707:… as Buddhism spread into China from the first century A.D. onwards the idea of sin and the punishment of sins gained wide currency. Indeed, the systematisation of such punishments in numerous minutely described hells reflects the Chinese genius for classification. These supernatural punishments for violations of an impersonal moral code were independent of the mechanism of human justice. There was a strong emphasis on the feeling of guilt. Even if sinful actions remained undetected by society, the sinner knew that they were recorded by supernatural powers, and that punishment would inevitably follow after death. But like Tibetan Buddhists the Chinese believed that sins could be outweighed by meritorious actions. Hence feelings of guilt stimulated the giving of alms and support for monks and religious institutions.
439:
not honoring them or by failing to sacrifice in the right way or at the right time might make them angry. The deities then could or would punish such people. An event of this kind was more or less like any offense against a human superior, with the only difference that deities were believed to be superior to humans; they formed, if this expression be permitted, a social class above the upper class in human society. This class of supernatural beings was structured: some deities had more, others less, power, but the structure was more like a class structure than like a bureaucratic one although one god was vaguely recognized as the highest of all.
720:
terms, or similar terms such as "depravity" or "defiled" to depict man's involvement in the passions and bondage to the world which prevents him from attaining the high
Buddhist ideals revealed in Sakyamuni and his early disciples. Such people realize that they fall short of the potentialities of the human nature symbolized in Buddha. Their guilt is derived not from a feeling of rejection by deity, but by a self-rejection as they become aware of the gulf which separates them from the ideals of the Buddha.
929:"Highest Clarity" School also believed in both individual and ancestral sins. Jeaneane Fowler stated, "The unbreakable bond with ancestors was emphasized in the belief that the sins of the ancestors of several generations past still affected the individual of today. However, reciprocally, the relative sin or merit of a living individual could also affect that of past ancestors. And if that living individual were to achieve salvation, then so would the ancestors."
656:. Thus, in the understanding of folk Buddhism, sin was not seen as a transgression against a deity, but instead a transgression against a universal moral code, to which even the deities were held to. This moral code transcended questions of legal recourse, irrespective of one being dealt with societal punishment, one would still be punished for their action on a karmic level. Furthermore, the "divine ministries and divine red tape" of modern
861:, by contrast, not only considers the past and future lives of the individual, but also that individuals inherit the results of the good and evil of the behavior of their ancestors, and that these results accumulate not only at the individual level, but also at the social level. In this sense, "inherited burden" is based on the unit of the family and, as its extension, of society.
22:
1038:. Uhalley and Wu described it as a "notorious crux in Christian-Confucian dialogue"; "The central issues here are the doctrines of sin as an offense against God, original sin, and redemption, which are, for Christians, revealed doctrines. But all are absent from, rather than contrary to, Confucian values."
832:"refers to the liability for sins and transgressions that individuals and societies inherit from their predecessors. As fault and blame are passed from one generation to another, calamities and misfortune increase." Later generations can make amends for the sins of their ancestors, through reflective
530:
Defining "folk
Buddhism" as "a simplified form which even the uneducated could understand," folk Buddhism rapidly brought notions of sins and their punishments to China, with texts from the second century CE noting out various punishments experienced in various hells. This belief acted to address the
438:
If we apply our definition of "sin" – a violation of a divine code – Chinese folk religion before the Han period (206 B.C.) seems not to have had the concept of sin, although it recognized a great number of supernatural beings. People who offended the deities, spirits, or other supernatural beings by
1163:
can be defined as actions, behaviour, and thoughts which violate rules set up by supernatural powers. This violation of rules set by earthly powers results in the development of the emotional concept of ‘legal guilt’. Evidently, this notion of ‘sin’ and its accompanying emotions are ingrained within
884:
The
Celestial Masters adapted Yellow Turban beliefs about sin, in which sin was seen to be the cause of sickness and other ailments, and was best absolved through, often public, confession, as well as other penitential acts that fostered either self-reflection or community service. For the sickness
755:
The role of "sin" in Daoism is frequently misconstrued. For instance, one introductory text claims, "Taoism has no doctrine of sin. Ethics should be incidental to spiritual values, and indeed, there is no ideograph in
Chinese which conveys the Western conception of sin and a sense of guilt." As
406:. Fürer-Haimendorf explains that Christian missionaries discovered sin was not a universally shared concept across cultures. This raised questions about whether they believed some behaviour was deemed undesirable for the collective and if it influenced their relationship with the supernatural.
1167:
Bode criticized this position: "Eberhard's separation of shame from guilt and sin seems to be too absolute and arbitrary. Surely in traditional China, as in other societies, all three feelings frequently entered into cases of wrongdoing, even though their proportions might vary according to the
719:
Sin and guilt are generally viewed from a
Christian perspective in which sin is rebellion against the will of God, and consequent guilt is the feeling of rejection by the divine. Such sin and guilt is, of course, not experienced in the Buddhist context. However, it may be possible to employ the
1104:
blamed their lack of converts upon
Chinese misunderstandings of "sin". John Griffith claimed, "Sin, however, in the Scriptural sense, is not recognized by their system. The contrast of good and evil, according to their view, resolves itself into a difference in degree."
885:
caused by these sins, confession was also used, as well as holy water, as the root cause of ill health was perceived to be sin. In this system, there was no strong demarcation between legal and moral dimensions, with the gods acting as recordkeepers of misdeeds.
795:
relates confession to the idea that political and cosmic diseases are caused by humans and must be cured on the individual level. Sin, in this text, is the failure to act in accord with one's social role, thereby blocking the circulation of the Dao's energies.
1113:
of sin, and, "The knowledge of God in
Confucianism, which has become a heritage of the Chinese people, is very precious; but the restriction of the worship of Him to the sovereign has prevented the growth and wide development among them of a sense of sin."
790:
The Yellow
Turbans converted people to their cause through healing practices, including old methods such as incantation and doses of water infused with the ashes of talismans, and a new one – confession of sins. This latter practice is significant. The
800:
This scripture teaches that sins result in natural disasters, epidemics, social discontent, and war. "Evil has accumulated for innumerable generations through the inheritance of sins", and heaven has sent the
Celestial Master to save humanity. The
1022:"vital energy" can lead to illness and accidents, sin "is not considered to be irreducible (there is no "original sin"). Neither it is something that is solely and simply moral, but is rather related to the equilibrium of the body."
370:
nominally means "fault; mistake; error; excess" and verbally "pass by; go past; surpass; cross; exceed". The specialized sense of "sin" is usually limited to Daoist usage, except for the
Chinese "synonym compound"
595:
explains, "Essentially, pāpa is that which leads one away from nirvāṇa, and is closer to the concept of error than an offence against divine authority or a condition innate in human nature such as original sin."
856:
In Buddhism, the good and evil performed by an individual in past lives is reflected in what form his or her present life takes, and good and evil behavior in the present life determines future rebirth.
390:, said, "There are no words in Gondi for sin or virtue: a man may be ruined, here and hereafter, for a breach of a taboo, but the notion of retribution for sinners is an alien importation". The
1152:
based on feelings of guilt and the threat of punishment. Western scholars generally classify the Chinese and Japanese societies as shame based, emphasizing the psychological fear of
447:
disagreed with Eberhard's conclusion that early Chinese religions disregarded "sin" because our understanding of ancient Chinese religion is still developing. For instance, in the
917:
for flood and fire and metaphor for suffering) in penitence, lie on the (preferably frozen) ground, with hands tied behind his back (like a criminal), and confess past sins.
748:過 "excess; sin" causes sickness and confession cures it. The recorded history of Daoist "sin" began in the 2nd-century CE, contemporaneous with the Buddhist introduction of
1164:
the internalised social norms of Chinese culture. The ‘shame’ context are not contradictory to sin but rather adhere to and strengthen Chinese social norms and laws.
1797:
531:
perennial concern of the good lives granted to so many immoral people, a question that had been resigned to the mystery of fate in pre-Buddhist ethics.
1125:
have advocated for the doctrine of original sin as having warrant in mainland China due to the sociopolitical unrest that it has recently experienced.
623:"community". Buddhist confession is not considered an appeal for divine absolution, but an aid to spiritual progress and clearing karmic obstacles.
948:"Sacred Jewel" School of Daoism, which originated in the early 5th century, adapted Buddhist many precepts such as sin and reincarnation. The
888:
In cases where Daoist religious practices did not cure sickness, "the failure was said to be caused by their not keeping faith with the Dao".
633:"dirty; vile; abominable; ugly" to denote "sin", and correspondingly, "the Buddhist 'paradise,' the place in which there is no sin" is called
881:
in 142 CE, taught that the gods maintained celestial registers of good and evil deeds, and regarded sickness as divine punishment for sins.
1354:
507:
Bodde also disagreed with Eberhard because a broad statement is made while our knowledge of ancient Chinese religion is still developing.
520:
1385:
1301:
700:
375:罪過(兒) "fault; wicked act; sin; offense", which is a humble expression for "guilty conscience; this is really more than I deserve."
895:塗炭齋 "mud and ashes retreat" was a Celestial Master ritual meant to rescue the participants and their ancestors from sufferings in
1118:
described the "vague" Chinese idea of sin, and "the task of tasks is to bring home to the native mind the sense of what sin is.
1865:
168:
1214:
Chinese Thought, Society, and Science: the intellectual and social background of science and technology in pre-modern China
160:
874:
471:
1184:
677:; meritorious action", referring to karmic merit gained from actions like giving alms, reciting sutras, and performing
32:
1915:
1153:
423:
1743:
Griffith, John (1859). "The Ethics of the Chinese, with special reference to the Doctrines of Human Nature and Sin".
1920:
1172:
288:
744:
Early Daoist religious movements – Yellow Turban, Celestial Master, and Highest Clarity schools – believed that
1910:
1825:
1408:
975:
The sin to study on your own, without a teacher, or transmit the teachings without proper authorization. ...
769:
353:
307:
936:
because that is the day when the spirits of one's body reported sins and transgressions to the Sage Lord.
226:
715:
refuted the common Western belief that Chinese and Japanese religions have no sense of "sin" or "guilt".
1558:
Bloom, Alfred. (1967), "The Sense of Sin and Guilt and the Last Age in Chinese and Japanese Buddhism,"
1189:
1133:
1101:
1042:
1035:
953:
657:
80:
1010:功過格 "ledgers of merit and demerit" became widespread, with sins divinely calculated as demerit points.
236:(with "have; there is") which means guilty (of an offense). In contrast, some are unequivocal, such as
960:
The sin to disregard the scriptures and precepts, harbor doubts or be in two minds about the teaching.
1275:
Kaltenmark, Max (1979). "The Ideology of the T'ai-p'ing ching". In Holmes Welch; Anna Seidel (eds.).
1194:
379:
1199:
269:非 "wrong", ideographically depicting, "A 网 net used to capture the criminal who has done 非 wrong".
1467:
1263:
1122:
1013:
638:
76:
72:
813:"inner power" without teaching them to others, and accumulating riches without aiding the poor.
222:
Apart from crime and sin, Zui can also be used to describe suffering, hardships and blame. Some
1381:
1377:
1297:
933:
620:
500:
254:
1820:
1812:
1459:
1255:
1230:
926:
674:
669:
516:
419:
403:
311:
204:
120:
100:
1246:
Fürer-Haimendorf, Christoph von (1974). "The Sense of Sin in Cross-Cultural Perspective".
1160:
1078:
678:
572:
186:
138:
1767:
The religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity
1783:
1137:
945:
542:
391:
387:
1904:
1296:. Translated by Robinet, Isabelle; Brooks, Phyllis. Stanford University Press. 1997.
1235:
1149:
1141:
910:
878:
825:
653:
493:
383:
337:
320:
1285:
Heaven and Earth are not Humane: The Problem of Evil in Classical Chinese Philosophy
972:
The sin to steal the texts of the scriptures or practice without the proper teacher.
1925:
1880:
1110:
1031:
1003:
810:
782:
712:
592:
486:
444:
427:
333:
1121:
In the 1980s-1990s, after the end of the Cultural Revolution, a number of Chinese
485:"He who has put himself in the wrong with Heaven has no means of expiation left" (
1692:
An introduction to the philosophy and religion of Taoism: pathways to immortality
1402:
1291:
1762:
1106:
733:
575:"evil, misfortune, bad luck, trouble, mischief, harm; sin, vice, crime, guilt."
479:
467:
431:
329:
247:
240:
233:
1094:
1086:
914:
604:
732:"Latter Day of the Dharma", and can find salvation from sin through faith in
1145:
1115:
932:
In Highest Clarity tradition, annual confession of sins was required on the
773:
725:
550:
524:
492:"If you incur blame with Heaven, you have nowhere to turn for forgiveness" (
554:
1816:
963:
The sin to despise the sagely writings or criticize the sacred scriptures.
703:
described the importance of karmic "merit" in Chinese spiritual thought,
1373:
729:
562:
399:
84:
1720:, translated by Karen C. Duval, University of California Press. p. 222.
1471:
1267:
979:
It further lists 145 sins for "students of the Dao and lay followers":
430:(1046-256 BCE). Eberhard concluded that "sin" was unknown prior to the
689:
630:
537:
906:
451:
Confucius “sin” (tsui) might suggest a violation against divine law.
176:
128:
88:
1571:
Cooper, Jean C., Joseph A. Fitzgerald, and William Stoddart (2010),
1463:
1259:
115:
In Chinese, there are two words that can be used to describe "sin":
462:
as "sin". This context (3/13) quotes Confucius explaining a rhymed
219:
can be used to describe unintentionally committed crimes or sins.
692:" achievement; result; skill; meritorious service", compounded in
649:
583:"evil; inauspicious; unwholesome", which is translated as Chinese
463:
273:
was used to translate Chinese Buddhist terminology, for instance,
1175:, modern scholars doubt the thesis of a Chinese "shame culture."
902:
897:
966:
The sin to make light of the teachers or break the solemn oath.
328:
characters as罪 "fish trap" and 辠 "crime; punishment" and noted
91:
originated. While English lexically differentiates theological
1745:
Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
1573:
An Illustrated Introduction to Taoism: The Wisdom of the Sages
969:
The sin to slander the elders or disregard the heavenly rules.
806:
546:司命 (lit. "Controller of Fate"), who arbitrated human destiny.
478:"He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray" (
324:
dictionary defined the original meanings of these homophonous
68:
15:
1109:
said neither Confucianism nor Daoism knew anything about the
1057:過 "exceed; sin". Some semantically related Chinese words are
1030:
The concept of "sin; offense against god" is a long-standing
1016:
noted that although modern Daoists believe the sin of losing
786:"Scripture of Great Peace." According to Stephen Bokenkamp,
660:
acted as "a system of bureaucratic constitutional monarchy".
995:
The sin to kill living beings or give rise to evil thoughts.
728:, teach that we are currently in the degenerate and immoral
1658:
1656:
1018:
989:
The sin to criticize your teachers, elders, or anyone else.
805:
gives examples of the six worst sins, such as accumulating
378:
Words meaning "sin; violation of religious law" are not a
243:(with "crime; criminal") which means to commit a crime or
1144:
based on inculcating feelings of shame and the threat of
998:
The sin to harbor greed and passion, pride and sloth. ...
824:承負 "inherited burden", roughly comparable with Christian
499:"If you offend Heaven, there is no one you can pray to" (
107:罪 meaning "crime; guilt; misconduct; sin; fault; blame."
47:
1631:
1629:
1336:
1334:
203:'exceed'). According to the German sociologist
43:
523:
Buddhist missionaries (originally perceived as foreign
250:(with "origin; source") which refers to original sin.
39:
956:
lists 22 sins for "those who pursue the highest Dao":
540:"life; fate; destiny; command" was personified in the
229:
are ambiguous between "crime" and "sin". For example,
215:
can mean "crime, punishment of a crime, and sin", and
1731:
China and Christianity: burdened past, hopeful future
992:
The sin to intoxicate yourself with wine and spirits.
302:辛 "painful" — emphasizing the "punishment" aspect of
1315:承負 'Inherited burden'". In Fabrizio Pregadio (ed.).
644:
The Buddhist notion of "sin", translated as Chinese
1234:
1826:20.500.11820/10a07287-7f56-4f8b-981c-6014e9bf86b8
619:) emphasizes publicly confessing to the monastic
1707:, State University of New York Press. pp. 100-1.
1546:
1421:
772:(184-205 CE) against the Han dynasty was led by
1073:赦罪 " pardon (a criminal); forgive (a sinner)",
696:功過 "achievements and errors; merits and sins".
1778:Ball, J. Dyer (1927), "Sin (Chinese)," in the
1136:traditionally distinguished two modalities of
348:皇 "emperor" in his name, and replaced it with
1678:
1647:
42:. Consider transferring direct quotations to
8:
1780:Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Part 22
1277:Facets of Taoism, Essays in Chinese Religion
579:arises from intentions and actions that are
287:罪 "crime; guilt; punishment" had an archaic
983:The sin to pick a fight with a good fellow.
626:In the 5th century, Chinese Buddhists used
519:began circa the 1st or 2nd century CE when
198:
150:
1608:
1596:
1370:ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese
913:would daub his face with mud and ashes (a
603:"confession of sins/infringements (of the
1873:World Cultural Psychiatry Research Review
1824:
1674:
1662:
1584:
1168:background of the particular wrongdoer."
611:懺悔 "repent; confess". The alternate term
83:until around the second century CE, when
1839:
1729:Uhalley, Stephen and Xiaoxin Wu (2001),
1534:
1522:
1497:
1433:
1340:
1279:. Yale University Press. pp. 19–52.
607:code)", which Chinese transliterates as
1330:
780:"The Way of Great Peace", based on the
344:辠 "crime", which graphically resembled
336:made 辠 obsolete. The first Qin emperor
318:劓 "cutting off the nose". The (121 CE)
191:
143:
1635:
1620:
1053:罪 "guilt; sin" rather than the Daoist
681:devotions. The Chinese translation of
1851:
1798:"The East Asian Rediscovery of 'Sin'"
1485:
1100:Some Christian missionaries in China
7:
1866:"Shame researches in mainland China"
1355:Wenlin Software for learning Chinese
1061:懺 "repent; regret; confess (sins)",
848:fundamentally differs from Buddhist
840:首過 "admitting sin"), and corrective
549:When Buddhist missionaries, such as
1705:The Taoist Experience: An Anthology
986:The sin to speak evil or hypocrisy.
952:三元品 "Precepts of the Three Primes"
836:思過 "considering sin", confessional
382:. For instance, the anthropologist
281:罪業 (with "action") "sinful karma".
1513:, Oxford University Press. p. 211.
1448:Guilt and Sin in Traditional China
1358:, version 4.0.1, Wenlin Institute.
1237:Guilt and Sin in Traditional China
1065:悔 "regret, repent; show remorse",
615:向彼悔 "repent sins to others" (from
591:不善 "not good; unholy; bad; evil".
418:辠 or 罪 "crime; guilt" occurred in
277:罪障 (with "obstruction") "sin" and
209:Guilt and Sin in Traditional China
14:
1376:HI: University of Hawaiʻi Press.
1241:. University of California Press.
1225:. University of California Press.
599:Buddhist monks and nuns practice
87:arrived from India and religious
1694:, Sussex Academic Press. p. 143.
828:. Toshiaki Yamada explains that
760:罪 means both "sin" and "guilt."
466:about sacrificing to either the
20:
1716:Schipper, Kristofer M. (1993),
1159:Eberhard explained that sin in
820:introduced the Daoist dogma of
724:Some Buddhist Schools, such as
553:(d. 168 CE), began translating
1221:Bokenkamp, Stephen R. (1997).
701:Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf
181:
172:
164:
133:
71:, in the sense of violating a
1:
1864:Qian, Mingyi (October 2007).
1805:Studies in World Christianity
1216:. University of Hawaii Press.
1049:"sin" with the Buddhist term
844:自責 "blaming oneself". Daoist
454:However, none of the English
1879:(4): 133–136. Archived from
1690:Fowler, Jeaneane D. (2005),
1452:The Journal of Asian Studies
1446:Yü, Ying-shih (May 1968). "
1293:Taoism: Growth of a Religion
875:Way of the Celestial Masters
648:, was explained in terms of
1769:, Charles Scribner. p. 294.
1287:, Indiana University Press.
1045:generally translated Latin
527:Daoists) arrived in China.
332:(221 BCE-206 BCE) imperial
1942:
1404:The Muria and their Ghotul
1317:The Encyclopedia of Taoism
1311:Yamada, Toshiaki (2008). "
1283:Perkins, Franklin (2014),
1733:, M. E. Sharpe. pp. 71-2.
1679:Robinet & Brooks 1997
1648:Robinet & Brooks 1997
1368:Schuessler, Axel (2007).
1173:cross-cultural psychiatry
289:variant Chinese character
124:
33:overly lengthy quotations
1796:Chow, Alexander (2013).
1703:Tr. Kohn, Livia (1993),
1562:14.2:144–149. pp. 144-5.
1511:A Dictionary of Buddhism
1450:, by Wolfram Eberhard".
1171:Based on experiments in
1006:(960–1279), the idea of
803:Scripture of Great Peace
793:Scripture of Great Peace
557:into Chinese, they used
40:summarize the quotations
1409:Oxford University Press
1401:Elwin, Verrier (1947).
1223:Early Daoist Scriptures
770:Yellow Turban Rebellion
354:Modern Standard Chinese
308:traditional Chinese law
1575:. World Wisdom. p. 14.
1509:Keown, Damien (2003),
1069:懺悔 "confess; repent",
863:
798:
722:
709:
443:The Chinese historian
441:
306:. For instance, under
1817:10.3366/swc.2013.0048
1547:Fürer-Haimendorf 1974
1422:Fürer-Haimendorf 1974
1190:Buddhist views on sin
1134:Cultural anthropology
1036:Christianity in China
1002:Beginning around the
854:
788:
717:
711:The Buddhist scholar
705:
658:Chinese folk religion
561:罪 "crime; guilt" for
458:translations renders
436:
155:'crime') and
1786:, pp. 535–537.
1352:Bishop, Tom (2011),
1212:Bodde, Derk (1991).
1195:Islamic views on sin
1129:Sociological aspects
1026:Chinese Christianity
667:"sin; demerit" with
380:linguistic universal
73:universal moral code
1319:. pp. 265–266.
1200:Jewish views on sin
1185:Bahá'í views on sin
1123:Cultural Christians
1091:ke yuanliang de zui
1043:Jesuit missionaries
424:bronze inscriptions
310:, the excruciating
169:traditional Chinese
1916:Chinese philosophy
1083:buke raoshu de zui
1014:Kristofer Schipper
901:地獄 "earth prison;
434:(206 BCE-220 CE).
410:Historical origins
386:, who studied the
265:罒 or 网 "net" over
161:simplified Chinese
77:Chinese philosophy
1921:Religion in China
1231:Eberhard, Wolfram
756:mentioned above,
663:Buddhism opposes
501:A. Charles Muller
472:ancestral spirits
356:character usage,
340:秦始皇 forbid using
255:Chinese character
201:
153:
75:, was unknown in
65:
64:
1933:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1885:
1870:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1802:
1793:
1787:
1776:
1770:
1760:
1754:
1752:
1740:
1734:
1727:
1721:
1714:
1708:
1701:
1695:
1688:
1682:
1672:
1666:
1660:
1651:
1650:, pp. 58–9.
1645:
1639:
1633:
1624:
1618:
1612:
1611:, pp. 33–4.
1606:
1600:
1594:
1588:
1582:
1576:
1569:
1563:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1507:
1501:
1500:, pp. 17–8.
1495:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1475:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1425:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1398:
1392:
1391:
1365:
1359:
1350:
1344:
1338:
1320:
1307:
1280:
1271:
1242:
1240:
1226:
1217:
934:autumnal equinox
909:; purgatory". A
866:Celestial Master
752:罪 "guilt; sin".
699:The ethnologist
637:淨土 "clean land;
517:Chinese Buddhism
511:Chinese Buddhism
420:Chinese classics
404:Marathi language
360:罪 is common and
312:Five Punishments
294:辠, written with
205:Wolfram Eberhard
202:
199:
195:
183:
174:
166:
154:
151:
147:
135:
126:
101:Chinese language
60:
57:
51:
24:
23:
16:
1941:
1940:
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1911:Chinese culture
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1718:The Taoist Body
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1677:, p. 162;
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1161:Chinese culture
1131:
1079:sin of omission
1032:hamartiological
1028:
942:
923:
921:Highest Clarity
868:
766:
742:
515:The history of
513:
412:
113:
67:The concept of
61:
55:
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46:or excerpts to
37:
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1854:, p. 162.
1844:
1832:
1811:(2): 126–140.
1788:
1784:James Hastings
1771:
1755:
1735:
1722:
1709:
1696:
1683:
1675:Bokenkamp 1997
1667:
1665:, p. 299.
1663:Bokenkamp 1997
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1638:, p. 266.
1625:
1623:, p. 265.
1613:
1601:
1589:
1585:Bokenkamp 1997
1577:
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1549:, p. 551.
1539:
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1478:
1458:(3): 618–619.
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1254:(4): 539–556.
1250:. New Series.
1243:
1227:
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1207:
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1197:
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1138:social control
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776:, who founded
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392:Gondi language
388:Gondi language
112:
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103:uses one word
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1886:on 2010-01-07
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1841:
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1598:
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1536:
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1531:
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1524:
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1888:. Retrieved
1881:the original
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38:Please help
30:
1751:(1): 20–81.
1636:Yamada 2008
1621:Yamada 2008
1154:losing face
1107:James Legge
950:Sanyuan pin
872:Tianshi Dao
778:Taiping Dao
601:pāpa-deśanā
480:James Legge
468:Kitchen God
432:Han dynasty
398:"sin" is a
364:辠 is rare.
330:Qin dynasty
111:Terminology
95:from legal
1905:Categories
1890:2012-01-08
1852:Bodde 1991
1486:Bodde 1991
1206:References
1095:venial sin
1087:mortal sin
1008:gongguo ge
915:synecdoche
893:tutan zhai
613:xiangbihui
605:Patimokkha
187:Wade–Giles
139:Wade–Giles
48:Wikisource
1782:, ed. by
1325:Footnotes
1146:ostracism
1116:Dyer Ball
927:Shangqing
774:Zhang Jue
726:Pure Land
639:pure land
551:An Shigao
525:Huang-Lao
521:Silk Road
426:from the
414:The word
402:from the
373:zuiguo(r)
314:included
261:combines
227:compounds
44:Wikiquote
31:contains
1765:(1881),
1374:Honolulu
1233:(1967).
1179:See also
1148:, and a
1085:不可饶恕的罪 "
1075:zuiquian
1047:peccatum
734:Amitābha
694:gong-guo
563:Sanskrit
456:Analects
449:Analects
400:loanword
275:zuizhang
85:Buddhism
56:May 2018
1476:p. 619.
1472:2051167
1313:Chengfu
1268:2801123
1093:可原谅的罪 "
1089:", and
1067:chanhui
946:Lingbao
859:Chengfu
846:chengfu
838:shouguo
830:chengfu
822:chengfu
609:chanhui
581:akuśala
245:yuanzui
121:Chinese
1753:p. 42.
1470:
1384:
1378:p. 637
1300:
1266:
1071:shezui
1041:Early
907:naraka
740:Daoism
635:jingtu
621:sangha
589:bushan
555:sūtras
543:Siming
352:罪. In
257:罪 for
238:fanzui
231:youzui
189::
179::
177:pinyin
171::
163::
141::
131::
129:pinyin
123::
99:, the
89:Daoism
1884:(PDF)
1869:(PDF)
1801:(PDF)
1560:Numen
1468:JSTOR
1264:JSTOR
850:karma
834:siguo
730:Mappō
683:punya
675:merit
670:punya
650:karma
464:adage
394:word
346:huang
279:zuiye
97:crime
1382:ISBN
1298:ISBN
1140:: a
1059:chan
954:text
944:The
925:The
903:hell
898:diyu
891:The
870:The
842:zize
816:The
768:The
687:gong
679:puja
665:pāpa
652:and
577:Pāpa
570:pāpá
566:pāpa
535:Ming
422:and
263:wang
253:The
200:lit.
152:lit.
145:tsui
79:and
1926:Sin
1821:hdl
1813:doi
1460:doi
1256:doi
1248:Man
1097:".
1081:",
1063:hui
1055:guo
1051:zui
807:Dao
758:zui
750:zui
746:guo
685:is
646:zui
641:".
628:wei
573:पाप
568:or
559:zui
470:or
460:zui
416:zui
396:pap
368:Guo
362:zui
358:zui
350:zui
342:zui
326:zui
304:zui
300:xin
292:zui
285:Zui
271:Zui
267:fei
259:zui
224:zui
217:guo
213:zui
193:kuo
182:guò
157:guo
134:zuì
117:zui
105:zui
93:sin
69:sin
1907::
1875:.
1871:.
1819:.
1809:19
1807:.
1803:.
1747:.
1655:^
1628:^
1466:.
1456:27
1454:.
1407:.
1380:.
1372:.
1333:^
1262:.
1156:.
1019:qi
905:;
852:.
811:De
736:.
474:.
316:yi
296:zi
248:原罪
241:犯罪
234:有罪
211:,
197:;
185:;
175:;
167:;
149:;
137:;
127:;
1893:.
1877:2
1829:.
1823::
1815::
1749:2
1474:.
1462::
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1306:.
1270:.
1258::
1252:9
690:功
673:"
631:穢
585:e
538:命
503:)
496:)
489:)
482:)
173:過
165:过
159:(
125:罪
119:(
58:)
54:(
50:.
36:.
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