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19:
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of this country, and engage that no immigration of my people shall visit the Hills, except to engage in the lighter occupations of washing, cooking and house servants. I am authorized to make the above statement public by all the
Chinese inhabitants of this city who will co-operate with me in this matter." An additional promise was made later to woodworking industry members that the Chinese would continue to only engage in "the lighter occupations." Although some immigrants did continue working in mining and "lighter occupations," the large, numbered migration that had been predicted never materialized, and these economic worries because less prominent. After this response from Chinese community members,
71:
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into the next century. The exclusionary acts did not apply to specified exceptions of individuals who were considered of a higher socioeconomic status. The fluidity of individuals who performed jobs under multiple statuses were vulnerable and often classified under laborer. One of the biggest consequences of these acts was the lasting racialization and racism that would affect the
Chinese community and other immigrant groups from Asia such as Japanese, Indian, Korean, etc. The implications of these actions are seen within the population of the Chinatown as there was only a listed 73 Chinese individuals in 1900, with the population continually declining after that.
318:
simultaneously lowered prices, placing them out of business, only to raise prices again once they were closed. In response to
Chinese success, a territorial law was passed in 1887 to try and limit the ownership of laundries to "American Citizens or those intent on becoming one." In response, many Chinese announced their intention to become citizens and stopped paying licensing fees in protest of the discrimination. These legislative acts did little to curb Chinese dominance within the industry and in 1892, 8 out of 9 of listed laundry outlets were still owned by Chinese individuals.
277:. Historical estimates have suggested that white prospectors only extracted about 65% of the available gold within a specific area before moving on to another claim. Chinese immigrants were known for their resilient approaches within these industries and would rework old claims after white settlers had moved through. Their ability to make a profit was often criticized by white miners who claimed: "the Chinese were increasing their income by claim and sluice box thievery." Some miners and Deadwood citizens, in contrast, praised the
580:
132:
248:
357:. He had a shop in the Chinatown located at 566 Main Street. His business was called Wing Tsue Emporium. His products included silk, porcelain, herbs, tea, etc. A census taken in 1880 listed 212 Chinese individuals, including Wong. Tsue stayed in the area and became a notable businessman for over four decades. His children attended public schools and Sunday schools in Deadwood. Eventually, Tsue returned to China in 1902 and had trouble coming back to
331:, and egg-shell chings. A large number of Chinese individuals operated restaurants that aimed to cater to the miners' appetites. Bang Wong, or Benny, owned and operated the OK Cafe, while another cafe called the Philadelphia Cafe was incredibly popular. For dessert, Benny was known to often serve apple pie and other classical American dishes. These diners also offered more traditional Chinese dishes, such as chicken rice soup and home-brewed
289:
216:
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mining industry and it touched off an economic depression that lasted for 3 years. When this industry dropped, mines and the businesses that surrounded them closed. Majority of the
Chinatown's population were young single male laborers who had come to participate in the mining industry. As a result,
459:
are expected to start arriving daily." Reports like these evoked racist reactions from the mining community, who saw the
Chinese as a direct threat to their financial stability. It was a common perception that these immigrants were willing to work for fewer wages than the typical mining salary of $ 4
231:
of this time. As early as 1875, the Black Hills Daily Times began to report that "rice and the 'other necessities of life' " were being transported by train for the "so-called 'Celestial chuckleheads from the
Flowery Kingdom.' " The same paper also reported Chinese immigrants who were moving towards
481:
In response to these organizations, the
Chinese chose to respond through a written appeal. Kuong Wing, a member of the Chinatown community, attempted to reassure miners by stating: "I have undertaken to stop such influx of my people as shall tend to interfere with the labor of white men in the mines
389:
occurred in these areas as a mechanism to deal with this unfamiliar environment. Despite this De facto segregation, Chinese individuals still participated within the larger
Deadwood community economically and culturally. They organized fire fighting "Hose Teams" and participated in races and rallies
335:
In 1898, two
Chinese men opened a hotel called the "Dublin Hotel." They were evaluated in the Black Hills Daily Times, which said they were "a first-class hotel in every respect." The hotel charged twenty-five dollars a month, which included room and board. These numerous individuals and industries
544:
was passed and was written originally to last for ten years. It would eventually get extended at the ten-year mark and would continue to be in United States law for over half a century. Its significance in relation to the anti-Chinese movement greatly influenced the nation's immigration policy well
522:
were expressing, Chinese immigrants provided cheap labor for large industries within the United States. This was often seen as a direct threat to the economic opportunities of Native US citizens. The passage of the Act made the future possibility of immigration nonexistent for
Chinese laborers and
361:
as a result of immigration restrictions of the time. A U.S. government official arranged for him to return to Deadwood. His building loan defaulted in 1915 and was bought by the bank in Deadwood. In 1919, his family returned to China again following a stroke Tsue had. He eventually died in China in
464:
League in the Black Hills, intent on protecting "white interests." The League was supported by the Miners Union and they repeatedly gave speeches expressing their disinterest with the continued immigration of the Chinese to the Black Hills. On one occasion, they stated during a speech that "bills
454:
than in other parts of the United States. However, some groups still expressed negative feelings towards the group of immigrants. Towards the later half of 1877, changes in the mining labor industry were taking place. Rather than working independently, corporate-owned mines were contracting labor.
436:
during the 19th and 20th centuries. These artifacts are examined for two goals. To document and inventory Deadwood Chinatown artifacts and to gain an idea of cultural activities that occurred in these areas. These artifacts help better understand what the lives of Deadwood residents, including the
402:
for many Chinese individuals since immigrants were mostly male. The mentality was to further individual economic growth, which was driven by the Gold Rush taking place in the Black Hills. Traditional foods were imported from China and were used habitually. Clothing materials were an assortment of
326:
In addition to these two dominant occupations, Chinese immigrants engaged in other capital ventures. Business owners like Wong Fee Lee, who owned the Wing Tsue Emporium, as well as Hi Kee, who owned the Hi Kee Company, provided articles in order to continue maintaining traditional ways of Chinese
309:
used these laundry houses to have their garments cleaned. In the year 1880, the occupation of laundryman was the highest listed job of the entire county at 110 individuals, the second highest being mining at 39. The attraction of self-employment, consistency of clientele, and profit all lead the
300:
for prospects of Gold, others had arrived with the intention of beginning other establishments. A major economic force within the historic Chinatown was the laundry or "washee houses." Descriptions of the Chinatown often refer to the numerous laundry establishments that lined the main square. The
61:
There are many cultural and economic differences that made the Chinese community distinct such as success with laundry establishments and the structure of Chinese families. The Chinese community is no longer there like it was at the end of the 19th century. Archeological excavations have tried to
477:
industry members voiced complaints about the Chinese workers who were participating in their industries. Each group protested the Chinese immigrants through speeches, public displays of protest, and creating committees that would try to provide ultimatums to Chinese workers and their employers.
587:
Deadwood, South Dakota has survived despite economic difficulties and three large fires that threatened to plunge the town out of existence. Although the Chinatown no longer exists, its memory lives on through the continuation of Deadwood as a popular tourist attraction. While the town now is
195:. By 1877, around 12,000 people had officially settled in Deadwood with estimates of the population reaching 25,000 in 1876. Deadwood obtained a reputation for "lawlessness" as it became known for prostitution, gambling, and violence among its residents. Notable "outlaws" and gunmen such as
384:
The Chinatown was developed in Deadwood in 1877. Collective living was practiced among the Chinese community and helped to unify the entire Deadwood community. Culture and customs were important for Chinese individuals to confront an unfamiliar environment in a different, foreign country.
317:
White members of Deadwood expressed feeling discontent with the Chinese dominance of this industry and advised women to try opening their own laundries to break the monopoly. In 1880, two white women opened the Minneapolis Laundry. They were quickly outsold as all of the Chinese laundries
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considered a national historic landmark, Deadwood is different from what it was at the end of the 19th century. Once gambling was made legal again, Deadwood began to boom at the end of the 20th century. Now there are hotels, casinos, spas, and all kinds of amenities/services that make
534:
movement, especially in California, culminated in the passing of laws against the Chinese community. It was not until the 1870s that the "closing of America’s gates" phrase was used by California officials. Despite earlier treaties made between the Chinese and U.S. government, the
571:, fewer economic opportunities, and a desire to return to their homeland all affected the declining population of the Chinatown in Deadwood. Ching Ong is said to have been "the last Chinese individual to have left the town in 1931 after having lived there for over 45 years."
539:
changed the original treaty and allowed more regulatory laws to be passed by the U.S. government. The Page Law barred Asian individuals connected or suspected of prostitution and Asian individuals who held contracts of labor a few years before the Chinese Exclusion Act. The
427:
was a common pastime and showcased interactions between the Chinese culture and other cultures in the Deadwood area. The process of archaeological excavation of Chinese artifacts in the area is still undergoing to further knowledge of Chinese culture in
1307:
Black Hills Daily Times, 30 Jan. 1878, 25 Apr. 1878. Cited: "It's a Fact." The following appeared, "that the almond-eyed celestials, on the principle of cheap labor and over production, have a corner on the market" (Black Hills Weekly Times. 2 Aug.
62:
document and identify Deadwood's Chinatown artifacts and structures, in order to gain a better idea of what that occurred in these areas. These efforts will help better understand what the lives of Chinese members in South Dakota was like.
375:
236:. The U.S. Census of 1880 lists 116 individuals, but local historians suggest that as many as 400 Chinese individuals, including 14 women, resided in this Chinatown. These individuals established themselves in a quarter of land between
182:
led an expedition into the Black Hills where he announced there was indeed gold present on the land. As a result, prospectors began arriving in large quantities in search of the economic prospects that this discovery promised.
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Chinese individuals participated in Deadwood community events and embraced aspects of Western Culture. Here, the Chinese Hose Team of America is pictured after they had won the "Hub-and-Hub race" in Deadwood. July 4th,
566:
left following this collapse, while others left later into the early 20th century. Many members of the Chinatown, such as Wing Tsue and Ban Wong who were notable businessmen, returned to China. Death, the
191:
made Deadwood City a thriving community within the Black Hills. Previous to the rush, Deadwood had been a small mining camp, but with masses arriving, Deadwood was transformed into an integral part of
810:
175:, which promised that the Black Hills would remain free from white settlement forever. However, beginning in the 1870s, white squatters arrived and began illegal settlement on the Lakota's land.
600:'s historic Chinatown and to uncover more about the society that it resided in. As further research is conducted, more can be understood about this city and the legacy it has left within
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The source is found at the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Population for Lawrence County 1880, 1900, 1910. The 1890 census records were destroyed in a fire.
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that it is located in. Deadwood is located in a mountain range called the Black Hills, which are named because of how dark they look from a distance, as they are heavily covered in
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were another key social practice within not only the Chinese community but the Deadwood community as a whole. The Chinese community in Deadwood maintained traditional mortuary
18:
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within the county to pursue this career. Most Chinese establishments charged 25 cents for a shirt and profits could sometimes come out to as much as 10 dollars daily.
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traditional cultural clothing and American clothing. The practice of binding feet occurred among the Chinese community at the end of the 19th century. Also,
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Cultural artifacts and structures have not been documented well. Recently burned structural remnants showcased an indoor area where gaming activities occurred.
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and created what would become "a cultural, social, and economic nucleus for many Chinese living and working in the surrounding smaller mining camps and towns."
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during July 4 festivities in order to show which Chinese team was better. These interactions helped overcome aspects of separation that may have been present.
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of the United States signed on May 6, 1882, that prohibited all immigration of Chinese laborers. Before its passage into federal law, the act was preceded by
531:
647:
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865:. www.fs.usda.gov/main/blackhills/about-forest#:~:text=The%20name%20 %22Black%20Hills%22%20comes,the% 20surrounding%20prairie%2C%20appear%20black.
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to $ 7 of that day. This tension led to the first organizational resistance in March 1878. J.O. Reed held a large gathering and created the first
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70:
773:
By Watson Parker. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981. xiv + 302 pp. Maps, illustrations, notes, selected bibliography, and index.),
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164:, an isolated mountain range that extends from western South Dakota into Wyoming. After arriving in the Hills during the 18th century, the
219:
Drawing depicting life in Deadwood, Dakota Territory. The piece also features two Chinese individuals on the right side of the picture.
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8. Black Hills Daily Times, 14 Apr. 1877. The article further stated that "they are coming fully equipped for the mining business."
241:
84:
1578:
839:
172:
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34:
1390:
Kanazawa, Mark (2005-08-26). "Immigration, Exclusion, and Taxation: Anti-Chinese Legislation in Gold Rush California".
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life, customs, and ceremonies while in the United States. Some goods included imported silk, tea-making supplies,
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Over 100,000 Chinese individuals immigrated to the United States in the 30 years preceding the passing of the
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In addition to Deadwood's frontier culture, it was also home to the largest Chinatown of any city east of
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30:
1453:"The Paradoxes of Race, Class, Identity, and "Passing": Enforcing the Chinese Exclusion Acts, 1882-1910"
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503:
470:
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227:. Although Chinese immigrants also resided multiple areas of the West, many moved to Deadwood following
184:
58:
131:
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902:. Reprint of: The Sunshine State Magazine. Sioux Falls, SD: Siouxland Heritage Museums. 2002 . p. 7.
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to this country, and for the benefit of our working classes, we hope they will pass." Additionally,
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demand for washing houses was high due to the large amounts of mining that took place in the area.
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and it became central to their culture. In the year 1868, the United States government signed the
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at the time. Notable figures of Deadwood's Chinatown include Fee Lee Wong, who made his way to
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920:
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961:
U.S. Bureau of the Census 1880 Census of Population and Housing: 1880 Census. Washington D.C.
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778:
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did not see another collective anti-Chinese campaign or organized violent incidents again.
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Chinese and exhorted white miners to learn from them in order to become more successful.
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Despite intense oppression at the time, Chinese immigrants in Deadwood experienced less
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712:"The Chinese Exclusion Example: Race, Immigration, and American Gatekeeping, 1882-1924"
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Political Cartoon depicting anti-Chinese sentiment that was present during the time.
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participated and contributed extensively to the Chinatown and Deadwood communities.
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for individuals who died, including parades and placing offerings with the body.
1370:
The Chinese Must Go: Violence, Exclusion, and the Making of the Alien in America
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593:
483:
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399:
350:
270:
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161:
104:
54:
1106:
U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Population, 1880.
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680:"Encyclopedia of the Great Plains | WONG, FEE LEE (WING TSUE) (ca. 1846-1921)"
515:
38:
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to participate in other business ventures, but a few became involved in the
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46:
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The Archaeology of Chinese Immigrant and Chinese American Communities
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driven rhetoric and violence. Similar to the arguments that many in
1015:
Frontiers of the Northwest: A History of the Upper Missouri Valley
408:
302:
108:
88:
1317:
Black Hills Daily Times. 26 Feb. 1878; 3 March 1878; 7 March 1878
1221:"History Timeline – Deadwood History | Black Hills, South Dakota"
1026:
Parker, Gold in the Black Hills; Charles H. Shinn, Mining Camps:
934:
Moon Mount Rushmore & the Black Hills: Including the Badlands
160:
of the United States. The city of Deadwood is located within the
911:
Berrettini, Mark L. (2007). "No Law: "Deadwood" And The State".
103:" which means "hills that are black." The mountains within the
1129:"Ethnic Oasis: Chinese Immigrants in the Frontier Black Hills"
87:
The city was named after dead trees that were present in the
22:
Map highlighting Lawrence County where Deadwood is located.
1549:"Deadwood History – Wild West | Black Hills, South Dakota"
1245:"Deadwood History – Wild West | Black Hills, South Dakota"
1055:(Qendale, California: Arthur H. Garke Co., 1949), pp. 77.
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it impacted immigrants already within the United States.
292:
Drawing depicting Chinese prospectors in the Black Hills.
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Fee Lee Wong, also known as Wing Tsue, made his way to
900:
Deadshot in Deadwood: Pettigrew Visits the Black Hills
1053:
The Cheyenne and Black Hills Stage and Express Routes
811:"The Archaeology of Deadwood's Chinatown: A Prologue"
777:, Volume 69, Issue 2, September 1982, Pages 468–469,
1505:
1900 Census of Population and Housing: 1900 Census.
1326:
Black Hills Weekly Times. 1 Feb. 1878; 5 March 1878.
1432:"The People's Vote: Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)".
980:Fosha, Rose Estep; Leatherman, Christopher (2008).
1076:Bennett, Old Deadwood Days, p. 30 who references:
982:"The Chinese Experience in Deadwood, South Dakota"
135:Picture of Deadwood, Dakota Territory. Circa 1890.
1017:(New York: D. Appleton Century Co., 1940), p. 73
1215:
1213:
583:Pictured is present day Deadwood, South Dakota.
152:; "To approve or confirm things") is a city in
1436:. Archived from the original on 28 March 2007.
863:Black Hills National Forest - About the Forest
8:
1335:Black Hills Daily Pioneer. 19 February 1888.
1155:14 July 1877; 21 Sept. 1878; 23 July 1888.
1042:; 24 August 2. Deadwood, Dakota Territory.
936:. Avalon Travel Publishing. pp. 147–148.
455:The Black Hills Times reported that "500
203:are buried within the city's cemetery on
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374:
287:
246:
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130:
69:
17:
1398:(3). Cambridge University Press (CUP).
1347:Black Hills Weekly Times, 3 March 1878.
1028:A Study in American Frontier Government
932:Bidwell, Laural A. (10 December 2013).
613:
1446:
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557:was the result of the collapse of the
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1518:Encyclopedia, Colorado (2021-02-16).
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655:South Dakota State Historical Society
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596:is taking place to better understand
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1030:(New York: Harper & Row, 1965).
471:regulate the immigration of Chinese
394:Family units and cultural practices
1469:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2000.tb00149.x
1345:"Chinese Not to Engage in Mining."
716:Journal of American Ethnic History
592:into an established tourist town.
562:most of the Chinese immigrants in
14:
127:History of Deadwood, South Dakota
29:was a historic ethnic enclave in
1584:Chinatowns in the United States
1392:The Journal of Economic History
1136:South Dakota Historical Society
818:South Dakota Historical Society
296:While some had arrived in the
211:Establishment of the Chinatown
1:
1207:as mentioned on July 3, 1898.
1205:Deadwood Daily Pioneer Times;
173:Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)
1434:U.S. News & World Report
1372:. Harvard University Press.
878:. 2016-10-18. Archived from
838:. 2021-02-24. Archived from
398:There was a lack of central
322:Additional business ventures
1368:Lew-Williams, Beth (2018).
1273:"Deadwood's Lost Chinatown"
775:Journal of American History
771:Deadwood: The Golden Years.
646:Anderson, Grant K. (1975).
441:Anti-Chinese discrimination
74:Black Hills in South Dakota
1605:
1357:Black Hills Daily Pioneer,
1095:Black Hills Daily Pioneer:
809:Fosha, Rose Estep (2003).
1404:10.1017/s0022050705000288
419:Archeological excavations
353:during the 1870s for the
57:during the 1870s for the
1524:coloradoencyclopedia.org
1457:Law & Social Inquiry
1451:Calavita, Kitty (2000).
1296:Black Hills Daily Times.
1153:Black Hills Daily Times:
684:plainshumanities.unl.edu
345:Fee Lee Wong (Wing Tsue)
305:from both Chinatown and
180:General Armstrong Custer
45:. It became the largest
1298:Ibid: 18 February 1878.
1177:Lawrence County Census;
1165:Black Hills Daily Times
1078:Black Hills Daily Times
1065:Black Hills Daily Times
1040:Black Hills Daily Times
465:have been presented in
99:name for the hills is "
85:44°22′36″N 103°43′45″W.
83:Deadwood is located at
1579:Deadwood, South Dakota
913:Great Plains Quarterly
824:(4) – via JSTOR.
648:"Deadwood's Chinatown"
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499:
490:Chinese Exclusion Acts
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284:Laundry establishments
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1179:roll 113, sheets 247.
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542:Chinese Exclusion Act
528:Chinese Exclusion Act
504:Chinese Exclusion Act
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1191:Bennett, Estelline.
1127:Zhu, Liping (2003).
437:Chinese, were like.
387:De facto segregation
49:of any city east of
1067:; August 1st, 1878.
710:Lee, Erika (2002).
446:Labor participation
1277:True West Magazine
1097:February 18, 1888.
1013:Harold E. Briggs,
1003:– via JSTOR.
876:"NLD Online v.3.0"
594:Archeological work
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312:Chinese immigrants
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267:Chinese immigrants
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1378:978-0-674-97601-6
1359:19 February 1888.
1193:Old Deadwood Days
1051:Agnes W. Spring,
942:978-1-61238-081-0
836:"Gazetteer Files"
769:David A. Walker,
537:Burlingame Treaty
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1589:Chinese diaspora
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298:Dakota territory
265:The majority of
234:Denver, Colorado
197:Wild Bill Hickok
193:frontier society
169:claimed the land
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1520:"Panic of 1893"
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1080:, 1 April 1878.
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51:San Francisco
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840:the original
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719:
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687:. Retrieved
683:
658:
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532:anti-Chinese
525:
512:Anti-Chinese
501:
480:
449:
434:South Dakota
422:
400:family units
397:
383:
348:
333:rice whisky.
325:
316:
310:majority of
295:
279:
269:came to the
264:
222:
205:Mount Moriah
177:
166:Lakota Sioux
158:South Dakota
149:
139:
138:
107:are made of
100:
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43:South Dakota
26:
25:
15:
1463:(1): 1–40.
508:federal law
475:woodworking
371:Segregation
261:Prospecting
162:Black Hills
105:Black Hills
1573:Categories
1558:2023-04-05
1529:2023-04-05
1282:2023-04-09
1254:2023-04-06
1230:2023-04-05
886:2023-04-04
846:2023-04-04
689:2023-04-05
608:References
516:Xenophobic
187:along the
66:Background
59:Gold Rush.
39:U.S. state
1493:145532080
1477:0897-6546
1420:154316126
1412:0022-0507
752:157999472
736:0278-5927
462:Caucasian
413:practices
355:Gold Rush
275:Gold Rush
178:In 1874,
150:Owáyasuta
117:limestone
113:sandstone
101:Pahá Sápa
47:Chinatown
27:Chinatown
1553:Deadwood
1249:Deadwood
1225:Deadwood
1001:25617514
744:27502847
598:Deadwood
590:Deadwood
564:Deadwood
520:Deadwood
467:Congress
430:Deadwood
425:Gambling
359:Deadwood
307:Deadwood
238:Deadwood
141:Deadwood
79:Location
31:Deadwood
549:Decline
457:Chinese
405:tobacco
366:Culture
329:sandals
256:Economy
121:granite
37:in the
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1089:Suey,
999:
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575:Legacy
559:silver
530:. The
506:was a
362:1921.
303:Miners
146:Lakota
119:, and
97:Lakota
95:. The
1489:S2CID
1481:JSTOR
1416:S2CID
1132:(PDF)
997:JSTOR
985:(PDF)
814:(PDF)
748:S2CID
740:JSTOR
651:(PDF)
409:opium
380:1888.
271:Hills
109:shale
89:gulch
1473:ISSN
1408:ISSN
1374:ISBN
1142:(4).
938:ISBN
921:ISSN
732:ISSN
661:(3).
553:The
514:and
502:The
407:and
240:and
199:and
1465:doi
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469:to
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