1500:
1499:
1489:
1480:
1476:
1450:
1440:
1418:
1404:
1403:
1396:
1395:
1384:
1382:Characteristics
1376:
1366:
1363:
1353:
1338:
1305:
1304:
1278:
1277:
1249:
1248:
1225:
1224:
1213:
1193:
1183:and final time
1177:
1150:
1142:
1125:
1107:
1085:
1084:
1051:
1050:
1043:
1018:
996:
995:
950:
937:
932:
931:
894:
881:
876:
875:
864:
825:
820:
819:
786:
773:
772:
744:
743:
716:
702:
701:
678:
677:
654:
653:
623:
605:
604:
583:
578:
577:
566:
449:
444:
443:
404:
399:
398:
371:
370:
343:
342:
288:
287:it is only 0.75
277:
260:
255:
253:Physical origin
148:
140:Pavel Cherenkov
132:nuclear reactor
112:distilled water
98:emitted when a
53:
49:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4424:
4422:
4414:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4383:
4382:
4376:
4375:
4355:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4322:
4320:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4286:
4284:
4280:
4279:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4194:Health physics
4191:
4190:
4189:
4184:
4175:
4173:
4167:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4160:
4159:
4154:
4152:Dark radiation
4149:
4144:
4142:Bremsstrahlung
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4088:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4054:Nuclear fusion
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4024:Alpha particle
4021:
4016:
4011:
4005:
4003:
3997:
3996:
3994:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3952:
3950:
3941:
3937:
3936:
3930:
3928:
3927:
3920:
3913:
3905:
3899:
3898:
3864:
3853:
3840:
3839:External links
3837:
3835:
3834:
3803:
3799:Pergamon Press
3788:
3782:
3774:Pergamon Press
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3752:
3741:
3694:
3671:
3648:
3629:(3): 615–622.
3612:
3552:
3527:
3497:
3440:
3413:
3354:
3297:
3260:
3215:
3178:(2): 422–429.
3157:
3101:
3072:
3037:
2992:(16): 161601.
2976:
2945:
2910:(9): 804–809.
2892:
2873:
2800:
2774:(2): 331–333.
2754:
2718:(2): 422–429.
2695:
2669:
2662:
2642:
2627:
2607:
2538:
2531:
2511:
2504:
2484:
2473:NobelPrize.org
2460:
2440:Usp. Fiz. Nauk
2414:
2407:
2389:
2373:Science Direct
2360:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2288:
2282:
2279:Bremsstrahlung
2276:
2271:
2263:
2260:
2223:
2212:speed of light
2199:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2168:
2163:
2159:
2112:
2109:
2017:
2014:
2002:beta particles
1978:
1975:
1921:
1918:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1831:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1742:speed of light
1729:
1709:
1685:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1599:
1579:
1559:
1535:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1517:
1513:
1507:
1503:
1496:
1492:
1486:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1456:
1453:
1447:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1383:
1380:
1374:
1361:
1350:speed of light
1337:
1334:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1298:phase constant
1285:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1232:
1221:phase velocity
1212:
1209:
1192:
1189:
1156:
1153:
1148:
1145:
1139:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1058:
1042:
1039:
1024:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1009:
1006:
1003:
981:
978:
973:
970:
965:
962:
953:
949:
940:
919:
916:
912:
909:
906:
897:
893:
884:
850:
845:
842:
837:
828:
803:
798:
789:
783:
780:
757:
754:
751:
731:
728:
719:
715:
712:
709:
685:
661:
641:
638:
635:
626:
622:
617:
614:
586:
565:
564:Emission angle
562:
531:group velocity
527:phase velocity
472:
468:
464:
461:
452:
427:
423:
419:
416:
407:
378:
358:
354:
350:
339:phase velocity
333:waves and via
325:Unit 2 (ANO-2)
264:speed of light
259:
256:
254:
251:
243:vitreous humor
160:Sergey Vavilov
147:
144:
116:phase velocity
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4423:
4412:
4411:Light sources
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4388:
4386:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4363:Radioactivity
4360:
4353:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4323:
4321:
4317:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4281:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4168:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4089:
4086:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4029:Beta particle
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4014:Cluster decay
4012:
4010:
4007:
4006:
4004:
4002:
3998:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3951:
3949:
3945:
3942:
3940:Main articles
3938:
3933:
3926:
3921:
3919:
3914:
3912:
3907:
3906:
3903:
3889:on 2016-03-04
3885:
3881:
3877:
3870:
3865:
3863:
3859:
3854:
3852:
3848:
3843:
3842:
3838:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3810:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3795:
3789:
3785:
3779:
3775:
3770:
3769:
3762:
3761:
3756:
3750:
3745:
3742:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3714:(6): T06001.
3713:
3709:
3705:
3698:
3695:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3675:
3672:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3652:
3649:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3616:
3613:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3575:(2): 020502.
3574:
3570:
3563:
3556:
3553:
3548:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3530:
3528:9780124116382
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3501:
3498:
3493:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3444:
3441:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3417:
3414:
3409:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3371:
3367:
3358:
3355:
3350:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3301:
3298:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3272:
3264:
3261:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3227:
3219:
3216:
3211:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3161:
3158:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3105:
3102:
3097:
3093:
3090:: 1385–1389.
3089:
3085:
3084:
3076:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3041:
3038:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2980:
2977:
2965:on 2009-01-31
2964:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2946:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2904:
2896:
2893:
2888:
2884:
2877:
2874:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2822:
2814:
2807:
2805:
2801:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2758:
2755:
2743:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2702:
2700:
2696:
2683:
2679:
2673:
2670:
2665:
2659:
2655:
2654:
2646:
2643:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2624:
2620:
2619:
2611:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2542:
2539:
2534:
2528:
2524:
2523:
2515:
2512:
2507:
2501:
2497:
2496:
2488:
2485:
2474:
2470:
2464:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2441:
2434:
2430:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2415:
2410:
2408:0-471-30932-X
2404:
2400:
2393:
2390:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2364:
2361:
2349:(Online). n.d
2348:
2347:
2342:
2336:
2333:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2240:
2237:
2221:
2213:
2197:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2166:
2161:
2157:
2146:
2144:
2143:four-momentum
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2122:
2118:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2010:radioactivity
2007:
2003:
1999:
1991:
1988:
1983:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1931:
1926:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1907:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1885:
1882:
1877:
1875:
1874:
1869:
1868:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1829:
1822:
1803:
1800:
1793:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1745:
1743:
1727:
1707:
1699:
1683:
1675:
1656:
1650:
1642:
1623:
1617:
1597:
1577:
1557:
1548:
1533:
1523:
1515:
1511:
1505:
1501:
1494:
1490:
1484:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1451:
1445:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1426:
1422:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1405:
1393:
1389:
1381:
1379:
1373:
1369:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1335:
1333:
1319:
1313:
1310:
1303:
1299:
1283:
1263:
1257:
1254:
1246:
1230:
1222:
1218:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1203:and negative
1202:
1198:
1197:metamaterials
1190:
1188:
1186:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1154:
1151:
1146:
1143:
1137:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1111:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1048:
1047:metamaterials
1040:
1038:
1022:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
992:
979:
976:
971:
968:
963:
960:
951:
947:
938:
917:
914:
910:
907:
904:
895:
891:
882:
873:
867:
861:
848:
843:
840:
835:
826:
817:
801:
796:
787:
781:
778:
769:
755:
752:
749:
729:
726:
717:
713:
710:
707:
699:
683:
675:
659:
639:
636:
633:
624:
620:
615:
612:
584:
570:
563:
561:
555:
550:
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
523:
521:
517:
513:
510:
506:
497:
493:
491:
486:
470:
466:
462:
459:
450:
441:
425:
421:
417:
414:
405:
396:
392:
376:
356:
352:
348:
340:
336:
332:
324:
319:
315:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
286:
280:
275:
271:
270:
265:
257:
252:
250:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
227:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
206:
203:
198:
196:
192:
188:
184:
179:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
145:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
83:
47:
41:
37:
32:
19:
4367:Radiobiology
4249:Radiobiology
4209:Laser safety
4131:
3891:. Retrieved
3884:the original
3879:
3875:
3813:
3807:
3793:
3772:. New York:
3767:
3744:
3711:
3707:
3697:
3688:
3684:
3674:
3665:
3661:
3651:
3626:
3622:
3615:
3572:
3568:
3555:
3506:
3500:
3457:
3453:
3443:
3426:
3422:
3416:
3379:
3375:
3369:
3365:
3357:
3314:
3310:
3300:
3275:
3269:
3263:
3230:
3224:
3218:
3175:
3171:
3160:
3148:. Retrieved
3118:
3114:
3104:
3087:
3081:
3075:
3050:
3046:
3040:
2989:
2985:
2979:
2967:. Retrieved
2963:the original
2948:
2907:
2901:
2895:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2825:
2819:
2791:. Retrieved
2771:
2767:
2757:
2745:. Retrieved
2715:
2711:
2686:. Retrieved
2682:EurekaAlert!
2681:
2672:
2652:
2645:
2617:
2610:
2562:: 20170448.
2555:
2551:
2541:
2521:
2514:
2494:
2487:
2476:. Retrieved
2472:
2463:
2438:
2432:
2426:
2417:
2398:
2392:
2381:. Retrieved
2372:
2363:
2351:. Retrieved
2344:
2335:
2241:
2147:
2124:
2098:
2026:gamma photon
2019:
1995:
1990:reactor pool
1971:
1935:
1914:biomolecules
1911:
1886:
1878:
1871:
1865:
1857:
1847:
1843:
1769:
1749:fluorescence
1746:
1641:permeability
1549:
1385:
1371:
1367:
1358:
1354:
1339:
1214:
1205:permeability
1201:permittivity
1194:
1184:
1178:
1171:
1044:
993:
871:
865:
862:
814:The emitted
770:
575:
558:
534:
524:
502:
485:polarization
395:ground state
328:
299:
291:
278:
266:
261:
247:radiotherapy
228:
216:superluminal
199:
180:
167:
149:
102:(such as an
91:
87:
45:
44:
3991:Ultraviolet
3986:Radio waves
3816:(4): 1069.
2341:"Cherenkov"
1765:ultraviolet
1761:wavelengths
1744:in vacuum.
1219:(TWT), the
816:light waves
603:such that
520:shock front
231:Dartmouth's
220:Marie Curie
156:Nobel Prize
120:propagation
4385:Categories
4172:and health
4170:Radiation
4039:Cosmic ray
3893:2015-09-30
3797:. London:
3429:(8): 514.
3150:28 October
3128:2301.11082
2999:1810.05027
2969:1 December
2478:2021-05-06
2383:2024-01-22
2297:Light echo
2274:Blue noise
2115:See also:
2094:New Mexico
2030:cosmic ray
1862:gamma rays
1247:should be
509:supersonic
505:sonic boom
440:wavefronts
312:dielectric
262:While the
195:Ilya Frank
176:anisotropy
172:gamma rays
136:sonic boom
118:(speed of
108:dielectric
4326:Half-life
4199:Dosimetry
4034:Gamma ray
3981:Microwave
3971:Starlight
3932:Radiation
3736:125858461
3255:122316009
3192:0360-3016
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3067:124732329
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2328:Citations
1957:emitters
1945:emitters
1804:β
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1008:θ
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1943:positron
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3851:YouTube
3818:Bibcode
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