Chicago Pile-1 - Knowledge (XXG)

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pieces of uranium metal and uranium oxide. The graphite arrived from the manufacturers in 4.25-by-4.25-inch (10.8 by 10.8 cm) bars of various lengths. They were cut into standard lengths of 16.5 inches (42 cm), each weighing 19 pounds (8.6 kg). A lathe was used to drill 3.25-inch (8.3 cm) holes in the blocks for the control rods and the uranium. A hydraulic press was used to shape the uranium oxide into "pseudospheres", cylinders with rounded ends. Drill bits had to be sharpened after each 60 holes, which worked out to be about once an hour. Graphite dust soon filled the air and made the floor slippery.

870:, Compton became convinced that a plutonium bomb was also feasible. In December, Compton was placed in charge of the plutonium project. Its objectives were to produce reactors to convert uranium to plutonium, to find ways to chemically separate the plutonium from the uranium, and to design and build an atomic bomb. It fell to Compton to decide which of the different types of reactor designs the scientists should pursue, even though a successful reactor had not yet been built. He proposed a schedule to achieve a controlled nuclear chain reaction by January 1943, and to have an atomic bomb by January 1945. 1458:

to Fermi's new calculations, the countdown would reach 1 between the 56th and 57th layers. The resulting pile was therefore flatter on the top than on the bottom. Anderson called a halt after the 57th layer was placed. When completed, the wooden frame supported an elliptical-shaped structure, 20 feet (6.1 m) high, 6 feet (1.8 m) wide at the ends and 25 feet (7.6 m) across the middle. It contained 6 short tons (5.4 t) of uranium metal, 50 short tons (45 t) of uranium oxide and 400 short tons (360 t) of graphite, at an estimated cost of $ 2.7 million.

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use for graphite at that time. Because of his work studying the spectroscopy of the carbon arc, MacPherson knew that the major relevant contaminant was boron, both because of its concentration and its affinity for absorbing neutrons, confirming a suspicion of Szilard's. More importantly, MacPherson and Hamister believed that techniques for producing graphite of a sufficient purity could be developed. Had Fermi and Szilard not consulted MacPherson and Hamister, they might have concluded, incorrectly, as the Germans did, that graphite was unsuitable for use as a neutron moderator.

1135:, the University of Chicago and the University of California was creating too much duplication and not enough collaboration, and he resolved to concentrate the work in one location. Nobody wanted to move, and everybody argued in favor of their own location. In January 1942, soon after the United States entered World War II, Compton decided on his own location, the University of Chicago, where he knew he had the unstinting support of university administration. Chicago also had a central location, and scientists, technicians and facilities were more readily available in the 274: 6864: 6852: 6840: 759: 679:, which would not absorb neutrons like ordinary hydrogen, and was a better neutron moderator than carbon; but heavy water was expensive and difficult to produce, and several tons of it might be needed. Fermi estimated that a fissioning uranium nucleus produced 1.73 neutrons on average. It was enough, but a careful design was called for to minimize losses. (Today the average number of neutrons emitted per fissioning uranium-235 nucleus is known to be about 2.4). 1467: 1426: 1358: 1277: 1156: 1103: 1273:

reactor—at a more remote site. A building at Argonne to house Fermi's experimental pile was commenced, with its completion scheduled for 20 October. Due to industrial disputes, construction fell behind schedule, and it became clear the materials for Fermi's new pile would be on hand before the new structure was completed. In early November, Fermi came to Compton with a proposal to build the experimental pile under the stands at Stagg Field.

5793: 1617: 42: 1494:, which he was to throw over the pile in the event of an emergency. The startup began at 09:54. Walter Zinn removed the zip, the emergency control rod, and secured it. Norman Hilberry stood ready with an axe to cut the scram line, which would allow the zip to fall under the influence of gravity. While Leona Woods called out the count from the boron trifluoride detector in a loud voice, 879: 1434:

as the pile approached criticality. At the 15th layer, it was 390; at the 19th it was 320; at the 25th it was 270 and by the 36th it was only 149. The original design was for a spherical pile, but as work proceeded, it became clear that this would not be necessary. The new graphite was purer, and 6 short tons (5.4 t) of very pure metallic uranium began to arrive from the

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electric current from the boron trifluoride detector. He wanted to test the control circuits, but after 28 minutes, the alarm bells went off to notify everyone that the neutron flux had passed the preset safety level, and he ordered Zinn to release the zip. The reaction rapidly halted. The pile had run for about 4.5 minutes at about 0.5 watts. Wigner opened a bottle of

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morning of 16 November 1942. The first layer placed was made up entirely of graphite blocks, with no uranium. Layers without uranium were alternated with two layers containing uranium, so the uranium was enclosed in graphite. Unlike later reactors, it had no radiation shielding or cooling system, as it was only intended to be operated at very low power.

1551:, with overhead protection from 6 inches (15 cm) of lead and 50 inches (130 cm) of wood. More uranium was used, so it contained 52 short tons (47 t) of uranium and 472 short tons (428 t) of graphite. No cooling system was provided as it only ran at a few kilowatts. CP-2 became operational in March 1943, with a 1717:, stands in a small quadrangle outside the Regenstein Library on the former site of the west viewing stands' rackets court. It was dedicated on 2 December 1967, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of CP-1 going critical. The commemorative plaques from 1952, 1965 and 1967 are nearby. A graphite block from CP-1 can be seen at the 433:. Although the project's civilian and military leaders had misgivings about the possibility of a disastrous runaway reaction, they trusted Fermi's safety calculations and decided they could carry out the experiment in a densely populated area. Fermi described the reactor as "a crude pile of black bricks and wooden timbers". 1547:. There the original materials were used to build Chicago Pile-2 (CP-2). Instead of being spherical, the new reactor was built in a cube-like shape, about 25 feet (7.6 m) tall with a base approximately 30 feet (9.1 m) square. It was surrounded by concrete walls 5 feet (1.5 m) thick that acted as a 1457:

The 2.25-inch (5.7 cm) metallic uranium cylinders, known as "Spedding's eggs", were dropped in the holes in the graphite in lieu of the uranium oxide pseudospheres. The process of filling the balloon with carbon dioxide would not be necessary, and twenty layers could be dispensed with. According

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About two layers were laid per shift. Woods' boron trifluoride neutron counter was inserted at the 15th layer. Thereafter, readings were taken at the end of each shift. Fermi divided the square of the radius of the pile by the intensity of the radioactivity to obtain a metric that counted down to one

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in August, but by September it was apparent that the proposed facilities would be too extensive for the site, and it was decided to build the pilot plant elsewhere. The subcritical piles posed little danger, but Groves felt that it would be prudent to locate a critical pile—a fully functional nuclear

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factor was larger than originally thought. This removed the objections to the use of air or water as a coolant rather than expensive helium. It also meant that there was greater latitude in the choice of materials for coolant pipes and control mechanisms. Wigner now pressed ahead with his design for

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played squash there in 1940. Since it was intended for strenuous exercise, the area was unheated, and very cold in the winter. The nearby North Stands had a pair of ice skating rinks on the ground floor, which although they were unrefrigerated, seldom melted in winter. Allison used the rackets court

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Before leaving for Chicago, Fermi's team made one last attempt to build a working pile at Columbia. Since the cans had absorbed neutrons, they were dispensed with. Instead, the uranium oxide, heated to 250 °C (480 °F) to dry it out, was pressed into cylindrical holes 3 inches (7.6 cm)

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Another grant, this time of $ 40,000, was obtained from the S-1 Uranium Committee to purchase more materials, and in August 1941 Fermi began to plan the building of a sub-critical assembly to test with a smaller structure whether a larger one would work. The so-called exponential pile he proposed to

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to discuss the possible existence of impurities in graphite, and the procurement of graphite of a purity that had never been produced commercially. National Carbon, a chemical company, had taken the then unusual step of hiring MacPherson, a physicist, to research carbon arc lamps, a major commercial

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from the fission reactions. Since the rate of release of these neutrons depends on fission events taking place some time earlier, there is a delay between any power spikes and the later criticality event. This time gives the operators leeway; if a spike in the prompt neutron flux is seen, they have

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We went to Dean Pegram, who was then the man who could carry out magic around the University, and we explained to him that we needed a big room. He scouted around the campus and we went with him to dark corridors and under various heating pipes and so on, to visit possible sites for this experiment

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impurities in the graphite samples on which they ran their test of its usability as a moderator, while Leo Szilard and Enrico Fermi had asked suppliers about the most common contaminations of graphite after a first failed test. They consequently ensured that the next test would be run with graphite

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On 12 December 1942, CP-1's power output was increased to 200 W, enough to power a light bulb. Lacking shielding of any kind, it was a radiation hazard for everyone in the vicinity, and further testing was continued at 0.5 W. Operation was terminated on 28 February 1943, and the pile was

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The work was carried out in twelve-hour shifts, with a day shift under Zinn and a night shift under Anderson. For a work force they hired thirty high school dropouts who were eager to earn a bit of money before being drafted into the military. They machined 45,000 graphite blocks enclosing 19,000

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had a substantial scientific lead. The success of Chicago Pile-1 in producing the chain reaction provided the first vivid demonstration of the feasibility of the military use of nuclear energy by the Allies, as well as the reality of the danger that Nazi Germany could succeed in producing nuclear

1574:. Wartime experiments included measuring the neutron absorption cross-section of elements and compounds. Albert Wattenberg recalled that about 10 elements were studied each month, and 75 over the course of a year. An accident involving radium and beryllium powder caused a dangerous drop in his 1505:

The experiment resumed at 14:00. Weil worked the final control rod while Fermi carefully monitored the neutron activity. Fermi announced that the pile had gone critical (reached a self-sustaining reaction) at 15:25. Fermi switched the scale on the recorder to accommodate the rapidly increasing

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was used to haul it into place, with the top secured to the ceiling and three sides to the walls. The remaining side, the one facing the balcony from which Fermi directed the operation, was furled like an awning. A circle was drawn on the floor, and the stacking of graphite blocks began on the

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was present, at Compton's invitation. Other dignitaries present included Szilard, Wigner and Spedding. Fermi, Compton, Anderson and Zinn gathered around the controls on the balcony, which was originally intended as a viewing platform. Samuel Allison stood ready with a bucket of concentrated

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iron cans of uranium oxide. The cans were 8-by-8-by-8-inch (20 by 20 by 20 cm) cubes. When filled with uranium oxide, each weighed about 60 pounds (27 kg). There were 288 cans in all, and each was surrounded by graphite blocks so the whole would form a cubic lattice structure. A

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became director of the Manhattan Project on 23 September 1942. He visited the Metallurgical Laboratory for the first time on 5 October. Between 15 September and 15 November 1942, groups under Herbert Anderson and Walter Zinn constructed 16 experimental piles under the Stagg Field stands.

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capture cross section of uranium-235. At the time only such minute quantities of plutonium-239 had been produced, in cyclotrons, and it was not possible to produce a sufficiently large quantity that way. Compton discussed with Wigner how plutonium might be produced in a

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weapons. Previously, estimates of critical masses had been crude calculations, leading to order-of-magnitude uncertainties about the size of a hypothetical bomb. The successful use of graphite as a moderator paved the way for progress in the Allied effort, whereas

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and the Argonne National Laboratory yielded to public pressure and earmarked $ 24.7 million and $ 3.4 million respectively to rehabilitate the site. As part of the cleanup, 500 cubic yards (380 m) of radioactive waste was removed and sent to the

1498:, the only one on the floor, withdrew all but one of the control rods. At 10:37 Fermi ordered Weil to remove all but 13 feet (4.0 m) of the last control rod. Weil withdrew it 6 inches (15 cm) at a time, with measurements being taken at each step. 939:

is achieved when the rate of neutron production is equal to the rate of neutron losses, including both neutron absorption and neutron leakage. When a uranium-235 atom undergoes fission, it releases an average of 2.4 neutrons. In the simplest case of an

1292:. When a fuel atom undergoes fission, it releases neutrons that strike other fuel atoms in a chain reaction. The time between absorbing the neutron and undergoing fission is measured in nanoseconds. Szilard had noted that this reaction leaves behind 528:, a wartime research facility near Chicago, where it was reconfigured to become Chicago Pile-2 (CP-2). There, it was operated for research until 1954, when it was dismantled and buried. The stands at Stagg Field were demolished in August 1957 and a 1296:

that may also release neutrons, but do so over much longer periods, from microseconds to as long as minutes. In a slow reaction like the one in a pile where the fission products build up, these neutrons account for about three percent of the total

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to conduct the first nuclear fission experiment in the United States on 25 January 1939. Subsequent work confirmed that fast neutrons were indeed produced by fission. Szilard obtained permission from the head of the Physics Department at Columbia,

1789:, George M. Maronde, Anthony J. Matz, George Miller, George D. Monk, Henry P. Newson, Robert G. Nobles, Warren E. Nyer, Wilcox P. Overbeck, J. Howard Parsons, Gerard S. Pawlicki, Theodore Petry, David P. Rudolph, Leon Sayvetz, Leo Seren, 1119:

was positioned near the bottom. The uranium oxide was heated to remove moisture, and packed into the cans while still hot on a shaking table. The cans were then soldered shut. For a workforce, Pegram secured the services of Columbia's

576:, which then caused further nuclear reactions, the process might be self-perpetuating. Szilard proposed using mixtures of lighter known isotopes which produced neutrons in copious amounts, and also entertained the possibility of using 1143:

long and 3 inches (7.6 cm) in diameter drilled into the graphite. The entire pile was then canned by soldering sheet metal around it, and the contents heated above the boiling point of water to remove moisture. The result was a

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that when cut would drop a control rod into the pile and stop the reaction. Richard Fox, who made the control-rod mechanism for the pile, remarked that the manual speed control that the operator had over the rods was simply a

755:. Its first meeting on 21 October 1939 was attended by Szilard, Teller, and Wigner. The scientists persuaded the Army and Navy to provide $ 6,000 for Szilard to purchase supplies for experiments—in particular, more graphite. 694:

Over the next two years, MacPherson, Hamister and Lauchlin M. Currie developed thermal purification techniques for the large scale production of low boron content graphite. The resulting product was designated AGOT graphite

6377: 711:. By November 1942 National Carbon had shipped 255 short tons (231 t) of AGOT graphite to the University of Chicago, where it became the primary source of graphite to be used in the construction of Chicago Pile-1. 1657:

a water-cooled production reactor. There remained concerns about the ability of a graphite-moderated reactor being able to produce plutonium on industrial scale, and for this reason the Manhattan Project continued the

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The process was abruptly halted by the automatic control rod reinserting itself, due to its trip level being set too low. At 11:25, Fermi ordered the control rods reinserted. He then announced that it was lunch time.

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was in no position to make an independent judgment of the hazards involved. Based on considerations of the University's welfare, the only answer he could have given would have been—no. And this answer would have been

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for a situation in which two molecules react to form not just the final reaction products, but also some unstable molecules that can further react with the original substances to cause more to react. The concept of a

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Brasch, A.; Lange, F.; Waly, A.; Banks, T. E.; Chalmers, T. A.; Szilard, Leo; Hopwood, F. L. (8 December 1934). "Liberation of Neutrons from Beryllium by X-Rays: Radioactivity Induced by Means of Electron Tubes".

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count that lasted for three years. As the dangers of things such as inhaling uranium oxide became more apparent, experiments were conducted on the effects of radioactive substances on laboratory test animals.

1139:, where war work had not yet taken them away. In contrast, Columbia University was engaged in uranium enrichment efforts under Harold Urey and John Dunning, and was hesitant to add a third secret project. 1344:

Compton informed Groves of his decision at the 14 November meeting of the S-1 Executive Committee. Although Groves "had serious misgivings about the wisdom of Compton's suggestion", he did not interfere.

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at Columbia, using a radium-beryllium source to bombard uranium with neutrons. They discovered significant neutron multiplication in natural uranium, proving that a chain reaction might be possible.

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sample, which, after being mailed to Dunning at Columbia, was confirmed to be the isolated fissile material. When he was working in Rome, Fermi had discovered that collisions between neutrons and

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Leo Szilard (right) and Norman Hilberry under the plaque commemorating Chicago Pile-1 on the West Stands of Old Stagg Field. While the stands were later demolished, the plaque is now located at

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court. Stagg Field had been largely unused since the University of Chicago had given up playing American football in 1939, but the rackets courts under West Stands were still used for playing

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team. It was the custom at the time for football players to perform odd jobs around the university. They were able to manipulate the heavy cans with ease. The final result was a disappointing

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blanketing one of the United States' major urban areas in radioactive fission products. But the physics of the system suggested that the pile could be safely shut down even in the event of a

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As a responsible officer of the University of Chicago, according to every rule of organizational protocol, I should have taken the matter to my superior. But this would have been unfair.

4772: 6931: 1308:, and by carefully controlling the reaction rates as the power is ramped up, a pile can reach criticality at fission rates slightly below that of a chain reaction relying solely on the 1627:

By the 1970s there was increased public concern about the levels of radioactivity at the site, which was used for recreation by local residents. Surveys conducted in the 1980s found

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had found a suitable location 60 feet (18 m) long, 30 feet (9.1 m) wide and 26 feet (7.9 m) high, sunk slightly below ground level, in a space under the stands at

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in St Louis, which was now producing 30 short tons (27 t) a month. Metallic uranium also began arriving in larger quantities, the product of newly developed techniques.

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build was 8 feet (2.4 m) long, 8 feet (2.4 m) wide and 11 feet (3.4 m) high. This was too large to fit in the Pupin Physics Laboratories. Fermi recalled that:

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The next day, 2 December 1942, everybody assembled for the experiment. There were 49 scientists present. Although most of the S-1 Executive Committee was in Chicago, only

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can slow the neutrons down, and thereby make them more likely to be captured by uranium nuclei, causing the uranium to fission. Szilard suggested to Fermi that they use

5043: 6125: 5962: 1373:. A 25-foot (7.6 m) cube-shaped balloon was somewhat unusual, but the Manhattan Project's AAA priority rating ensured prompt delivery with no questions asked. A 1237:

as soon as she completed her doctoral thesis. She also helped Anderson locate the required large number of 4-by-6-inch (10 by 15 cm) timbers at lumber yards in

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Szilard estimated he would need about 50 short tons (45 t) of graphite and 5 short tons (4.5 t) of uranium. In December 1940, Fermi and Szilard met with

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One of at least 29 experimental piles that were constructed in 1942 under the West Stands of Stagg Field. Each tested elements incorporated into the final design.

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to denote his own great invention of a source of electrical energy. I was disillusioned by Fermi himself, who told me that he simply used the common English word

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of 1.055. During the war Walter Zinn allowed CP-2 to be run around the clock, and its design was suitable for conducting experiments. CP-2 was joined by

1349:, the chairman of the NDRC, was reported to have turned white. But because of the urgency and their confidence in Fermi's calculations, no one objected. 2797: 2013:"Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements, British patent number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934; published: 30 March 1936)" 1676:

A commemorative plaque was unveiled at Stagg Field on 2 December 1952, the occasion of the tenth anniversary of CP-1 going critical. It read as follows:

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The risk of building an operational reactor running at criticality in a populated area was a significant issue, as there was a danger of a catastrophic

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After a series of attempts, the successful reactor was assembled in November 1942 by a team of about 30 that, in addition to Fermi, included scientists

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Video of west stands of Stagg Field, Institute for the Study of Metals (Metallurgical Laboratory), Enrico Fermi, and an active experiment using CP-1

1726: 727:, explaining the possibility of nuclear weapons, and encouraging the development of a program that could result in their creation. With the help of 1582:

Though the design was held secret for a decade, Szilard and Fermi jointly patented it, with an initial filing date of 19 December 1944 as the

492:. Unlike most subsequent nuclear reactors, it had no radiation shielding or cooling system as it operated at very low power – about one-half watt. 6556: 6337: 2449: 1602: 1601:, and the CP-2 and CP-3 reactors were dismantled in 1955 and 1956. Some of the graphite blocks from CP-1/CP-2 were reused in the reflector of the 3524: 1631:

in the soil at Plot M, trace amounts of tritium in nearby wells, and plutonium, technetium, caesium, and uranium in the area. In 1994, the

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On December 2, 1942 man achieved here the first self-sustaining chain reaction and thereby initiated the controlled release of nuclear energy.

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On the fourth anniversary of the team's success, 2 December 1946, members of the CP-1 team gathered at the University of Chicago.

6971: 6417: 6407: 6281: 6120: 1370: 4318: 2052:(1939). "Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle ( 603:

In order for a chain reaction to occur, fissioning uranium atoms had to emit additional neutrons to keep the reaction going. At

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Amaldi, Ugo (2001). "Nuclear Physics from the Nineteen Thirties to the Present Day". In Bernardini, C.; Bonolis, Luisa (eds.).

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The final draft of Compton's November 1941 report made no mention of plutonium, but after discussing the latest research with

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about how that plutonium might be separated from uranium. His report, submitted in November, stated that a bomb was feasible.

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to separate uranium isotopes for determination of the fissile component, and, on 29 February 1940, Nier separated the first

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in restoring a research-graphite pile, similar in design to Chicago Pile-1, ceremonially inserted the final uranium slugs.

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in Oak Ridge as part of a plutonium semiworks, followed by larger water-cooled production reactors at the Hanford Site in

744: 724: 600:, opened up the possibility of creating a nuclear chain reaction with uranium, but initial experiments were unsuccessful. 6830: 6946: 6392: 6347: 5735: 752: 5703: 740: 6432: 6352: 6342: 6312: 6286: 5988: 3955: 3925: 3871: 3694: 3531: 1610: 1590: 1265: 6693: 6901: 6719: 6619: 6546: 6081: 6070: 6052: 5928: 5869: 5845: 5796: 5096: 5024: 4545:. Oak Ridge, Tennessee: United States Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Technical Information. pp. 22–26. 4226: 1910: 1713: 1685: 1621: 533: 529: 247: 4358:. Oak Ridge, Tennessee: United States Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Technical Information. pp. 1–21. 3436: 6961: 6880: 6856: 6647: 6135: 6062: 6043: 5855: 5836: 5678: 5673: 1785:, William H. Hinch, Robert E. Johnson, W.R. Kanne, August C. Knuth, Phillip Grant Koontz, Herbert E. Kubitschek, 784:, to report on the uranium program. Compton's report, submitted in May 1941, foresaw the prospects of developing 6463: 2054:

On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons

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Salvetti, Carlo (2001). "The Birth of Nuclear Energy: Fermi's Pile". In Bernardini, C.; Bonolis, Luisa (eds.).

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Manhattan District History, Book IV – Pile Project X-10, Volume 2 – Research, Part 1 – Metallurgical Laboratory

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The plaque was saved when the West Stands were demolished in August 1957. The site of CP-1 was designated as a

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The reactors were used to undertake research related to weapons, such as investigations of the properties of

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as a fuel. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple nuclear reactor the following year. The discovery of

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The successful test of CP-1 not only proved that a nuclear reactor was feasible, it demonstrated that the

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to help celebrate the first self-sustaining, controlled chain reaction. It was signed by the participants.

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The pile was built in September 1941 from 4-by-4-by-12-inch (10 by 10 by 30 cm) graphite blocks and

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Another group, under Volney C. Wilson, was responsible for instrumentation. They also fabricated the

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I thought for a while that this term was used to refer to a source of nuclear energy in analogy with

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Bonolis, Luisa (2001). "Enrico Fermi's Scientific Work". In Bernardini, C.; Bonolis, Luisa (eds.).

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area to construct a 7-foot (2.1 m) experimental pile before Fermi's group arrived in 1942.

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in August 1939, and convinced him to sign the letter, lending his prestige to the proposal. The

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would have to be used for that purpose. The Germans had failed to account for the importance of

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Fermi and Szilard still believed that enormous quantities of uranium would be required for an

469: 406: 204: 155: 3234: 2375: 2012: 1673:. Enough plutonium was produced for an atomic bomb by July 1945, and for two more in August. 6551: 6001: 5877: 5745: 5544: 5529: 5494: 5469: 5323: 5278: 4912: 4820: 4650:. The understanding the atomic series. Oak Ridge, Tennessee: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. 3917: 3645: 3625: 3586: 2733: 2687: 2639: 2560: 2526: 2395: 2353: 2329: 2299: 2277: 2211: 2194: 2141: 2124: 2073: 2049: 1810: 1693: 1670: 1575: 1548: 1374: 1285: 1234: 1065: 708: 633: 628: 589: 537: 473: 256: 160: 52: 5805: 2336:; Hanstein, H. (16 March 1939). "Production of Neutrons in Uranium Bombarded by Neutrons". 6668: 5750: 5590: 5554: 5484: 5419: 5409: 5384: 5283: 5263: 5238: 5084:

Audio files of Fermi recounting the success of the reactor on the 10th anniversary in 1952

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supplied 3 short tons (2.7 t), which it produced in a rush with a makeshift process.

1346: 1305: 1293: 1246: 1176: 944:, homogeneous, spherical reactor, the critical radius was calculated to be approximately: 886: 867: 856: 851: 793: 748: 743:

resulted in the establishment of research into nuclear fission by the U.S. government. An

736: 696: 620: 612: 581: 405:. The secret development of the reactor was the first major technical achievement for the 394: 215: 5499: 4907: 2538: 1947: 1692:

was created in 1966, it was immediately added to that as well. The site was also named a

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Chicago Pile-1 was encased within a balloon so that the air inside could be replaced by

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to become his collaborator. They conducted a simple experiment on the seventh floor of

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sheets nailed to flat wooden strips, cadmium being a potent neutron absorber, and the

345: 6890: 5973: 5708: 5570: 5539: 5519: 5464: 5454: 5364: 5253: 5228: 5172: 4565: 3793: 2737: 1782: 1598: 1478: 1160: 1080:. To my surprise, Fermi never seemed to have thought of the relationship between his 860: 839: 831: 801: 732: 728: 489: 4790: 4742: 4570: 1616: 5765: 5647: 5504: 5449: 5429: 5414: 5318: 5142: 5077: 4792:

The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made

4533: 3863: 2530: 2399: 2333: 2273: 2269: 2231: 2153: 2111: 2085: 1790: 1766: 1750: 1637: 1628: 1447: 1435: 1386: 1298: 1250: 916: 897: 651:, and therefore concentrated on producing a controlled chain reaction. Fermi urged 624: 608: 593: 496: 418: 402: 41: 3590: 3947: 1513:

Compton notified Conant by telephone. The conversation was in an impromptu code:

1313:

several minutes before this causes a runaway reaction. If a neutron absorber, or

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The University of Chicago Library Archive. Includes photos and sketches of CP-1.

5030: 4737: 4074: 2534: 2115: 2008: 1818: 1814: 1806: 1798: 1708: 1658: 1495: 1415: 1398: 1325: 1269: 1227: 1188: 1172: 920: 909: 905: 823: 809: 704: 672: 656: 648: 637: 597: 565: 505: 465: 457: 449: 441: 437: 430: 4096: 1605:

reactor. High-level nuclear waste such as fuel and heavy water were shipped to

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had determined that the remaining materials posed no danger to public health.

1418:

wire over a pulley that also had two lead weights attached to ensure it would

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entirely devoid of them. As it turned out, both boron and cadmium were strong

17: 6012: 4626: 3806: 3657: 3474: 2653: 2357: 2303: 2223: 592:

in 1938, and its theoretical explanation (and naming) by their collaborators

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assumed control of the nuclear weapons program in June 1942, and Compton's

568:

on 12 September 1933. Szilard realized that if a nuclear reaction produced

5020:

The Day Tomorrow Began: The Story of Chicago Pile 1, the First Atomic Pile

4933: 4842: 4712:

Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard: The Man Behind The Bomb

4655: 4591: 4497: 4480: 4349:

Allardice, Corbin; Trapnell, Edward R. (December 1982). "The First Pile".

4075:"Enrico Fermi, Nuclear Fission, US Patent No. 2,708,656, Inducted in 1976" 4007:

Fermi, Enrico (1946). "The Development of the first chain reaction pile".

1060:

Fermi christened his apparatus a "pile". Emilio Segrè later recalled that:

1017:

is the average distance that a neutron travels before it is absorbed, and

6378:

Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, West Asia & North Africa

6367: 5780: 5613: 5147: 4941:

Wattenberg, Albert (1975). "Present at Creation". In Wilson, Jane (ed.).

4550: 4363: 4097:"Leo Szilard, Nuclear Fission, US Patent No. 2,708,656, Inducted in 1996" 1242: 1111: 668: 549: 102: 6202: 1226:, which was predicted to be around 1.04, thereby achieving criticality. 5770: 5637: 4022: 2120:"Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction" 2077: 1571: 1507: 1471: 1390: 1136: 827: 577: 569: 513: 485: 117: 98: 5056:"First-Hand Recollections of the First Self-Sustaining Chain Reaction" 4289:"First-Hand Recollections of the First Self-Sustaining Chain Reaction" 3649: 2691: 2644: 1699:

Today the site of the old Stagg Field is occupied by the university's

1411: 5156: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3283: 2497: 2495: 2215: 2145: 1911:"Site of the First Self-Sustaining Controlled Nuclear Chain Reaction" 1559:, the first heavy water reactor, which went critical on 15 May 1944. 1540: 1533: 1025:. The neutrons in succeeding reactions will be amplified by a factor 664: 525: 5088: 3987: 3985: 3235:""Site A" at Red Gate Woods & The World's First Nuclear Reactor" 6076:

Site of the First Self-Sustaining Controlled Nuclear Chain Reaction

5864:

Site of the First Self-Sustaining Controlled Nuclear Chain Reaction

4697:. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. 2899: 2897: 2845: 2843: 6126:

Main Building and Machinery Hall, Illinois Institute of Technology

4963:

The First Nuclear Era: The Life and Times of a Technological Fixer

3419: 3417: 3415: 1615: 1561: 1465: 1424: 1394: 1356: 1275: 1154: 1101: 877: 757: 509: 504:

languished partly because of the belief that scarce and expensive

481: 6907:

Energy infrastructure on the National Register of Historic Places

1842: 6773: 5718: 5187: 4945:. Chicago: Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. pp. 105–123. 1264:

near Chicago for a plutonium pilot plant; this became known as "

1222:

Fermi designed a new pile, which would be spherical to maximize

1045:

must be at least 3 or 4 percent greater than 1. In other words,

6206: 6016: 5809: 5092: 4418:. Chicago: Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. pp. 66–104. 429:, CP-1 was built under the west viewing stands of the original 2716:

Eatherly, W. P. (1981). "Nuclear graphite – the first years".

893:, Thomas Brill, Robert Nobles, Warren Nyer, Marvin Wilkening. 495:

The pursuit of a reactor had been touched off by concern that

4943:

All In Our Time: The Reminiscences of Twelve Nuclear Pioneers

4416:

All In Our Time: The Reminiscences of Twelve Nuclear Pioneers

3318: 3316: 3314: 3270: 3268: 3266: 3264: 2386:(4). Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.: 8–12. 842:

produced 28 μg of plutonium-239 in the 60-inch (150 cm)

6272:

Graham School of Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies

3402: 3400: 3006: 3004: 2943: 2941: 1002:{\displaystyle R_{crit}\approx {\frac {\pi M}{\sqrt {k-1}}}} 3756: 3754: 3752: 3750: 1952:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1956 – Award Ceremony Speech" 1517:

Compton: The Italian navigator has landed in the New World.

397:. On 2 December 1942, the first human-made self-sustaining 4880:. Bologna: Società Italiana di Fisica: Springer. pp. 4488:

Currie, L. M.; Hamister, V. C.; MacPherson, H. G. (1955).

4437:. Bologna: Società Italiana di Fisica: Springer. pp. 4384:. Bologna: Società Italiana di Fisica: Springer. pp. 1729:

in Chicago. On 2 December 2017, the 75th anniversary, the

4222:

Site of the Fermi's "Atomic Pile" – First Nuclear Reactor

3148: 3146: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2860: 2858: 636:, to use a laboratory for three months, and he persuaded 532:

now marks the experiment site's location, which is now a

4611:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 4514:

Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences

3375: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3367: 3045: 3043: 2704: 719:

Szilard drafted a confidential letter to the President,

3626:"Experimental Production of a Divergent Chain Reaction" 1131:

Compton felt that having teams at Columbia University,

1029:, the second generation of fission events will produce 4572:

Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

4490:

The Production and Properties of Graphite for Reactors

1769:, Richard J. Fox, Stewart Fox, Carl C. Gamertsfelder, 1245:

arrived, mainly from National Carbon, and high-purity

6828: 3731: 3729: 3727: 3725: 3723: 2670:

Bethe, Hans A. (2000). "The German Uranium Project".

2630:(7). National Academy of Engineering Press: 143–147. 1589:

The Red Gate Woods later became the original site of

953: 1874:"Site of the First Self-Sustaining Nuclear Reaction" 804:

of uranium-235. He also discussed the prospects for

707:, the AGOT graphite is considered as the first true 6782: 6712: 6661: 6595: 6482: 6452: 6305: 6249: 6242: 6144: 6111: 6093: 6051: 5937: 5909: 5891: 5844: 5661: 5630: 5563: 5352: 5221: 5135: 1369:. Anderson had a dark gray balloon manufactured by 484:) and was fueled by 5.4 short tons (4.9 tonnes) of 372: 364: 356: 351: 338: 330: 293: 221: 210: 196: 188: 180: 175: 167: 154: 146: 136: 128: 114: 109: 94: 86: 68: 58: 48: 34: 5076:Video of two of the last surviving CP-1 pioneers, 4981: 4911: 4789: 4741: 4569: 4468: 4414:(1975). "Assisting Fermi". In Wilson, Jane (ed.). 3976: 3918:"Early Exploration: CP-1 (Chicago Pile 1 Reactor)" 3892: 1001: 822:had theorized that heavy isotopes with odd atomic 699:Ordinary Temperature") by National Carbon. With a 564:was first hypothesized by the Hungarian scientist 555:was first suggested in 1913 by the German chemist 401:was initiated in CP-1 during an experiment led by 231:Site of the First Self Sustaining Nuclear Reaction 4129: 4010:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 3991: 3904: 3772: 3670: 3423: 1597:at the Argonne National Laboratory's new site in 780:, a Nobel-Prize-winning physics professor at the 671:as a moderator. As a back-up plan, he considered 5953:Clarence Buckingham Memorial Fountain and Garden 2800:. The Atomic Heritage Foundation. Archived from 1813:, Marvin H. Wilkening, Volney C. (Bill) Wilson, 1659:development of heavy water production facilities 735:, he approached his old friend and collaborator 6932:National Register of Historic Places in Chicago 3952:Argonne's Nuclear Science and Technology Legacy 3922:Argonne's Nuclear Science and Technology Legacy 3868:Argonne's Nuclear Science and Technology Legacy 3826: 3691:Argonne's Nuclear Science and Technology Legacy 3293: 3237:. Forest Preserves of Cook County. October 2013 3200: 3113: 2915: 2903: 2888: 2849: 2834: 2822: 2513: 2501: 2436: 2424: 2412: 2244: 2178: 1987:"Szilard's chain reaction: visionary or crank?" 1678: 1515: 1422:and return to its zero position when released. 1333: 1091: 1062: 946: 5984:Site of the Origin of the Chicago Fire of 1871 4191:"U. of C. to Raze Stagg Field's Atomic Cradle" 3437:"How the first chain reaction changed science" 2610: 2608: 2606: 2539:"Neutron Production and Absorption in Uranium" 1757:, Wayne Arnold, Hugh M. Barton, Thomas Brill, 1268:". 1,025 acres (415 ha) were leased from 6218: 6028: 5821: 5104: 4319:"Milestone for new LEU research reactor fuel" 1258:Office of Scientific Research and Development 796:using uranium-235 or the recently discovered 8: 6121:Immaculata High School and Convent Buildings 2776:"Einstein's Letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt" 1159:Carpenter Augustus Knuth, in the process of 1094:and eventually a big room was discovered in 1049:must be greater than 1 without crossing the 5963:Illinois–Indiana State Line Boundary Marker 4216: 4214: 3681: 3679: 2762: 2678:(7). American Institute of Physics: 34–36. 2452:. American Physical Society. Archived from 1613:. It is marked by a commemorative boulder. 776:(NDRC) created a special project headed by 6246: 6225: 6211: 6203: 6035: 6021: 6013: 5828: 5814: 5806: 5111: 5097: 5089: 4061: 3786:"George Weil – from activator to activist" 3525:"Frontiers: Research Highlights 1946–1996" 1878:National Historic Landmark Summary Listing 1207:became part of what came to be called the 40: 4710:Lanouette, William; Silard, Bela (1992). 4002: 4000: 3439:. University of Chicago. 10 December 2012 3229: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3076:"Where Football and Higher Education Mix" 2643: 976: 958: 952: 239:U.S. National Register of Historic Places 6510:Francis and Rose Yuen (Hong Kong) campus 6292:Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering 5989:Site of the Origins of the I&M Canal 4918:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 4796:. New York: William Morrow and Company. 4117: 3850: 3611: 3406: 3358: 3305: 3152: 3022: 2995: 2971: 2932: 2876: 2864: 2750: 2665: 2663: 1053:threshold that would result in a rapid, 27:World's first human-made nuclear reactor 6835: 6338:Chicago Project on Security and Threats 6297:School of Social Service Administration 4780:. Washington, D.C.: Manhattan District. 4695:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb 3346: 3322: 3274: 2576: 2574: 2474: 1829: 1742: 488:metal and 45 short tons (41 tonnes) of 6927:National Historic Landmarks in Chicago 6333:Center for Research in Security Prices 6277:Harris School of Public Policy Studies 4536:(December 1982). "Fermi's Own Story". 3838: 3739:. Department of Energy. Archived from 3714: 3511: 3391: 3379: 3334: 3188: 3164: 3137: 3125: 3049: 3034: 3010: 2983: 2947: 2705:Currie, Hamister & MacPherson 1955 2486: 2316: 2166: 2098: 2032: 1972: 1843:"National Register Information System" 1837: 1835: 1833: 1039:self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction 850:, and found that it had 1.7 times the 751:, a scientist and the director of the 280: 31: 6131:Mundelein College Skyscraper Building 6112:National Register of Historic Places, 5979:Site of the John and Mary Jones House 5910:National Register of Historic Places, 5901:Jean Baptiste Point Du Sable Homesite 4475:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4177: 4165: 4153: 4141: 3760: 3499: 3255: 3212: 3176: 3101: 2959: 1934: 1868: 1866: 1864: 1862: 1731:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1611:Site A/Plot M Disposal Site 1201:United States Army Corps of Engineers 7: 6937:Nuclear history of the United States 6869:National Register of Historic Places 6474:Housing at the University of Chicago 6192:Wendell Phillips Academy High School 6096:National Register of Historic Places 6058:National Register of Historic Places 6002:Wigwam (Site of the Sauganash Hotel) 5894:National Register of Historic Places 5851:National Register of Historic Places 4676:Argonne National Laboratory, 1946–96 4038:"The Way Things Work: Nuclear waste" 1905: 1903: 1848:National Register of Historic Places 1703:, which was opened in 1970, and the 1690:National Register of Historic Places 1642:Illinois Department of Public Health 1543:in the Argonne Forest, now known as 1510:, which they drank from paper cups. 6172:Lindblom Math & Science Academy 3074:Bearak, Barry (16 September 2011). 3061: 1429:CP-1 under construction: 10th layer 1163:a wooden block for the timber frame 774:National Defense Research Committee 393:) was the world's first artificial 110:Main parameters of the reactor core 6136:St. Ignatius College Prep Building 5576:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 4821:"Graphite in the Nuclear Industry" 3801:(822): 530–531. 30 November 1972. 3534:. 1996. p. 11. Archived from 2582:International Atomic Energy Agency 2280:(1939). "The Fission of Uranium". 1749:The Chicago Pile 1 Pioneers were: 1633:United States Department of Energy 1361:CP-1 under construction: 7th layer 1280:CP-1 under construction: 4th layer 1260:(OSRD) had selected a site in the 25: 6638:Kenwood Astrophysical Observatory 6323:Center for Middle Eastern Studies 6152:American School of Correspondence 4877:Enrico Fermi: His Work and Legacy 4714:. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. 4507:"George Braxton Pegram 1876–1958" 4434:Enrico Fermi: His Work and Legacy 4381:Enrico Fermi: His Work and Legacy 4099:. National Inventors Hall of Fame 4077:. National Inventors Hall of Fame 2380:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1985:Wellerstein, Alex (16 May 2014). 1057:in the number of fission events. 138:Neutron energy spectrum 6977:Infrastructure completed in 1942 6922:History of the Manhattan Project 6874: 6862: 6850: 6838: 6418:Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School 6403:National Opinion Research Center 5792: 5791: 4859:. London: Simon & Schuster. 4678:. University of Illinois Press. 4267:"Stagg Field / Mansueto Library" 3562:"A Manhattan Project Postscript" 1371:Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company 701:neutron absorption cross section 279: 272: 147:Primary control method 6957:1942 establishments in Illinois 6704:University Athletic Association 6608:Cannon v. University of Chicago 6495:George Herbert Jones Laboratory 6328:Center for Population Economics 6103:George Herbert Jones Laboratory 4130:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997 4036:McNear, Claire (5 March 2009). 3992:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997 3905:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997 3671:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997 3459:"Chapter 1: Wartime Laboratory" 3424:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997 1725:; another is on display at the 1566:Commemorative boulder at Site A 1304:Fermi argued that by using the 1117:radium-beryllium neutron source 834:was likely to be. In May 1941, 607:in New York, Italian physicist 472:. The reactor contained 45,000 248:U.S. National Historic Landmark 6500:Gerald Ratner Athletics Center 6428:Toyota Technological Institute 4823:. In Nightingale, R.E. (ed.). 2400:10.1080/00963402.1973.11455466 2376:"Early Days of Chain Reaction" 1727:Museum of Science and Industry 1707:, which was opened in 2011. A 1688:on 18 February 1965. When the 1648:Significance and commemoration 340: 1: 6633:University of Chicago sit-ins 6530:Joe and Rika Mansueto Library 5878:Site of the Haymarket Tragedy 4984:Squash: A History of the Game 4856:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 4602:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 3864:"The Italian Navigator Lands" 3773:Allardice & Trapnell 1982 3687:"The Chicago Pile 1 Pioneers" 3591:10.1126/science.212.4501.1369 2586:"Nuclear Data for Safeguards" 1705:Joe and Rika Mansueto Library 1661:. An air-cooled reactor, the 1519:Conant: How were the natives? 1331:Compton later explained that: 1256:On 25 June, the Army and the 1023:neutron multiplication factor 745:Advisory Committee on Uranium 725:German nuclear weapon project 6744:Contemporary Chamber Players 6393:Marine Biological Laboratory 5736:Oppenheimer security hearing 4239:"Remove Nuclear Site Plaque" 2738:10.1016/0022-3115(81)90519-5 2718:Journal of Nuclear Materials 1462:First nuclear chain reaction 753:National Bureau of Standards 611:collaborated with Americans 6917:Graphite moderated reactors 6897:Argonne National Laboratory 6433:University of Chicago Press 6358:Comprehensive Cancer Center 6353:Committee on Social Thought 6343:Chicago school of economics 6313:Argonne National Laboratory 6287:Pritzker School of Medicine 6094:National Historic Landmark, 5892:National Historic Landmark, 4771:Manhattan District (1947). 4748:. New York: Crane, Russak. 4492:. National Carbon Company. 3956:Argonne National Laboratory 3926:Argonne National Laboratory 3872:Argonne National Laboratory 3827:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3695:Argonne National Laboratory 3630:American Journal of Physics 3532:Argonne National Laboratory 3294:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3201:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3114:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2916:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2904:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2889:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2850:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2835:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2823:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2798:"Pa, this requires action!" 2514:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2502:Lanouette & Silard 1992 2437:Lanouette & Silard 1992 2425:Lanouette & Silard 1992 2413:Lanouette & Silard 1992 2245:Lanouette & Silard 1992 2179:Lanouette & Silard 1992 1640:for disposal. By 2002, the 1591:Argonne National Laboratory 1446:and his team had developed 1241:. Shipments of high-purity 1068:'s use of the Italian term 524:In 1943, CP-1 was moved to 6998: 6547:Lorado Taft Midway Studios 6157:Assumption School Building 6071:Lorado Taft Midway Studios 6053:National Historic Landmark 5846:National Historic Landmark 4819:Nightingale, R.E. (1962). 4674:; Harris, Ruth R. (1997). 4641:Hogerton, Hohn F. (1970). 3258:, pp. 71–72, 111–114. 1686:National Historic Landmark 1531: 1450:to produce uranium metal. 1037:and so on. In order for a 686:and Victor C. Hamister at 534:National Historic Landmark 446:non-fission chain reaction 360:15 October 1966 (66000314) 6967:1942 in the United States 6942:Nuclear research reactors 6648:Old University of Chicago 6408:Obama Presidential Center 6348:Comer Children's Hospital 6318:Becker Friedman Institute 5789: 5679:Bismuth phosphate process 5674:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 5126: 4505:Embrey, Lee Anna (1970). 380: 339:NRHP reference 267: 263: 254: 245: 236: 229: 225: 214:World's first artificial 39: 6643:Metallurgical Laboratory 6262:Booth School of Business 6167:James Ward Public School 5946:Abraham Lincoln: The Man 5051:11-page story about CP-1 5036:27 February 2021 at the 4605:The New World, 1939–1946 3203:, pp. 65–66, 83–88. 2358:10.1103/PhysRev.55.797.2 2304:10.1103/physrev.55.511.2 1539:dismantled and moved to 1205:Metallurgical Laboratory 848:University of California 423:Metallurgical Laboratory 74: (81 years ago) 63:Metallurgical Laboratory 6972:20th century in Chicago 6689:Lascivious Costume Ball 6628:Graduate Library School 5839:memorials and monuments 5756:S-1 Executive Committee 5704:Einstein–Szilard letter 4965:. New York: AIP Press. 4914:Enrico Fermi, Physicist 4693:Jones, Vincent (1985). 4269:. University of Chicago 3977:Manhattan District 1947 3893:Manhattan District 1947 2620:"Herbert G. MacPherson" 2058:Die Naturwissenschaften 1787:Harold V. Lichtenberger 1719:Bradbury Science Museum 1523:Compton: Very friendly. 1452:Westinghouse Lamp Plant 741:Einstein–Szilard letter 6694:Latke–Hamantash Debate 6505:Henry Crown Fieldhouse 6373:James Franck Institute 6363:Enrico Fermi Institute 5198:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 4988:. New York: Scribner. 3624:Fermi, Enrico (1952). 2565:10.1103/PhysRev.56.284 1954:. The Nobel Foundation 1723:Los Alamos, New Mexico 1682: 1667:Clinton Engineer Works 1624: 1567: 1525: 1482: 1430: 1362: 1342: 1281: 1230:was detailed to build 1175:originally built as a 1164: 1107: 1100: 1086: 1011: 1003: 935:In a nuclear reactor, 932: 769: 709:nuclear-grade graphite 562:nuclear chain reaction 399:nuclear chain reaction 6952:University of Chicago 6713:Student organizations 6662:Sports and traditions 6383:Institute of Politics 6235:University of Chicago 5974:Site of Fort Dearborn 5958:Heald Square Monument 5883:Union Stock Yard Gate 5776:X-10 Graphite Reactor 5731:Nobel Prize laureates 5601:509th Composite Group 4738:Libby, Leona Marshall 3948:"Promethean Boldness" 1882:National Park Service 1853:National Park Service 1663:X-10 Graphite Reactor 1619: 1565: 1469: 1440:Iowa State University 1428: 1360: 1279: 1216:Leslie R. Groves, Jr. 1158: 1105: 1004: 881: 782:University of Chicago 761: 721:Franklin D. Roosevelt 684:Herbert G. MacPherson 427:University of Chicago 315:41.79250°N 87.60111°W 201:University of Chicago 59:Designed and built by 6464:Burton–Judson Courts 5684:British contribution 5586:Operation Peppermint 5581:Operation Crossroads 5440:Maria Goeppert Mayer 5060:Department of Energy 4576:. New York: Harper. 4412:Anderson, Herbert L. 4293:Department of Energy 3743:on 22 November 2010. 3737:"CP-1 Goes Critical" 1805:, Richard J. Watts, 1797:, William J. Sturm, 1696:on 27 October 1971. 1607:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 1586:no. 2,708,656. 1239:Chicago's south side 1193:Anthony L. Turkevich 1133:Princeton University 1055:exponential increase 951: 902:Harold Lichtenberger 884:From left, Back row: 786:radiological weapons 476:blocks weighing 360 440:(who had previously 6947:South Side, Chicago 6769:Voices in Your Head 6582:Smart Museum of Art 6562:Renaissance Society 6535:John Crerar Library 6162:DuSable High School 5445:George Kistiakowsky 5400:Charles Critchfield 4786:Nichols, Kenneth D. 4672:Hewlett, Richard G. 4600:Hewlett, Richard G. 4180:, pp. 222–223. 4168:, pp. 210–212. 4156:, pp. 204–205. 4144:, pp. 191–192. 3763:, pp. 120–123. 3642:1952AmJPh..20..536F 3583:1981Sci...212.1369W 3577:(4501): 1369–1371. 3469:(3 & 4). 2002. 3325:, pp. 137–138. 3296:, pp. 107–109. 3277:, pp. 136–137. 3128:, pp. 427–428. 3064:, pp. 134–135. 3037:, pp. 400–401. 3013:, pp. 399–400. 2950:, pp. 396–397. 2918:, pp. 180–181. 2879:, pp. 192–193. 2753:, pp. 177–203. 2730:1981JNuM..100...55E 2684:2000PhT....53g..34B 2636:1993PhT....46g.103W 2557:1939PhRv...56..284A 2504:, pp. 194–195. 2489:, pp. 153–156. 2477:, pp. 347–352. 2450:"Alfred O. C. Nier" 2427:, pp. 186–187. 2415:, pp. 182–183. 2392:1973BuAtS..29d...8A 2350:1939PhRv...55..797A 2319:, pp. 267–270. 2296:1939PhRv...55..511A 2247:, pp. 172–173. 2208:1934Natur.134..880B 2169:, pp. 267–271. 2138:1939Natur.143..239M 2101:, pp. 256–263. 2070:1939NW.....27...11H 2035:, pp. 251–254. 1775:Crawford Greenewalt 1755:Herbert L. Anderson 1665:, was built at the 1549:radiation shielding 1487:Crawford Greenewalt 1076:as synonymous with 929:Herbert L. Anderson 772:In April 1941, the 767:Columbia University 617:Herbert L. Anderson 605:Columbia University 584:by German chemists 530:memorial quadrangle 474:ultra-pure graphite 454:Herbert L. Anderson 421:. Developed by the 365:Designated NHL 320:41.79250; -87.60111 311: / 6881:Nuclear technology 6857:History of Science 6816:School of Business 6799:School of Business 6764:Student Government 6726:The Chicago Maroon 6684:Women's basketball 6653:Yerkes Observatory 6572:Rockefeller Chapel 6540:Regenstein Library 6515:Hutchinson Commons 6388:Laboratory Schools 6182:Schurz High School 6177:Rockefeller Chapel 5510:Henry DeWolf Smyth 5289:Robert Oppenheimer 5244:Priscilla Duffield 4827:. Academic Press. 4744:The Uranium People 4325:. 22 December 2017 4323:World Nuclear News 4042:The Chicago Maroon 3560:Walsh, J. (1981). 3081:The New York Times 2804:on 29 October 2012 2078:10.1007/BF01488241 1975:, pp. 13, 28. 1701:Regenstein Library 1625: 1622:the site memorial. 1568: 1483: 1431: 1363: 1337:President Hutchins 1282: 1165: 1108: 999: 933: 806:uranium enrichment 790:nuclear propulsion 770: 715:Government support 661:neutron moderators 502:the German program 462:Martin D. Whitaker 442:formulated an idea 373:Designated CL 189:Criticality (date) 6902:Chicago Landmarks 6826: 6825: 6448: 6447: 6423:Stieglitz Lecture 6413:Paulson Institute 6200: 6199: 6010: 6009: 5968:Rosehill Cemetery 5803: 5802: 5725:Los Alamos Primer 5714:Interim Committee 5669:African Americans 5621:The Great Artiste 5480:Isidor Isaac Rabi 5475:Norman Ramsey Jr. 5274:Franklin Matthias 5213:Heavy water sites 5120:Manhattan Project 4995:978-0-7432-2990-6 4972:978-1-56396-358-2 4925:978-0-226-74473-5 4891:978-88-7438-015-2 4866:978-0-671-44133-3 4834:978-1-4832-5848-5 4803:978-0-688-06910-0 4755:978-0-8448-1300-4 4721:978-1-62636-023-5 4685:978-0-252-02341-5 4618:978-0-520-07186-5 4583:978-0-306-70738-4 4539:The First Reactor 4448:978-88-7438-015-2 4395:978-88-7438-015-2 4352:The First Reactor 3673:, pp. 16–17. 3650:10.1119/1.1933322 3481:on 25 August 2009 3409:, pp. 91–92. 3215:, pp. 67–68. 3116:, pp. 74–75. 2998:, pp. 86–87. 2906:, pp. 54–55. 2891:, pp. 50–51. 2852:, pp. 46–49. 2837:, pp. 36–38. 2825:, pp. 19–21. 2692:10.1063/1.1292473 2645:10.1063/1.2808987 2624:Memorial Tributes 2537:(1 August 1939). 2132:(3615): 239–240. 1989:. Restricted Data 1803:Albert Wattenberg 1763:Arthur H. Compton 1759:Robert F. Christy 1584:neutronic reactor 1406:, controlling an 1404:variable resistor 1319:electromechanical 1235:neutron detectors 1232:boron trifluoride 1213:Brigadier General 1209:Manhattan Project 1169:Samuel K. Allison 1096:Schermerhorn Hall 997: 996: 925:Albert Wattenberg 900:, William Sturm, 747:was formed under 675:. This contained 653:Alfred O. C. Nier 470:neutron moderator 413:effort to create 407:Manhattan Project 384: 383: 352:Significant dates 205:Manhattan Project 156:Primary moderator 16:(Redirected from 6989: 6962:1942 in Illinois 6879: 6878: 6877: 6867: 6866: 6865: 6855: 6854: 6853: 6843: 6842: 6841: 6834: 6786: 6679:Men's basketball 6599: 6552:Midway Plaisance 6456: 6247: 6236: 6227: 6220: 6213: 6204: 6145:Chicago Landmark 6114:Chicago Landmark 6063:Chicago Landmark 6044:Chicago Landmark 6037: 6030: 6023: 6014: 5938:Chicago Landmark 5929:Victory Monument 5912:Chicago Landmark 5856:Chicago Landmark 5837:Chicago Landmark 5830: 5823: 5816: 5807: 5795: 5794: 5746:Quebec Agreement 5530:John von Neumann 5470:George B. Pegram 5279:Dorothy McKibbin 5113: 5106: 5099: 5090: 5080:and Warren Nyer. 5075: 5073: 5071: 5066:on 27 March 2019 5062:. Archived from 5027:– AEC Video 1967 5021: 5007: 4987: 4980:Zug, J. (2003). 4976: 4954: 4937: 4917: 4903: 4870: 4846: 4825:Nuclear Graphite 4815: 4795: 4781: 4779: 4767: 4747: 4733: 4706: 4689: 4666: 4664: 4662: 4649: 4644:Nuclear Reactors 4637: 4635: 4633: 4610: 4595: 4575: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4544: 4529: 4527: 4525: 4511: 4501: 4484: 4474: 4460: 4427: 4407: 4374: 4372: 4370: 4357: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4330: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4306: 4304: 4299:on 27 March 2019 4295:. Archived from 4285: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4263: 4257: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4247:. 16 August 1957 4235: 4229: 4223: 4218: 4209: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4187: 4181: 4175: 4169: 4163: 4157: 4151: 4145: 4139: 4133: 4127: 4121: 4115: 4109: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4093: 4087: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4071: 4065: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4050: 4048: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4004: 3995: 3989: 3980: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3914: 3908: 3902: 3896: 3890: 3884: 3883: 3881: 3879: 3860: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3830: 3824: 3818: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3790: 3782: 3776: 3770: 3764: 3758: 3745: 3744: 3733: 3718: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3703: 3701: 3683: 3674: 3668: 3662: 3661: 3621: 3615: 3609: 3603: 3602: 3566: 3557: 3551: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3540: 3529: 3521: 3515: 3509: 3503: 3497: 3491: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3477:. Archived from 3455: 3449: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3433: 3427: 3421: 3410: 3404: 3395: 3389: 3383: 3377: 3362: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3338: 3332: 3326: 3320: 3309: 3303: 3297: 3291: 3278: 3272: 3259: 3253: 3247: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3231: 3216: 3210: 3204: 3198: 3192: 3186: 3180: 3174: 3168: 3162: 3156: 3150: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3123: 3117: 3111: 3105: 3099: 3093: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3071: 3065: 3059: 3053: 3047: 3038: 3032: 3026: 3020: 3014: 3008: 2999: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2969: 2963: 2957: 2951: 2945: 2936: 2930: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2892: 2886: 2880: 2874: 2868: 2862: 2853: 2847: 2838: 2832: 2826: 2820: 2814: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2794: 2788: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2778:. Atomic Archive 2772: 2766: 2763:Nightingale 1962 2760: 2754: 2748: 2742: 2741: 2713: 2707: 2702: 2696: 2695: 2667: 2658: 2657: 2647: 2612: 2601: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2590:www-nds.iaea.org 2578: 2569: 2568: 2523: 2517: 2511: 2505: 2499: 2490: 2484: 2478: 2472: 2466: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2446: 2440: 2434: 2428: 2422: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2368: 2362: 2361: 2326: 2320: 2314: 2308: 2307: 2254: 2248: 2242: 2236: 2235: 2216:10.1038/134880a0 2188: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2164: 2158: 2157: 2146:10.1038/143239a0 2108: 2102: 2096: 2090: 2089: 2042: 2036: 2030: 2024: 2023: 2021: 2019: 2005: 1999: 1998: 1996: 1994: 1982: 1976: 1970: 1964: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1944: 1938: 1932: 1926: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1907: 1898: 1897: 1895: 1893: 1884:. Archived from 1870: 1857: 1856: 1839: 1822: 1811:Eugene P. Wigner 1747: 1694:Chicago Landmark 1671:Washington state 1576:white blood cell 1375:block and tackle 1306:delayed neutrons 1294:fission products 1290:runaway reaction 1286:nuclear meltdown 1008: 1006: 1005: 1000: 998: 986: 985: 977: 972: 971: 697:Acheson Graphite 634:George B. Pegram 629:Francis G. Slack 625:G. Norris Glasoe 590:Fritz Strassmann 538:Chicago Landmark 368:18 February 1965 342: 326: 325: 323: 322: 321: 316: 312: 309: 308: 307: 304: 283: 282: 276: 257:Chicago Landmark 161:Nuclear graphite 121: 118:fissile material 82: 80: 75: 53:Research reactor 44: 32: 21: 6997: 6996: 6992: 6991: 6990: 6988: 6987: 6986: 6887: 6886: 6885: 6875: 6873: 6863: 6861: 6851: 6849: 6839: 6837: 6829: 6827: 6822: 6784: 6778: 6739:CMAC (UChicago) 6708: 6657: 6597: 6591: 6557:Quadrangle Club 6478: 6469:Snell–Hitchcock 6455:Residence halls 6454: 6444: 6301: 6267:Divinity School 6238: 6234: 6231: 6201: 6196: 6140: 6113: 6107: 6095: 6089: 6061: 6056: 6047: 6041: 6011: 6006: 5933: 5911: 5905: 5893: 5887: 5854: 5849: 5840: 5834: 5804: 5799: 5785: 5751:RaLa Experiment 5657: 5626: 5591:Project Alberta 5559: 5555:Chien-Shiung Wu 5485:James Rainwater 5420:Richard Feynman 5410:John R. Dunning 5385:Norris Bradbury 5348: 5334:Stafford Warren 5304:William Purnell 5284:Kenneth Nichols 5264:Ernest Lawrence 5239:James B. Conant 5217: 5131: 5122: 5117: 5069: 5067: 5054: 5038:Wayback Machine 5019: 5015: 5010: 4996: 4979: 4973: 4959:Weinberg, Alvin 4957: 4940: 4926: 4906: 4892: 4873: 4867: 4851:Rhodes, Richard 4849: 4835: 4818: 4804: 4784: 4777: 4770: 4756: 4736: 4722: 4709: 4692: 4686: 4670:Holl, Jack M.; 4669: 4660: 4658: 4647: 4640: 4631: 4629: 4619: 4608: 4598: 4584: 4564: 4555: 4553: 4542: 4532: 4523: 4521: 4509: 4504: 4487: 4465:Compton, Arthur 4463: 4449: 4430: 4410: 4396: 4377: 4368: 4366: 4355: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4338: 4328: 4326: 4317: 4316: 4312: 4302: 4300: 4287: 4286: 4282: 4272: 4270: 4265: 4264: 4260: 4250: 4248: 4244:Chicago Tribune 4237: 4236: 4232: 4221: 4219: 4212: 4202: 4200: 4196:Chicago Tribune 4189: 4188: 4184: 4176: 4172: 4164: 4160: 4152: 4148: 4140: 4136: 4128: 4124: 4116: 4112: 4102: 4100: 4095: 4094: 4090: 4080: 4078: 4073: 4072: 4068: 4062:Wattenberg 1975 4060: 4056: 4046: 4044: 4035: 4034: 4030: 4006: 4005: 3998: 3990: 3983: 3979:, p. 3.13. 3975: 3971: 3961: 3959: 3946: 3945: 3941: 3931: 3929: 3916: 3915: 3911: 3903: 3899: 3891: 3887: 3877: 3875: 3862: 3861: 3857: 3849: 3845: 3837: 3833: 3825: 3821: 3811: 3809: 3788: 3784: 3783: 3779: 3771: 3767: 3759: 3748: 3735: 3734: 3721: 3713: 3709: 3699: 3697: 3685: 3684: 3677: 3669: 3665: 3623: 3622: 3618: 3610: 3606: 3564: 3559: 3558: 3554: 3544: 3542: 3538: 3527: 3523: 3522: 3518: 3510: 3506: 3498: 3494: 3484: 3482: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3442: 3440: 3435: 3434: 3430: 3422: 3413: 3405: 3398: 3390: 3386: 3378: 3365: 3357: 3353: 3345: 3341: 3333: 3329: 3321: 3312: 3304: 3300: 3292: 3281: 3273: 3262: 3254: 3250: 3240: 3238: 3233: 3232: 3219: 3211: 3207: 3199: 3195: 3187: 3183: 3175: 3171: 3163: 3159: 3151: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3124: 3120: 3112: 3108: 3100: 3096: 3086: 3084: 3073: 3072: 3068: 3060: 3056: 3048: 3041: 3033: 3029: 3021: 3017: 3009: 3002: 2994: 2990: 2982: 2978: 2970: 2966: 2958: 2954: 2946: 2939: 2931: 2922: 2914: 2910: 2902: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2875: 2871: 2863: 2856: 2848: 2841: 2833: 2829: 2821: 2817: 2807: 2805: 2796: 2795: 2791: 2781: 2779: 2774: 2773: 2769: 2761: 2757: 2749: 2745: 2715: 2714: 2710: 2703: 2699: 2669: 2668: 2661: 2616:Weinberg, Alvin 2614: 2613: 2604: 2594: 2592: 2580: 2579: 2572: 2544:Physical Review 2525: 2524: 2520: 2512: 2508: 2500: 2493: 2485: 2481: 2473: 2469: 2459: 2457: 2456:on 19 July 2018 2448: 2447: 2443: 2435: 2431: 2423: 2419: 2411: 2407: 2370: 2369: 2365: 2338:Physical Review 2330:Anderson, H. L. 2328: 2327: 2323: 2315: 2311: 2283:Physical Review 2258:Anderson, H. L. 2256: 2255: 2251: 2243: 2239: 2190: 2189: 2185: 2177: 2173: 2165: 2161: 2110: 2109: 2105: 2097: 2093: 2044: 2043: 2039: 2031: 2027: 2017: 2015: 2007: 2006: 2002: 1992: 1990: 1984: 1983: 1979: 1971: 1967: 1957: 1955: 1946: 1945: 1941: 1933: 1929: 1919: 1917: 1915:City of Chicago 1909: 1908: 1901: 1891: 1889: 1888:on 5 April 2015 1872: 1871: 1860: 1841: 1840: 1831: 1826: 1825: 1779:Norman Hilberry 1771:Alvin C. Graves 1748: 1744: 1739: 1650: 1536: 1530: 1528:Later operation 1520: 1518: 1492:cadmium nitrate 1464: 1355: 1347:James B. Conant 1322:control systems 1310:prompt neutrons 1247:uranium dioxide 1153: 1051:prompt critical 1021:is the average 978: 954: 949: 948: 887:Norman Hilberry 876: 868:Ernest Lawrence 857:nuclear reactor 852:thermal neutron 794:nuclear weapons 792:for ships, and 749:Lyman J. Briggs 737:Albert Einstein 723:, warning of a 717: 688:National Carbon 667:in the form of 621:Eugene T. Booth 582:nuclear fission 546: 519:neutron poisons 415:nuclear weapons 395:nuclear reactor 376:27 October 1971 319: 317: 313: 310: 305: 302: 300: 298: 297: 289: 288: 287: 286: 285: 284: 259: 250: 241: 232: 216:nuclear reactor 192:2 December 1942 168:Primary coolant 132:Solid (pellets) 124:Natural uranium 115: 78: 76: 73: 49:Reactor concept 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6995: 6993: 6985: 6984: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6889: 6888: 6884: 6883: 6871: 6859: 6847: 6824: 6823: 6821: 6820: 6819: 6818: 6808: 6807: 6806: 6801: 6790: 6788: 6780: 6779: 6777: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6754:Off-Off Campus 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6733:Chicago Review 6729: 6722: 6716: 6714: 6710: 6709: 6707: 6706: 6701: 6699:Scavenger Hunt 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6665: 6663: 6659: 6658: 6656: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6624: 6623: 6620:Nuclear Energy 6614:Chicago Pile-1 6611: 6603: 6601: 6593: 6592: 6590: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6577:Seminary Co-op 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6543: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6522: 6520:Ida Noyes Hall 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6486: 6484: 6480: 6479: 6477: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6460: 6458: 6450: 6449: 6446: 6445: 6443: 6442: 6441: 6440: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6398:Medical Center 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6309: 6307: 6303: 6302: 6300: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6253: 6251: 6244: 6240: 6239: 6232: 6230: 6229: 6222: 6215: 6207: 6198: 6197: 6195: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6148: 6146: 6142: 6141: 6139: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6117: 6115: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6105: 6099: 6097: 6091: 6090: 6088: 6087: 6086: 6085: 6082:Nuclear Energy 6073: 6067: 6065: 6049: 6048: 6042: 6040: 6039: 6032: 6025: 6017: 6008: 6007: 6005: 6004: 5999: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5941: 5939: 5935: 5934: 5932: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5915: 5913: 5907: 5906: 5904: 5903: 5897: 5895: 5889: 5888: 5886: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5874: 5873: 5870:Nuclear Energy 5860: 5858: 5842: 5841: 5835: 5833: 5832: 5825: 5818: 5810: 5801: 5800: 5790: 5787: 5786: 5784: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5694:Chicago Pile-1 5691: 5689:Calutron Girls 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5665: 5663: 5662:Related topics 5659: 5658: 5656: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5634: 5632: 5628: 5627: 5625: 5624: 5617: 5610: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5567: 5565: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5525:Stanisław Ulam 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5460:Edwin McMillan 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5405:Harry Daghlian 5402: 5397: 5395:John Cockcroft 5392: 5390:James Chadwick 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5356: 5354: 5350: 5349: 5347: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5314:Charles Thomas 5311: 5309:Frank Spedding 5306: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5269:James Marshall 5266: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5249:Thomas Farrell 5246: 5241: 5236: 5234:Arthur Compton 5231: 5225: 5223: 5222:Administrators 5219: 5218: 5216: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5150: 5145: 5139: 5137: 5133: 5132: 5127: 5124: 5123: 5118: 5116: 5115: 5108: 5101: 5093: 5087: 5086: 5081: 5052: 5049:The First Pile 5046: 5041: 5031:Photos of CP-1 5028: 5014: 5013:External links 5011: 5009: 5008: 4994: 4977: 4971: 4955: 4938: 4924: 4904: 4890: 4871: 4865: 4847: 4833: 4816: 4802: 4782: 4768: 4754: 4734: 4720: 4707: 4690: 4684: 4667: 4638: 4617: 4596: 4582: 4566:Groves, Leslie 4562: 4530: 4502: 4485: 4461: 4447: 4428: 4408: 4394: 4375: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4310: 4280: 4258: 4230: 4210: 4199:. 26 July 1957 4182: 4170: 4158: 4146: 4134: 4122: 4110: 4088: 4066: 4064:, p. 123. 4054: 4028: 3996: 3994:, p. 428. 3981: 3969: 3958:. 10 July 2012 3939: 3909: 3897: 3895:, p. 3.9. 3885: 3874:. 10 July 2012 3855: 3843: 3841:, p. 440. 3831: 3829:, p. 174. 3819: 3777: 3765: 3746: 3719: 3707: 3675: 3663: 3636:(9): 536–558. 3616: 3604: 3552: 3541:on 17 May 2013 3516: 3514:, p. 434. 3504: 3502:, p. 119. 3492: 3450: 3428: 3411: 3396: 3394:, p. 436. 3384: 3382:, p. 433. 3363: 3361:, p. 197. 3351: 3349:, pp. 66. 3339: 3327: 3310: 3298: 3279: 3260: 3248: 3217: 3205: 3193: 3191:, p. 430. 3181: 3169: 3167:, p. 429. 3157: 3142: 3140:, p. 431. 3130: 3118: 3106: 3094: 3066: 3054: 3052:, p. 401. 3039: 3027: 3015: 3000: 2988: 2986:, p. 385. 2976: 2964: 2962:, p. 116. 2952: 2937: 2920: 2908: 2893: 2881: 2869: 2854: 2839: 2827: 2815: 2789: 2767: 2755: 2743: 2724:(1–3): 55–63. 2708: 2697: 2659: 2602: 2570: 2551:(3): 284–286. 2518: 2506: 2491: 2479: 2467: 2441: 2439:, p. 227. 2429: 2417: 2405: 2374:(April 1973). 2372:Anderson, H.L. 2363: 2344:(8): 797–798. 2321: 2309: 2290:(5): 511–512. 2266:Dunning, J. R. 2249: 2237: 2183: 2181:, p. 148. 2171: 2159: 2103: 2091: 2050:Strassmann, F. 2037: 2025: 2000: 1977: 1965: 1939: 1927: 1899: 1858: 1855:. 9 July 2010. 1828: 1827: 1824: 1823: 1795:Frank Spedding 1741: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1714:Nuclear Energy 1649: 1646: 1595:Chicago Pile-5 1557:Chicago Pile-3 1545:Red Gate Woods 1532:Main article: 1529: 1526: 1463: 1460: 1444:Harley Wilhelm 1408:electric motor 1367:carbon dioxide 1354: 1351: 1315:neutron poison 1262:Argonne Forest 1152: 1151:Choice of site 1149: 995: 992: 989: 984: 981: 975: 970: 967: 964: 961: 957: 891:Samuel Allison 875: 872: 830:. If so, then 778:Arthur Compton 716: 713: 557:Max Bodenstein 553:chain reaction 548:The idea of a 545: 542: 387:Chicago Pile-1 382: 381: 378: 377: 374: 370: 369: 366: 362: 361: 358: 354: 353: 349: 348: 343: 336: 335: 332: 328: 327: 295: 291: 290: 278: 277: 271: 270: 269: 268: 265: 264: 261: 260: 255: 252: 251: 246: 243: 242: 237: 234: 233: 230: 227: 226: 223: 222: 219: 218: 212: 208: 207: 198: 197:Operator/owner 194: 193: 190: 186: 185: 182: 178: 177: 173: 172: 169: 165: 164: 158: 152: 151: 148: 144: 143: 140: 134: 133: 130: 126: 125: 122: 112: 111: 107: 106: 96: 92: 91: 88: 84: 83: 70: 66: 65: 60: 56: 55: 50: 46: 45: 37: 36: 35:Chicago Pile-1 26: 24: 18:Chicago Pile 1 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6994: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6894: 6892: 6882: 6872: 6870: 6860: 6858: 6848: 6846: 6836: 6832: 6817: 6814: 6813: 6812: 6809: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6796: 6795: 6792: 6791: 6789: 6787: 6781: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6734: 6730: 6728: 6727: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6717: 6715: 6711: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6666: 6664: 6660: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6622: 6621: 6617: 6616: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6609: 6605: 6604: 6602: 6600: 6594: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6527: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6490:Bartlett Hall 6488: 6487: 6485: 6481: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6461: 6459: 6457: 6451: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6310: 6308: 6304: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6254: 6252: 6248: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6228: 6223: 6221: 6216: 6214: 6209: 6208: 6205: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6187:Sexton School 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6149: 6147: 6143: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6118: 6116: 6110: 6104: 6101: 6100: 6098: 6092: 6084: 6083: 6079: 6078: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6068: 6066: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6050: 6045: 6038: 6033: 6031: 6026: 6024: 6019: 6018: 6015: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5997: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5947: 5943: 5942: 5940: 5936: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5916: 5914: 5908: 5902: 5899: 5898: 5896: 5890: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5872: 5871: 5867: 5866: 5865: 5862: 5861: 5859: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5843: 5838: 5831: 5826: 5824: 5819: 5817: 5812: 5811: 5808: 5798: 5788: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5726: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5709:Franck Report 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5666: 5664: 5660: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5633: 5629: 5623: 5622: 5618: 5616: 5615: 5611: 5609: 5608: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5571:Alsos Mission 5569: 5568: 5566: 5562: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5545:Robert Wilson 5543: 5541: 5540:Eugene Wigner 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5520:Edward Teller 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5495:Glenn Seaborg 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5465:Mark Oliphant 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5455:Willard Libby 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5365:Robert Bacher 5363: 5361: 5358: 5357: 5355: 5351: 5345: 5344:Roscoe Wilson 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5259:John Lansdale 5257: 5255: 5254:Leslie Groves 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5229:Vannevar Bush 5227: 5226: 5224: 5220: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5158: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5140: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5125: 5121: 5114: 5109: 5107: 5102: 5100: 5095: 5094: 5091: 5085: 5082: 5079: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5039: 5035: 5032: 5029: 5026: 5022: 5017: 5016: 5012: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4991: 4986: 4985: 4978: 4974: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4921: 4916: 4915: 4909: 4908:Segrè, Emilio 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4878: 4872: 4868: 4862: 4858: 4857: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4799: 4794: 4793: 4787: 4783: 4776: 4775: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4751: 4746: 4745: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4717: 4713: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4691: 4687: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4668: 4657: 4653: 4646: 4645: 4639: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4614: 4607: 4606: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4579: 4574: 4573: 4567: 4563: 4552: 4548: 4541: 4540: 4535: 4534:Fermi, Enrico 4531: 4519: 4515: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4473: 4472: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4435: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4382: 4376: 4365: 4361: 4354: 4353: 4347: 4346: 4341: 4324: 4320: 4314: 4311: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4284: 4281: 4268: 4262: 4259: 4246: 4245: 4240: 4234: 4231: 4228: 4224: 4217: 4215: 4211: 4198: 4197: 4192: 4186: 4183: 4179: 4174: 4171: 4167: 4162: 4159: 4155: 4150: 4147: 4143: 4138: 4135: 4132:, p. 47. 4131: 4126: 4123: 4119: 4118:Hogerton 1970 4114: 4111: 4098: 4092: 4089: 4076: 4070: 4067: 4063: 4058: 4055: 4043: 4039: 4032: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4011: 4003: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3988: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3973: 3970: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3943: 3940: 3928:. 21 May 2013 3927: 3923: 3919: 3913: 3910: 3907:, p. 23. 3906: 3901: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3886: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3859: 3856: 3853:, p. 95. 3852: 3851:Anderson 1975 3847: 3844: 3840: 3835: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3820: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3795: 3794:New Scientist 3787: 3781: 3778: 3775:, p. 14. 3774: 3769: 3766: 3762: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3751: 3747: 3742: 3738: 3732: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3720: 3717:, p. 54. 3716: 3711: 3708: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3667: 3664: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3620: 3617: 3614:, p. 93. 3613: 3612:Anderson 1975 3608: 3605: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3571: 3563: 3556: 3553: 3537: 3533: 3526: 3520: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3505: 3501: 3496: 3493: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3454: 3451: 3438: 3432: 3429: 3426:, p. 16. 3425: 3420: 3418: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3407:Anderson 1975 3403: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3388: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3359:Salvetti 2001 3355: 3352: 3348: 3343: 3340: 3337:, p. 53. 3336: 3331: 3328: 3324: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3311: 3308:, p. 17. 3307: 3306:Weinberg 1994 3302: 3299: 3295: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3252: 3249: 3236: 3230: 3228: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3182: 3179:, p. 85. 3178: 3173: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3158: 3155:, p. 91. 3154: 3153:Anderson 1975 3149: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3134: 3131: 3127: 3122: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3107: 3104:, p. 86. 3103: 3098: 3095: 3083: 3082: 3077: 3070: 3067: 3063: 3058: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3031: 3028: 3025:, p. 88. 3024: 3023:Anderson 1975 3019: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2996:Anderson 1975 2992: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2977: 2974:, p. 86. 2973: 2972:Anderson 1975 2968: 2965: 2961: 2956: 2953: 2949: 2944: 2942: 2938: 2935:, p. 15. 2934: 2933:Weinberg 1994 2929: 2927: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2900: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2885: 2882: 2878: 2877:Salvetti 2001 2873: 2870: 2867:, p. 82. 2866: 2865:Anderson 1975 2861: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2846: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2831: 2828: 2824: 2819: 2816: 2803: 2799: 2793: 2790: 2777: 2771: 2768: 2764: 2759: 2756: 2752: 2751:Salvetti 2001 2747: 2744: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2712: 2709: 2706: 2701: 2698: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2672:Physics Today 2666: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2591: 2587: 2583: 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N. 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2253: 2250: 2246: 2241: 2238: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2202:(3397): 880. 2201: 2197: 2196: 2187: 2184: 2180: 2175: 2172: 2168: 2163: 2160: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2126: 2121: 2117: 2116:Frisch, O. R. 2113: 2112:Meitner, Lise 2107: 2104: 2100: 2095: 2092: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2041: 2038: 2034: 2029: 2026: 2014: 2010: 2004: 2001: 1988: 1981: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1966: 1953: 1949: 1948:Ölander, Arne 1943: 1940: 1937:, p. 24. 1936: 1931: 1928: 1916: 1912: 1906: 1904: 1900: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1869: 1867: 1865: 1863: 1859: 1854: 1850: 1849: 1844: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1783:David L. 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