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tribes in the
American Northwest, which was in turn traded for species in Guangzhou, which was then used to purchase tea. From 1790 to 1812 supplies of furs and then sealskins were depleted and new products had to be found as demand also waned. In the Pacific Islands, merchants evaded cannibals and traded with natives to get sandalwood and sea slugs that could be traded for species. But those items soon ran their course, and by 1814 species had risen to nearly 70% of total American exports. In the 1820s, they attempted to compete with the British opium trade that monopolized the Indian crops by trading for Turkish opium. Massachusetts General Hospital, McLean Hospital and the Boston Athenæum, the Bunker Hill Monument, many factories, mines, the US's first railroad, university buildings, high schools, public libraries, and an orphanage were built with the proceeds of opium smuggling. The opium trade was profitable for American traders and some of these profits were reinvested to support the industrial revolution. However, the opium trade had a damaging effect on Chinese society.
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280:: American traders would devote large sums of money to buying and amassing large quantities of the metal for export to China. The Spanish silver bullion was primarily used to complement the less profitable American goods such as cheese, grain, and rum. The use of bullion eventually became considerable with over $ 62 million worth of species traded to China between 1805 and 1825. This practice, however, gradually declined after 1815, when American merchants began to participate in "chain trade" routes —the buying and selling of goods en route to Guangzhou. The second major —and by far the most lucrative— American export to China was ginseng. Hailed by the Chinese, among other cultures as shown by the genus' Latinate scientific name
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428:. Each American ship had a supercargo who acted as the commercial agent responsible for the purchases of Chinese goods. He had to arrive and leave on his vessel. It was not until 1800 that supercargoes began to establish themselves as resident agents in Guangzhou. These agents either served trading houses or operated off of commissions from other private merchants' transactions. Upon their emergence, large trading houses, greater capitalization, and higher volumes of trade became possible.
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290:, grew in Manchuria and the Appalachian Mountains. Transported from the interiors of Pennsylvania and Virginia to Philadelphia, New York, or Boston, ginseng was then shipped to China and sold for up to 250 times its weight in silver. Furs were the third-most lucrative American export to China. Searching for another type of item that could be sold to the Chinese aside from specie and ginseng, Americans soon found that the mandarins had a taste for
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piculs. Although it reached 25,890 piculs in 1798, soon the porcelain exports shrank to only 6,175 piculs in 1801. Finally, the amount of porcelain exported remains at an average level of 6,000 piculs per year around the 1820s. The reason for the drastic change in amounts of porcelain exported could result from the increase in the porcelain price due to the increasing labor cost and
Chinese duties on exporting porcelain.
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thereby replacing the earlier, smaller privateering vessels from the
American Revolution. As a result, Americans could achieve greater scale with the combination of tea clippers and British credit. Tea could be transported to American markets in less time and with greater freshness, translating into higher profits. By 1834, tea accounted for over 80% of the American trade from China.
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self-sufficient and did not have a large desire for foreign goods. Specie was very expensive and difficult to acquire considering that the supply coming from South
America fluctuated and it required a lot of goods to attain through a trade. Unable to afford to sustain high-level trading in specie, British merchants turned to the lucrative drug trade,
530:, which meant that Americans accused of crimes in China were to be tried by American courts only. This treaty was monumental in that it laid the foundation for a more extensive and regulated American trade with China; American ships would no longer make the sporadic—and somewhat reckless—voyages to China so characteristic of the Old China trade.
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returned home, she brought with her a large stock of outlandish
Chinese goods, which her owners sold for a significant profit of $ 30,000—a 25% gain. Other American merchants did not take long to realize that, while selling American species, ginseng, and fur to the Chinese was undoubtedly profitable,
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was at the mercy of the government's demands for revenue, and they had to add costs to the foreign merchants, in order to extract extra money for bribes to please the officials; although Qing court officials did not actively supervise foreign trade, China's government treasury reaped the benefits of
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from
October to December. The items were completed and shipped to Guangzhou in August or September for export. From the early 1780s to the 1810s, the export market started to shrink. Records show that in 1764, there were 20,116 piculs exported, while in 1784, the porcelain export declined to 13,780
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was created, all the small shopkeepers were moved to a new street on the quay which was later referred to as "China Street" (called
Jingyuan Jie 静远街/靖远街 in Chinese). There were about 180 different names of porcelain shops from foreign trade records between 1700 and 1800. However, since many of them
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to
British trading. Seeing that Britain could easily eliminate foreign competition in China with its new privileges and considerable trading prowess, Americans found the need to reestablish their diplomatic relations and commercial equality in China. For the previous fifty-nine years, Americans had
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had become the most important
American opium dealer. The founders of Russell & Co., Samuel Russell, and Philip Ammedon, had set up in the Chinese city in 1808, buying opium at auction from the EIC in Bombay, which they then shipped clandestinely to Guangzhou on the south coast of China. By 1827
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inspired other
American merchants to follow suit with the desire to enter a new market with great potential for profit. By 1803, American vessels outnumbered British and all other nations in the trade. While more numerous, American vessels were smaller, averaging just under 300 tons each, compared
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The Americans had less difficulty finding a variety of different products to barter for tea. The Empress of China and the following early vessels were able to use ginseng and some species to secure tea. Yet, the market for ginseng was rather small, so the Americans began trading furs with Indian
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doctrine, which deprecated trade, and the underlying ethnocentrism felt by the Chinese—they did not need to actively search for trade because the inferior white "barbarian" states would instinctively bring it to them as a form of tribute. Because of these factors, American traders began to focus
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for any and all demands. Consequently, the Americans did not have the leverage to raise political or legal protests and had to submit themselves to the Chinese justice system that believed in a "life for a life" and holding groups accountable for the actions of individuals. The chief concern of
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merchants and gradually substitute their cargoes away from carrying specie and more towards domestically manufactured items. The Americans could then later pay off the principal and interest on their loans to the British banks. From 1830 to 1850, faster and larger tea clippers were introduced,
436:
One of the largest problems faced by foreign traders in Guangzhou was finding a reliable medium of exchange that would enable sustainable trade with the Chinese. The Chinese were always willing to accept bullion, in exchange for tea and other products. This was because the Chinese were fairly
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Trade with China, originally an enterprise of seemingly limited prospects involving significant risk instead turned out to be extremely lucrative. American traders, then with a stable foothold in Guangzhou, were eager to sell their goods to China, but the Chinese interest in foreign goods was
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pelts, which could be inexpensively purchased from the Indians of the northwest coast of the United States and shipped to Guangzhou. The Chinese mandarins' desire for bullion, ginseng, and furs was the primary impetus for the United States' initiation of trade with China. The return of the
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There had always been a general American desire for foreign and sometimes exotic wares, and, with the British East India Company no longer the dominant force in American trade, the job of satisfying this demand fell to American merchants. Therefore, when the
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from British control. At the time, increased global demand for tea was one of the primary reasons for a shortage of silver; this was the only currency that the Chinese, sole producers of the commodity at the time, would accept in payment. The
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Before the rise of four American trading houses in the 1820s that controlled seven-eighths of the China trade by 1825—Perkins and Company, Jones Oakford and Company, Archer, and T. H. Smith—the American trade was conducted through the use of
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for opium from India and importing it to the Qing Empire. Beginning in 1767 and rapidly expanding through the early 1800s, opium was illegally traded for specie with the Chinese and then reinvested in tea for importation to Great Britain.
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appear in records only once or for a few years, there were only a total of 25 to 30 shops dealing with the porcelain business. Most of the porcelain dealers in Guangzhou were small, family-run operations with sales of less than 1,000
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The Americans meanwhile, also needed silver to finance their burgeoning international trade in furs, timber, and other commodities. They too looked to the Chinese market as a source of hard currency based on their monopoly of the
350:, fans, furniture, and porcelains, into the US, to the extent that even those of poor social classes possessed some Chinese items—perhaps a painting of Guangzhou's harbor or a pair of trousers made out of nankeen cloth.
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their funds on acquiring Chinese goods—a practice that the Chinese were more willing to adopt—rather than on purchasing those of the United States. What resulted was the flooding of Chinese teas, cotton, silks,
145:(EIC), monopoly suppliers of tea to the English market, got around the problem by indirect sales of opium (grown on their plantations in India) to the Chinese, the proceeds from which they used to pay for tea.
299:, which had carried all three commodities, and her by the now rich crew to Boston in 1785 inspired other Americans to make similar voyages. However, different reasons emerged for maintaining trade with China.
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of merchandise a year, while a few of them could manage to reach an annual gross sale of 10,000 taels per year. Each year, porcelain dealers generally placed their order to manufacturers at
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The American trade in Guangzhou existed primarily through private traders and without the supervision and supporting authority of the United States government. Soon after 1784, an
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472:, and was not allowed to fly the American flag over its factory until well after 1799. The Americans had to trade with the Chinese as subordinates instead of equals and use the
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and the foreign merchants were cordial and very peaceful, as both parties valued their reputations and had vested interests in preventing the disruption of trade. The
397:. This group owned a licensed monopoly on trade with foreigners and served as trading intermediaries accountable for their behavior and cargoes. Relations between the
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been interacting with China merely through their business transactions, without government-to-government communication. As a result, the administration of President
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was appointed in Guangzhou and functioned as a reporting agent on trade to the U.S. government. The consul was not recognized by the Chinese authorities or the
2020:
1415:. Cambridge: Committee on American-East Asian Relations of the Department of History in collaboration with Council on East Asian Studies Harvard University.
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in 1844. The Old China Trade represented the beginning of relations between the United States and East Asia, including eventually U.S.–China relations. The
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In the late 18th century, Chinese porcelain could be purchased from two sources: the licensed Hong merchants or the porcelain specialized shopkeepers.
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From the records, the original porcelain market was concentrated on a street several blocks north of the thirteen factory area. Until 1760, after the
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selling Chinese goods in the United States would be considerably more so. Further motivation came from the knowledge that China, as a whole, had a
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The innovation of the British credit system and issuance of banking bills allowed the American traders to clear their debts with
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Russell and Co. had become the largest American opium dealer in China, competing in the market alongside British firms including
108:, which resulted from an attempt by China to enforce its prohibition on opium smuggling by Western traders and blockade-runners.
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1511:
Wright, Conrad Edick (1984). "Merchants and Mandarins: New York and the Early China Trade". In Howard, David Sanctuary (ed.).
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Morris, Richard J. "Redefining the economic elite in Salem, Massachusetts, 1759-1799: A tale of evolution, not revolution."
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602:, consisting of 12 historic structures and about 9 acres (3.6 ha) of land along the waterfront in Salem, Massachusetts.
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251:, the dominant American presence in the Turkish opium business, along with one of his partners and his 16‑year-old nephew
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329:-like attitude towards foreign commerce; they tended to resist the importation of foreign goods because of a mixture of
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was among the wealthiest and most celebrated of post-Revolutionary merchants in Salem, Massachusetts, and owner of the
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182:. The "Chinese Queen", as the vessel was known, under the command of Captain John Green, carried a cargo of silver
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The Golden Ghetto: The American Commercial Community at Canton and the Shaping of American China policy, 1784–1844
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foreign traders was preventing the Chinese from closing trade, as they could threaten to do over legal disputes.
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to negotiate a treaty in which the United States would receive the same privileges as Britain. Cushing, in the
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240:, Shaw set up the firm of Shaw & Randall to advise American firms unfamiliar with trade in the Far East.
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1224:. Washington, D.C.: Published for the National Portrait Gallery by the Smithsonian Institution Press.
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for trade. In Guangzhou, the Americans encountered many European nations already trading under the
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When America First Met China: An Exotic History of Tea, Drugs, and Money in the Age of Sail
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Philadelphia and the China Trade, 1682–1846: Commercial, Cultural, and Attitudinal Effects
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responsible for supplying the ship with provisions and servicing the factories onshore.
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cargo and earned a substantial profit. As well as symbolizing a breach of the British
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America's China Trade in Historical Perspective: The Chinese and American Performance
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reviewed the cargo of each ship and collected tariffs that were then passed onto the
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William B. Cushing in the Far East: A Civil War Naval Hero Abroad, 1865-1869
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confined all Western trade to Guangzhou and regulated it through the use of
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So Great a Profit: How the East India Trade Transformed American Capitalism
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as a panacea, the most potent and therefore most demanded type of ginseng,
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The New Middle Kingdom: China and the Early American Romance of Free Trade
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America's First Adventure in China: Trade, Treaties, Opium, and Salvation
994:"Missionary Research Library Archives: D.W.C. Olyphant Papers, 1827-1851"
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was a major aspect of the Old China Trade, as was illegal trafficking in
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At the end of the First Opium War in 1842, Britain and China signed the
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The Journals of Major Samuel Shaw, the First American Consul at Canton
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tariff revenues. Additionally, each foreign vessel had to contract a
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The romance of China: excursions to China in U.S. culture, 1776–1876
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Richards, Rhys (1994), "United States trade with China, 1784-1814,"
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Richards, Rhys (1994), "United States trade with China, 1784-1814"
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Chop Suey: A Cultural History of Chinese Food in the United States
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limited. The first item that tended to sell in China was Spanish
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in 1844, not only achieved this goal but also won the right of
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Anglo-American hostilities ceased in 1783 following the Second
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Adventurous Pursuits: Americans and the China Trade, 1784–1844
736:, the first New England vessel to trade directly with China.
205:'s tea monopoly, the successful and lucrative voyage of the
992:
Scott, Gregory Adam; Kamsler, Brigette C. (February 2014).
27:
Early commerce between the Chinese Qing Empire and the US
229:, built-in 1864 for an American China trade merchant in
1546:
1436:. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company.
1368:
The "Fan Kwei" at Canton before Treaty Days, 1825–1844
1254:. Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Antique Collectors' Club.
574:
Legacy of the Old China Trade in Salem, Massachusetts
255:, subsequently opened operations in Guangzhou, where
1342:. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press.
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from the Old China Trade in two historic districts,
153:. The man who would become the United States' first
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2071:
2008:
1974:
1893:
1877:
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1633:
1590:
1024:"How Profits From Opium Shaped 19th-Century Boston"
598:Historic District containing 407 buildings and the
2107:History of trade of the People's Republic of China
1485:
42:'s Western trade was restricted from 1757 to 1842
1515:. New-York Historical Society. pp. 17–54.
1180:Porcelain Dealers in Eighteenth-Century Canton
1141:Porcelain Dealers in Eighteenth-Century Canton
1102:Porcelain Dealers in Eighteenth Century Canton
272:and one other abstained from the opium trade.
2158:History of foreign trade of the United States
1952:
1567:
1402:Philadelphians and the China Trade, 1784–1844
1295:. Bethlehem, Penn.: Lehigh University Press.
214:from Europe, which averaged 1,200 tons each.
88:, spanning from shortly after the end of the
8:
1409:May, Ernest R.; Fairbank, John King (1986).
1374:(Hong Kong: Derwent, 1994). London: Derwent.
1404:. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art.
979:
76:) refers to the early commerce between the
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1937:
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1474:Shaw, Samuel (1847). Josiah Quincy (ed.).
1182:. 广州市文德北路170号3楼: 岭南美术出版社. pp. 24–29.
1143:. 广州市文德北路170号3楼: 岭南美术出版社. pp. 24–29.
1104:. 广州市文德北路170号3楼: 岭南美术出版社. pp. 24–29.
857:History of the west coast of North America
897:
346:(durable, yellow cloth), floor-matting,
890:
604:
2153:China–United States economic relations
1484:Smith, Philip Chadwick Foster (1984).
1361:. New York: Columbia University Press.
1252:The decorative arts of the China trade
1195:
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1087:
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1063:
1051:
945:
933:
600:Salem Maritime National Historic Site
7:
2041:Technological and industrial history
1276:. Liveright Publishing Corporation.
365:The Cohong monopoly and supercargoes
354:The development of the Canton System
165:(1754–1794), arrived in the port of
921:
909:
852:Foreign relations of Imperial China
1463:, a special supplement to Vol 54.
1385:. Johns Hopkins University Press.
1220:Christman, Margaret C. S. (1984).
236:Two years after the voyage of the
25:
2163:History of foreign trade in China
2100:History of foreign trade in China
961:, Vol 54, Special Supplement, p.6
552:Porcelain specialized shopkeepers
38:, the area of Guangzhou to which
1235:. Oxford University Press, USA.
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633:
621:
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582:there are important examples of
268:Of all the American firms, only
2056:History of agriculture in China
1582:European and American trade in
1478:. Boston: Crosby & Nichols.
1372:An American in Canton (1825–44)
1022:Bebinger, Martha (2017-07-31).
173:) in 1784 aboard the converted
157:in China, Bostonian and former
104:. The trade era overlapped the
628:The Salem Inn on Summer Street
584:American colonial architecture
73:
1:
2063:China–United States trade war
2046:History of transport in China
1430:McQuiston, Julian R. (2013).
1178:Van Dyke, Paul A (Aug 2013).
1139:Van Dyke, Paul A (Aug 2013).
1100:Van Dyke, Paul A (Aug 2013).
310:
55:
1513:New York and the China Trade
1494:Philadelphia Maritime Museum
1456:73.4 (2000): 603–624. online
1357:Haddad, John Rogers (2008).
1338:Goldstein, Jonathan (1978).
1323:. Harvard University Press.
1310:Dulles, Foster Rhea (1930).
411:(Inspector of Customs). The
2009:Modern China (1912–present)
1725:Jardine, Matheson & Co.
1366:Hunter, William C. (1911).
1314:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
742:Noted China Trade merchants
458:American diplomacy in China
262:Jardine, Matheson & Co.
2189:
2168:Illegal drug trade in Asia
1711:Gibb, Livingston & Co.
1319:Fichter, James R. (2010).
1250:Crossman, Carl L. (1991).
489:Guangzhou's harbor in 1850
391:known collectively as the
368:
357:
134:American Revolutionary War
90:American Revolutionary War
2050:History of rail transport
1968:Economic history of China
1666:Augustine Heard & Co.
1400:Lee, Jean Gordon (1984).
1379:Johnson, Kendall (2017).
1291:Downs Jacques M. (1997).
685:Hawkes House, Derby Wharf
432:Finding media of exchange
227:John N. A. Griswold House
1786:Robert Morrison Olyphant
1202:: CS1 maint: location (
1163:: CS1 maint: location (
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728:in Salem Massachusetts.
698:Nathaniel Bowditch House
592:Chestnut Street District
439:obtaining trading rights
1848:David Sassoon & Co.
1834:Shewan, Tomes & Co.
875:Jiao (commercial guild)
829:William Shepard Wetmore
809:Thomas Handasyd Perkins
749:William Henry Aspinwall
245:Thomas Handasyd Perkins
136:and subsequently freed
1862:E.D. Sassoon & Co.
641:Stephen Phillips House
518:sent the commissioner
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125:
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2026:1949–1976 wage reform
1795:Russell & Company
1541:Milton, Massachusetts
1453:New England Quarterly
712:Gardner-Pingree House
643:at 34 Chestnut Street
534:Category of the trade
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231:Newport, Rhode Island
225:
171:romanized as "Canton"
151:opium trade in Turkey
119:
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2073:Contemporary economy
1800:Robert Bennet Forbes
1767:Hollingworth Magniac
1547:Peabody Essex Museum
1488:The Empress of China
1461:The American Neptune
1229:Coe, Andrew (2009).
959:The American Neptune
819:John Renshaw Thomson
779:Robert Bennet Forbes
759:John Perkins Cushing
671:Peirce Nichols House
588:Federal architecture
580:Salem, Massachusetts
253:John Perkins Cushing
122:Salem, Massachusetts
2132:Chinese exploration
1867:Elias David Sassoon
1537:Forbes House Museum
1312:The Old China Trade
1001:Columbia University
769:Fanning & Coles
656:The Pickering House
528:extraterritoriality
287:Panax quinquefolius
50:The gardens of the
1776:Olyphant & Co.
1748:Magniac & Co.
1625:Thirteen Factories
1608:East India Company
774:John Murray Forbes
764:Elias Hasket Derby
730:Elias Hasket Derby
524:Treaty of Wanghsia
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270:Olyphant & Co.
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203:East India Company
143:East India Company
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98:maritime fur trade
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36:Thirteen Factories
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2127:China Association
2031:Industrialization
1934:
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1878:Chinese Officials
1815:William Henry Low
1762:Thomas Chay Beale
1704:Dodwell & Co.
1480:Various reprints.
1330:978-0-674-05057-0
1283:978-0-87140-433-6
1189:978-7-5362-5268-4
1150:978-7-5362-5268-4
1111:978-7-5362-5268-4
839:Warren Delano Jr.
658:, 18 Broad Street
495:Treaty of Nanking
257:Russell & Co.
249:Perkins & Co.
94:Treaty of Wanghia
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1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1042:
1040:
1039:
1030:. Archived from
1019:
1013:
1012:
1010:
1008:
998:
989:
983:
980:MayFairbank 1986
977:
971:
968:
962:
955:
949:
943:
937:
931:
925:
919:
913:
907:
901:
895:
834:John Jacob Astor
824:Israel Thorndike
722:
708:
694:
682:
673:, Federal Street
667:
652:
637:
625:
611:
509:("Ningpo"), and
381:Qianlong Emperor
315:
312:
297:Empress of China
200:
179:Empress of China
159:Continental Army
75:
60:
57:
52:American factory
21:
2188:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2181:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2136:
2112:Old China Trade
2095:
2067:
2036:Economic Reform
2004:
1970:
1965:
1935:
1930:
1889:
1873:
1825:Russell Sturgis
1810:Abiel Abbot Low
1740:John Abel Smith
1730:William Jardine
1671:Augustine Heard
1652:
1629:
1620:Old China Trade
1586:
1580:
1533:
1523:
1510:
1504:
1483:
1473:
1444:
1429:
1423:
1408:
1399:
1393:
1378:
1365:
1356:
1337:
1331:
1318:
1309:
1303:
1290:
1284:
1270:Dolin, Eric Jay
1268:
1262:
1249:
1243:
1228:
1219:
1216:
1214:Further reading
1211:
1194:
1190:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1155:
1151:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1116:
1112:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1037:
1035:
1021:
1020:
1016:
1006:
1004:
996:
991:
990:
986:
978:
974:
969:
965:
956:
952:
944:
940:
932:
928:
920:
916:
908:
904:
896:
892:
888:
883:
870:Turkey merchant
848:
843:
814:Russell Sturgis
789:Abiel Abbot Low
784:Charles W. King
744:
737:
723:
714:
709:
700:
695:
686:
683:
674:
668:
659:
653:
644:
638:
629:
626:
617:
612:
596:Samuel McIntire
576:
554:
546:
541:
536:
483:
464:American consul
460:
434:
377:
367:
362:
356:
313:
306:Chinese export
220:
212:"East Indiamen"
198:
132:that ended the
130:Treaty of Paris
114:
106:First Opium War
92:in 1783 to the
66:Old China Trade
58:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2186:
2184:
2176:
2175:
2173:Drugs in China
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2145:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2103:
2101:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2077:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2053:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2018:
2012:
2010:
2006:
2005:
2003:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1981:
1979:
1976:Imperial China
1972:
1971:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1956:
1949:
1941:
1932:
1931:
1929:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1887:
1881:
1879:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1869:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1830:
1829:
1828:
1827:
1822:
1820:Samuel Russell
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1783:
1781:David Olyphant
1772:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1745:
1744:
1743:
1742:
1737:
1735:James Matheson
1732:
1721:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1716:Hugh Bold Gibb
1707:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1692:
1685:Dent & Co.
1681:
1680:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1662:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1649:
1648:
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1617:
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1600:
1594:
1592:
1588:
1587:
1581:
1579:
1578:
1571:
1564:
1556:
1550:
1549:
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1532:
1531:External links
1529:
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1226:
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1212:
1210:
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1188:
1170:
1149:
1131:
1110:
1092:
1090:, p. 158.
1080:
1078:, p. 134.
1068:
1066:, p. 124.
1056:
1054:, p. 117.
1044:
1014:
984:
982:, p. 260.
972:
963:
950:
938:
926:
914:
902:
898:McQuiston 2013
889:
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841:
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811:
806:
804:Joseph Peabody
801:
799:David Olyphant
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771:
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594:, part of the
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482:
479:
459:
456:
433:
430:
366:
363:
358:Main article:
355:
352:
266:Dent & Co.
242:Boston Brahmin
219:
216:
138:American trade
113:
110:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2185:
2174:
2171:
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2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2122:Canton System
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2092:
2089:
2087:
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2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2023:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
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1986:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1962:
1957:
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1950:
1948:
1943:
1942:
1939:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1894:Key Locations
1892:
1886:
1883:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1868:
1865:
1864:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1854:
1853:David Sassoon
1851:
1850:
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1846:
1845:
1840:
1839:Robert Shewan
1837:
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1832:
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1811:
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1779:
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1773:
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1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1690:Lancelot Dent
1688:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1658:Foreign Hongs
1655:
1647:
1644:
1643:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1634:Chinese Hongs
1632:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1598:Canton System
1596:
1595:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1577:
1572:
1570:
1565:
1563:
1558:
1557:
1554:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1524:
1522:9780914366225
1518:
1514:
1509:
1505:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1489:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1443:9780786470556
1439:
1435:
1434:
1428:
1424:
1418:
1414:
1413:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1392:9781421422510
1388:
1384:
1383:
1377:
1373:
1370:. Reprinted:
1369:
1364:
1360:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1298:
1294:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1257:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1242:9780199758517
1238:
1234:
1233:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1205:
1199:
1191:
1185:
1181:
1174:
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1166:
1160:
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1146:
1142:
1135:
1132:
1127:
1121:
1113:
1107:
1103:
1096:
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1089:
1084:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1045:
1034:on 2020-08-04
1033:
1029:
1025:
1018:
1015:
1002:
995:
988:
985:
981:
976:
973:
970:Richards, p.6
967:
964:
960:
954:
951:
948:, p. 26.
947:
942:
939:
936:, p. 10.
935:
930:
927:
923:
918:
915:
911:
906:
903:
900:, p. 61.
899:
894:
891:
885:
880:
876:
873:
871:
868:
866:
864:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
849:
845:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
815:
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805:
802:
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797:
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747:
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731:
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721:
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702:
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688:
681:
676:
672:
666:
661:
657:
651:
646:
642:
636:
631:
624:
619:
616:
615:Hamilton Hall
610:
605:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
573:
571:
568:
564:
559:
551:
549:
543:
538:
533:
531:
529:
525:
521:
520:Caleb Cushing
517:
512:
508:
505:("Foochow"),
504:
500:
496:
487:
480:
478:
475:
471:
470:
465:
457:
455:
452:
447:
443:
440:
431:
429:
427:
421:
419:
414:
410:
409:
404:
400:
396:
395:
390:
386:
382:
379:In 1757, the
376:
372:
364:
361:
360:Canton System
353:
351:
349:
345:
341:
337:
332:
328:
323:
309:
304:
300:
298:
293:
289:
288:
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250:
246:
243:
239:
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217:
215:
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204:
197:
193:
192:Canton System
189:
185:
181:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
146:
144:
139:
135:
131:
123:
118:
111:
109:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
86:Canton System
83:
82:United States
79:
71:
67:
54:at Guangzhou
53:
48:
41:
37:
32:
19:
2111:
2021:1949–present
2000:Qing dynasty
1995:Ming dynasty
1990:Song dynasty
1757:Thomas Beale
1752:Daniel Beale
1676:Albert Heard
1619:
1512:
1487:
1475:
1460:
1451:
1432:
1411:
1401:
1381:
1371:
1367:
1358:
1347:
1339:
1320:
1311:
1292:
1273:
1251:
1231:
1221:
1179:
1173:
1140:
1134:
1101:
1095:
1083:
1071:
1059:
1047:
1036:. Retrieved
1032:the original
1017:
1005:. Retrieved
987:
975:
966:
958:
953:
941:
929:
924:, p. 1.
917:
912:, p. 3.
905:
893:
862:
754:George Cabot
733:
577:
557:
555:
547:
492:
473:
467:
461:
450:
448:
444:
435:
426:supercargoes
422:
412:
406:
402:
398:
392:
385:Qing dynasty
378:
327:mercantilist
321:
318:
296:
285:
281:
274:
237:
235:
206:
195:
177:
147:
127:
65:
63:
1985:Han dynasty
1613:James Flint
1088:Dulles 1930
1076:Dulles 1930
1064:Dulles 1930
1052:Dulles 1930
946:Dulles 1930
934:Dulles 1930
865:(1843 ship)
726:Derby House
348:lacquerware
314: 1810
163:Samuel Shaw
78:Qing Empire
59: 1845
18:China Trade
2147:Categories
1978:(pre-1912)
1584:Qing China
1503:091334608X
1422:0674030753
1302:0934223351
1261:1851490965
1038:2020-08-08
881:References
863:Paul Jones
794:Gideon Nye
734:Grand Turk
567:Jingdezhen
516:John Tyler
501:("Amoy"),
481:Denouement
375:Supercargo
369:See also:
84:under the
2117:Silk Road
2081:Hong Kong
2016:1912–1949
1916:Hong Kong
1695:John Dent
1469:0003-0155
1198:cite book
1159:cite book
1120:cite book
1003:Libraries
886:Citations
544:Porcelain
418:comprador
389:merchants
331:Confucian
308:porcelain
292:sea otter
210:with the
175:privateer
167:Guangzhou
1926:Shanghai
1885:Lin Zexu
1641:Ewo Hong
1272:(2012).
922:Coe 2009
910:Coe 2009
846:See also
539:Fine art
511:Shanghai
344:nankeens
161:officer
120:Port of
80:and the
1350:(2013)
1007:May 20,
383:of the
336:rhubarb
322:Empress
278:bullion
238:Empress
207:Empress
196:Empress
188:ginseng
124:, 1770s
112:Origins
70:Chinese
2091:Taiwan
1911:Fuzhou
1906:Canton
1646:Howqua
1603:Cohong
1591:Topics
1519:
1500:
1467:
1440:
1419:
1389:
1352:online
1327:
1299:
1280:
1258:
1239:
1186:
1147:
1108:
558:Cohong
507:Ningbo
503:Fuzhou
499:Xiamen
474:Cohong
451:Cohong
413:Cohong
403:Cohong
399:Cohong
394:Cohong
371:Cohong
340:cassia
218:Growth
199:'s
184:specie
169:(then
155:consul
72::
2086:Macau
1921:Macau
997:(PDF)
563:taels
469:hoppo
408:Hoppo
282:Panax
102:opium
74:舊中國貿易
40:China
1901:Amoy
1517:ISBN
1498:ISBN
1465:ISSN
1438:ISBN
1417:ISBN
1387:ISBN
1325:ISBN
1297:ISBN
1278:ISBN
1256:ISBN
1237:ISBN
1204:link
1184:ISBN
1165:link
1145:ISBN
1126:link
1106:ISBN
1028:WBUR
1009:2014
586:and
373:and
264:and
186:and
64:The
34:The
578:In
247:of
2149::
1496:.
1200:}}
1196:{{
1161:}}
1157:{{
1122:}}
1118:{{
1026:.
999:.
342:,
338:,
311:c.
56:c.
2052:)
2048:(
1960:e
1953:t
1946:v
1575:e
1568:t
1561:v
1543:)
1539:(
1525:.
1506:.
1446:.
1425:.
1395:.
1333:.
1305:.
1286:.
1264:.
1245:.
1206:)
1192:.
1167:)
1153:.
1128:)
1114:.
1041:.
1011:.
68:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
