678:
Miller in then immediate aftermath of the Ponca Trail of Tears in July 1877 at the Quapaw
Reservation as the Ponca waited disconsolately at Baxter Springs, homesick, and with considerable sickness. White Eagle and Miller soon developed a lifelong friendship built upon mutual respect as Miller learned the Ponca language. Miller quickly became a trusted advisor to White Eagle and the two held many conferences over the plight of the tribe. While inspecting land in the Cherokee Strip Col. Miller, Joe, and a number of cowboys found themselves near the proposed Ponca Reservation. After inspection Miller was satisfied that if White Eagle could visit the country he would accept the offer of the government and make it their home. Since White Eagle intended to leave soon for Washington to refuse the grant, Miller knew it was necessary to get word to him. Joe, his son, was the messenger. He was a mere boy but fully qualified to care for himself and since he knew and could speak the Ponca language he could meet and talk with them in their own way. He arrived just in time for White Eagle was preparing to leave for Washington. For the first time in the memory of the tribe, when the chiefs and head men met in council that night, a white boy sat in the center and answered their questions in their own tongue. It was decided that the next day White Eagle would return with Joe to view this land, and that the Poncas would never forget this kindness. The Indians moved to their new home in 1879.
443:
him and see what he can do.â Then Little Chief called together all the other subchiefs and when they were assembled he sent for Little Bear. On the arrival of the young man Little Chief addressed him, saying, âMy son went on the warpath and has never returned. I do not know where his bones lie. I have only heard he has been killed. I wish you to go and find the land where he was killed. If you return successful four times, then I shall resign my place in your favor.â Little Bear accepted the offer. He had a sacred headdress that had on it a ball of human hair; he obtained the hair in this manner: Whenever men and women of his acquaintance combed their hair and any of the hair fell out, Little Bear asked to have the combings given to him. By and by he accumulated enough hair to make his peculiar headdress. This was a close-fitting skull cap of skin; on the front part was fastened the ball of human hair; on the back part were tied a downy eagle feather and one of the sharp-pointed feathers from the wing of that bird. He had another sacred article, a buffalo horn, which he fastened at his belt.
559:"July 9th: Broke camp at six o'clock, passing through Baxter Springs at about one o'clock. Just after passing Baxter Springs a terrible thunderstorm struck us. The wind blew a heavy gale and the rain fell in torrents, so that it was impossible to see more than four or five rods distant, thoroughly drenching every person and every article in the train, making a fitting end to a journey commenced by wading a river and thereafter encountering innumerable storms. During the last few days of the journey the weather was exceedingly hot, and the teams terribly annoyed and bitten by green-head flies, which attacked them in great numbers. Many of the teams were nearly exhausted, and, had the distance been but little farther, they must have given out. The people were all nearly worn out from the fatigue of the march, and we're heartily glad that the long, tedious journey was at an end, that they might take that rest so much required for the recuperation of their physical natures."
662:, the Ponca removal was widely acknowledged by contemporary Americans to be unlawful from its inception as it was in clear violation of the Ponca Treaty of 1865 and a 1876 Act of Congress which required the federal removal agent, Edward Cleveland Kemble, to obtain White Eagle's consent before removing the Ponca to Indian Territory, which White Eagle refused. As public outrage grew, the Senate created a select committee to investigate the Ponca removal which found that the United States had forced a great injustice upon the Ponca through the misdeeds of Edward Cleveland Kemble, concluding: "If the government expects to exterminate this tribe, it has but to continue the policy of the past few years. The committee can see no valid objection, therefore, to that means of redress which comes nearest to putting these Indians in precisely the condition they were in when E.C. Kemble undertook, without authority of law, to force them from their homes into the Indian Territory."
447:
and shot arrows at him; one struck the headdress and the other the buffalo horn. After he had shot these two arrows the Sioux turned and fled. Little Bear, who was uninjured, climbed up the bluff, and, seeing the Sioux, drew his bow and shot the man through the head. Besides this scalp Little Bear and his party captured some ponies. On the return of the party Little Bear gave his share of the booty to the chief who had lost his son. Little Bear went on three other expeditions and always returned successful, and each time he gave his share of the spoils to the chief. When Little Bear came back the fourth time the chief kept his word and resigned his office in favor of the young man. Little Bear was my grandfather. When he died he was succeeded by his eldest son, Two Bulls. At his death his brother, Iron Whip (We'gaçapi) who was my father, became chief, and I succeeded him.â
742:
plots and marking them with flags. To their disappointment, the Poncas declined all invitations to ride a wagon around the plots with White Eagle declaring that he already knew the size of 80 acres. (Hagan, 174). Commissioners told White Eagle that while the United States could not force them to sell their land, they would have no peace until they did. (Hagan, 171). During negotiations, Jerome attempted to persuade White Eagle suggested the white homesteaders "..stay on their own reservation." White Eagle felt there was no evidence that allotments, or lack thereof, made any difference in a tribe's standard of living. Over the course of 11 weeks, the commissioners schedule dozens of hearings and over the course of 11 weeks, the Ponca attendance declined, frustrating Jerome who threatened to get the Ponca to council, âif it takes the whole army.â (Hagan, 175).
516:
that we fight and die on our lands, so be it.â White Eagle later recalled what happened afterward, "There was utter silence. Not a word was spoken. We all arose and started for our homes, and there we found that in our absence the soldiers had collected all our women and children together and were standing guard over them. The soldiers got on their horses, went to all the houses, broke open the doors, took our household utensils, put them in their wagons, and pointing their bayonets at our people, ordered them to move. They took all our plows, mowers, hay-forks, grindstones, farming implements of all kind, and everything too heavy to be taken on a journey and locked them up in a large house. We never knew what became of them afterwards. Many of these things of which we were robbed we had bought with money earned by the work of our hands."
554:, on June 30. Two days later, an assassination attempt was made on White Eagle by a disaffected Ponca named Buffalo Chip who held White Eagle responsible for the mounting death toll. The federal removal agent described the chaotic scene of July 2nd his journal as follows: "Broke camp at six o'clock. Made a long march of fifteen miles for Noon Camp, for reason that no water could be got nearer. An Indian became hostile and made a desperate attempt to kill White Eagle, head chief of the tribe. For a time, every male in camp was on the warpath, and for about two hours the most intense excitement prevailed, heightened by continued loud crying by all the women and children." A week after the failed assassination attempt, the Ponca arrived at the Quapaw Agency in the Indian Territory. The federal removal agent wrote:
510:
taken and left in the Indian
Territory to find my way back alone. I thought that after being treated in the manner we were by this man , that when I came home I would find a protection from my enemy in you. And now, instead, I find you armed against me.â I then turned to Kemble and said, âYou profess to be a Christian, and to love God; and yet you would love to see bloodshed. Have you no pity on the tears of these helpless women and children? We would rather die here on our land than be forced to go. Kill us all here on our land now, so that in the future when men will ask, âWhy have these died?â it shall be answered, âThey died rather than be forced to leave their land. They died to maintain their rights. And perhaps there will be found some who will pity us and say, âThey only did what was right.â
982:
537:"The storm, most disastrous of any that occurred during the removal of the Poncas under my charge, came suddenly upon us while in camp on the evening of this day. It was a storm such as I never before experienced, and of which I am unable to give an adequate description. The wind blew a fearful tornado, demolishing every tent in camp, and rending many of them into shreds, overturning wagons, and hurling wagon-boxes, camp equipages, etc., through the air in every direction like straws. Some of the people were taken up by the wind and carried as much as three hundred yards. Several of the Indians were quite seriously hurt, and one child died the next day from injuries received, and was given Christian burial."
1006:
643:." Nebraska journalist Thomas Tibbles traveled the country on a speaking tour to raise the money necessary for the Ponca to appeal their removal to the United States Supreme Court. Tibbles âthought that, if the Christian people of this country only knew of these horrors, they would be glad to help White Eagle in getting out of the Indian Territory, and saving from death the little children.â Tibbles appealed to large audiences ânot only help White Eagle, but in so doing, burst the infamous Indian Ring,â which was a corrupt segment of political appointees. Tibbles argued that âif they could get standing in the courts for White Eagle and the Ponca, they would put an end to the Indian question and the
694:
746:
earn 5% interest, which would be paid annually at the rate of $ 10 per month to each tribal member. In the event the Ponca desired to withdraw the principle amount, each Ponca family of 5 would receive $ 1,000.00. Commissioners stated that if the Ponca accepted this offer, âthey could live as they please,â and âcould visit as much as they please, â a remarkable statement considering the United States was attempting to discourage intra and inter-reservation visitation as prejudicial to the proper care of Native
American property. (Hagan, 176).
946:
715:, for whom the Dawes Act was named, that it would âpluck the Indian like a birdâ within three months. Politically, the Dawes Act seriously eroded the role and authority of Native American governments; however, White Eagle fought to retain his power, telling American leaders that âa chieftainship is hard to break up.â (Hagan, 222). He strenuously objected to the surplus provision. He explained his refusal to comply: âwhen animals come out, there is grass for them to eat, and we would like to have land for the children when they come.â
43:
602:
970:
439:"A chief by the name of Little Chief (ZhingaĘźgahige) of the Warrior clan (Washaâbe) had a son who went on the warpath. Little Chief sat in his tent weeping because he had heard that his son was killed, for the young man did not return. As he wept he thought of various persons in the tribe whom he might call on to avenge the death of his son. As he cast about, he recalled a young man who belonged to a poor family and had no notable relations. The young man's name was Little Bear (Waçaâbezhinga).
994:
958:
805:
520:
666:
rationale was based on guaranteed national security in the Indian
Territory from Sioux aggression in addition to unique economic opportunities in the Indian Territory such as leasing. On October 22, 1880, White Eagle symbolically declared his intention to remain in the Indian Territory by laying the cornerstone of a school on the Ponca Agency alongside
753:
individualism to promote factionalism and set the Ponca against one another. (Hagan, 179). White Eagle continually asserted his authority and utilized his tactic of delay, saying he was not prepared to give any direction to his people on the issue until the federal plan was fully articulated. (Hagan, 179).
745:
On April 12, 1892, the
Commission articulated President Harrison's proposal. Each Ponca would receive an allotment of 80 acres and $ 20, coming from the federal payment of $ 69,000.00 for the surplus lands. The balance of the purchase price would be placed in the United States Treasury where it would
564:
As a result of the unlawful removal, the Ponca suffered severe economic losses, including the loss of their wooden homes, personal property, and agricultural implements. Due to the hasty nature of the unlawful removal perpetuated by Edward
Cleveland Kemble and the Hayes administration, the Ponca were
515:
On May 16, 1877, White Eagle again addressed the Ponca people regarding the imminent removal: âMy people, we, your chiefs, have worked hard to save you from this. We have resisted until we are worn out, and now we know not what more we can do. We leave the matter into your hands to decide. If you say
442:
Little Chief remembered that this young man dressed and painted himself in a peculiar manner, and thought that he did so that he might act in accordance with a dream, and therefore it was probable that he possessed more than ordinary power and courage. So Little Chief said to himself, âI will call on
710:
into
American society by withholding civil rights to Native Americans unless they agreed to abolish their governments, thereby relinquishing control of communal lands. In exchange, the United States would grant citizenship to individual Native Americans who agreed to accept small allotments of land.
665:
White Eagle subsequently negotiated a settlement with the United States on behalf of the Ponca in
January 1881 pursuant to which the Ponca agreed to remain in the Indian Territory for monetary reparation in the amount of $ 125,000 (2019: $ 3,609,847). His decision shocked political observers but his
741:
By 1892, Harrison's commission had successfully annexed land from every nation except the Ponca. On March 17, 1892, led by White Eagle, the Ponca were the first tribe to refuse to engage in negotiations. Commissioners attempted to acquaint the Ponca with the size of 80 acres by staking out two such
737:
with the objective of acquiring land occupied by thirteen separate Native
American nations, including the Ponca, for the purpose of opening the land to American settlers. In 1891, White Eagle appeared before a panel convened by President Harrison who told him they needed more of his land due to the
613:
White Eagle's leadership during the Ponca removal crisis played a central role in the series of events culminating in a landmark civil rights ruling in 1879 recognizing Native
Americans as persons due civil rights under the Constitution of the United States for the first time in American history in
527:
The removal lasted 54 miserable days, beginning on May 16, 1877, and ending on July 9, 1877, with many deaths occurring en route. The removal was plagued by torrential rains which flooded the unpaved dirt roads, miring the Ponca in mud for most of the march. A tornado struck the Ponca removal party
452:
White Eagle's exact birth year is unknown. Various sources place his birth year as early as 1803 and as late as 1840, though both historical estimates are dubious. When White Eagle died in early 1914, American press reports indicated that he was "the oldest Indian in the United States" at 111 years
446:
Little Bear called a few warriors together and asked them to go with him, and they consented. Putting on his headdress and buffalo horn, he and his companions started. They met a party of Sioux, hunting. One of the Sioux made a charge at Little Bear, who fell over a bluff. The Sioux stood above him
417:
in which the full sovereign power of the Ponca was vested in a hereditary chief sovereign who was counseled by thirteen chiefsâsix senior chiefs and seven junior chiefsâwho represented the interests of the Ponca citizenry. The chief sovereign served as the head of state and ranking senior chief and
509:
Why do I find you here now armed against me? We had always believed that your government had ordered your soldiers to protect those who were peaceful and doing their duty, and to punish and bear arms only against those who had committed crimes. A short time ago I was here at work on my land. I was
469:
during their emigration to the Great Basin. The delegation was led by White Eagle's aged paternal grandfather Little Bear whose death was recorded by the Mormons in 1846. The Mormons witnessed the transfer of power to Little Bear's eldest son and White Eagle's uncle, Two Bulls, after Little Bear's
681:
The United States drastically altered its policies toward Native Americans Immediately following the Senate investigation of the Ponca removal by terminating the forced removal policy which began under President Jackson's Indian Removal Act. White Eagle was later credited as being responsible for
461:
in 1858 that he was 56 years old, placing his birth year at 1802. As White Eagle was Iron Whip's first born son, there is an equally low probability that he was born in 1840, a year made all the more unlikely as White Eagle was documented as a junior chief on August 8, 1846, when he accompanied a
677:
Following the enactment of the Dawes Act, however, White Eagle forged a close association with former Confederate general George W. Miller and leased most of the 110,000 acres which became the Miller 101 Ranch. In 1907, he later befriended oilman E.W. Marland. White Eagle became acquainted with
491:
in 1877, in direct violation of the Ponca Treaty of 1865 and American law. Known as the Ponca Trail of Tears, this removal was a six-hundred mile forced march spanning three modern-day states, resulting in numerous deaths en route. The forced march consisted of two parties of Ponca citizens. The
752:
A young Ponca testified that since the Ponca removed to the Indian Territory, the Ponca chiefs were ânot the ones to say what we should do, the land belongs to all the men, women, and children and they have a right to say what shall be done with it.â (Hagan, 179). The Commission set out to use
379:
from 1870 until 1904. His 34-year tenure as the Ponca head of state spanned the most consequential period of cultural and political change in their history, beginning with the unlawful Ponca Trail of Tears in 1877 and continuing through his successful effort to obtain justice for his people by
426:. Dynastic rule was vested in White Eagle's direct male line, a dynasty established by White Eagle's paternal grandfather Chief Little Bear late in the 18th century when he assumed power from the traditional sovereigns by heroic feat. At the turn of the 20th century, White Eagle provided
790:
This included marching in parades on Mar. 18, 1899. In late 1902, White Eagle traveled to Birmingham, Alabama to perform in the 101 Ranch Wild West Show. In a sign of the times, White Eagle was forbidden to leave the Ponca Reservation without permission from the federal government:
609:
White Eagle led a delegation of Ponca leaders to Washington in the immediate aftermath of the removal in order to confront President Hayes and the American politicians in the Congress regarding the clear illegality of the removal. He and Standing Bear arrived on November 8, 1877.
817:
prohibiting non-democratic Native American governments. White Eagle's abdication ceremony and the traditional buffalo hunt that followed was attended by an estimated 13,000 people. The press described the ceremony as the last buffalo hunt in this history of the Great Plains.
388:
following the Ponca Trail of Tears marked a shift in public opinion against the federal government's Indian policy that ended the policy of removal, placing him at the forefront of the nascent Native American civil rights movement in the second half of the 19th century.
761:
Though unsuccessful, White Eagle effectively utilized the Dawes Act by conveying Ponca land to a prominent oil tycoon when a large oilfield was discovered under the Ponca reserve in 1911. He forged a relationship with oil tycoon and future United States congressman
624:
for the American government's violation of the Ponca Treaty of 1865 and its subsequent mismanagement of the Ponca removal. The efforts of both White Eagle and Standing Bear generated significant support from many notable Americans of the time including the poet
492:
first party was composed of approximately 170 Ponca citizens with mixed ancestry and began on April 16, 1877. The second party was to consist of the vast majority of the Ponca citizenry numbering about 500 people, including White Eagle and his vice chief
470:
death. A month later, Two Bulls died and the Mormons again witnessed the transfer of power to White Eagle's father, Iron Whip, who abdicated the hereditary chief sovereignty to White Eagle in 1870, thereby corroborating White Eagle's oral history.
812:
White Eagle formally abdicated his position as hereditary chief on May 8, 1904, to his son and successor, Horse Chief Eagle, who would ultimately be recognized as the last hereditary chief in the United States due to the enactment of the
701:
After successfully obtaining reparations for the unlawful removal, White Eagle remained a prominent advocate for Native American civil rights and the advancement of his people. He was one of the few outspoken opponents of the disastrous
770:
who used the land to establish what would become one of the most recognizable names in ranching and western entertainment, staging Wild West shows that provided employment for the Ponca people and entertained such personalities as
1005:
981:
585:. Among the victims were White Eagle's wife, four of his children, and his father Iron Whip, who preceded him as hereditary chief of the Ponca from 1846 until his abdication in 1870. Iron Whip signed the broken treaty with
1123:"Rutherford B. Hayes knew little about the forced relocation of the Indian tribes in the United States, but with new knowledge gained from the plight of the Poncas, Hayes ended the policy of removal before leaving office"
725:
White Eagle had used diplomacy and litigation to deflect the onrushing American immigrants, by 1889, these efforts had failed. This left the surviving Ponca facing reservation life and continuing pressures from the
786:
In September 1883, young Joe Miller, joined by Ponca Chief White Eagle, led a delegation of Poncas to the Alabama State Fair where he helped the Poncas establish an Indian village to hold traditional dances.
593:. The exact number of deaths is unknown; however, it is known that the death toll exceeded 200 of the 700 Poncas â 30% of the Ponca population â and included the outright extinction of 24 Ponca families.
577:, President Hayes' cabinet secretary responsible for overseeing the removal. Within six months, a further 141 deaths were reported as half of the Ponca population suffered from tropical diseases such as
718:
When White Eagle's prediction turned out to be true, Dawes later described White Eagle as "the clearest head of all" Native American leaders on the issue. President Hayes' Secretary of the Interior
685:âWe have been robbed of all we owned, but if we had thousands we would spend it all in bearing the expenses of the lawsuit carried on for us. We have nothing but our thanks to give.â
674:. White Eagle deposited the Sioux scalp taken by his grandfather Chief Little Bear in a box at the laying of the cornerstone, symbolically closing a chapter of Ponca history.
542:
The following day, yet another child died. As the Poncas continued their forced march across Kansas, four more people died: a young child named Little Cottonwood died outside
569:
in the Indian Territory and forced to live outside exposed to the elements in a tropical climate. No preparations were made to accommodate the Ponca by the newly inaugurated
945:
908:
749:
White Eagle was highly critical of this offer. The depth of the Ponca resistance was immense and the Commission was unable to extract any concessions whatsoever.
1306:
993:
1552:
1537:
1522:
969:
707:
620:. Immediately following the Ponca removal, White Eagle aggressively sought restoration of the ancestral Ponca homeland from President Hayes and the
152:
1401:
1542:
957:
1384:
1273:
496:. For nearly a month, White Eagle and Standing Bear resisted the unlawful efforts of Edward Cleveland Kemble, the federal agent sent by
1547:
1218:
923:
1411:
1169:
738:
wave of new immigrants. He told them that "all the increase coming from over the big water should stay on their own reservations.â
570:
483:
White Eagle's tenure as chief was defined by the unlawful forced removal of the Ponca from their treaty protected territory in the
590:
727:
693:
1243:
1484:
730:
to acculturate. Federal officials demanded that the Ponca abandon their traditions and join the white American mainstream.
911:
into several geographically separate and eventually competing firms to break up a monopoly. By the time it was acquired by
1030:
532:, killing one child and injuring many others. The federal agent in charge of the removal described the event as follows:
1036:
372:
814:
621:
19:
This article is about Indigenous leader of the Ponca. For Entertainer who went by Chief White Eagle in his act, see
870:. DalĂ also transformed White Eagle's chin into a tabletop and his lips into a fruit basket. British art historian
626:
454:
855:
767:
1081:
858:. DalĂ transformed White Eagle's eyes into a scene depicting 17th century Dutch colonists seemingly celebrating
601:
501:
1466:
1532:
1041:
887:
883:
566:
458:
431:
637:
who advocated on behalf of the Ponca by writing the seminal book on Native American civil rights entitled "
504:
ordered two companies of American soldiers to Ponca territory to force their compliance. White Eagle said:
42:
1527:
827:
616:
1121:
Taylor, Quentin (Spring 2003). "President Hayes and the Poncas". The Chronicles of Oklahoma. LXXXI: 105.
1517:
1507:
1023:
919:
639:
135:
1512:
644:
847:
734:
543:
419:
381:
1339:
1263:
1151:
930:
895:
776:
659:
634:
1011:
White Eagle's son Horse Chief Eagle served as chief sovereign of the Ponca from 1904 until 1940.
878:, symbolizes the foundations of American capitalism in the Dutch tradersâ purchase of New York.
380:
utilizing the American media to wage a public relations campaign against the United States and
1407:
1380:
1269:
1239:
1214:
547:
529:
146:
1189:
Life and liberty in America: or, Sketches of a tour in the United States and Canada in 1857-8
766:. He also leased significant acreage of the Ponca Reservation in the Indian Territory to the
1357:
1143:
863:
851:
671:
630:
497:
488:
484:
586:
551:
466:
397:
White Eagle was born on the ancestral Ponca homeland somewhere near the confluence of the
1324:
Reports of Committees: 30th Congress, 1st Session - 48th Congress, 2nd Session, Volume 6
898:
and his role in the subsequent ruling for equality for the Indian people in the 1870s."
804:
891:
890:. The DalĂ Museum describes White Eagle as "the celebrated chief of the Ponca tribe of
850:
made a bronze statue bust of White Eagle. In 1974, the renowned Catalan-Spanish artist
712:
655:
651:
402:
398:
385:
110:
20:
457:
in 1804. This report is dubious as White Eagle's father Iron Whip told British author
1501:
1046:
866:
from the indigenous owners for the proverbial string of beads by toasting bottles of
763:
493:
463:
423:
462:
high ranking Ponca delegation that sought to establish diplomatic relationship with
859:
667:
582:
406:
114:
1098:
987:
White Eagle (R) and Standing Bear (L) as they appeared later in life (c.1890-1902)
871:
597:
Advocacy for Native American rights following the Ponca Trail of Tears (1877-1881)
780:
733:
Following the Oklahoma Land Run of 1889, President Benjamin Harrison convened a
719:
574:
427:
167:
154:
915:
in 1930, White Eagle had gas stations in 11 states across the United States.
867:
703:
414:
826:
White Eagle died on February 3, 1914, and is interred on Monument Hill in
519:
413:
state line. At the time of his birth, the Ponca form of government was an
1099:"Indians and Public Opinion in the Age of Reform: The Case of the Poncas"
772:
689:
Opposition to the General Allotment Act of 1887 and the Oklahoma Land Run
410:
907:
The White Eagle Oil & Refining Co. was formed in 1911 following the
1155:
578:
722:
regarded White Eagle as âone of the greatest men among the Indians.â
453:
old, placing his birth in 1803, one year prior to the arrival of the
1147:
894:, known for his vocal objection to the confinement of his people on
929:
White Eagle appears on the Ponca Code Talkers Medal issued by the
922:, is named in his honor and is the modern-day headquarters of the
912:
803:
757:
Leasing Ponca land to the 101 Ranch Wild West Show and Marland Oil
692:
600:
518:
376:
371:(c. 1825 - February 3, 1914) was a Native American politician and
58:
1403:
Taking Indian Lands: The Cherokee (Jerome) Commission, 1889-1893
999:
White Eagle's father Iron Whip in Washington, D.C. in March 1858
1379:. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 209.
434:
the oral history of how he became hereditary chief sovereign:
1377:
The Indian Reform Letters of Helen Hunt Jackson, 1879â1885
658:
which the American government regarded as legal under the
500:, to force the Ponca removal by fraud. On April 24, 1877,
951:
White Eagle in Arkansas City, Kansas on February 20, 1877
808:
Two of the buffaloes at White Eagle's abdication ceremony
479:
Ponca removal crisis and Ponca Trail of Tears (1870-1877)
854:
transformed the 1899 bust of White Eagle using via his
800:
Abdication and inauguration of Horse Chief Eagle (1904)
1211:
I Am a Man: Chief Standing Bear's Journey for Justice
1213:. St. Martin's Griffin; First edition. p. 63.
320:
252:
199:
191:
183:
141:
120:
104:
99:
85:
75:
56:
28:
656:Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminoles
1134:Clark, Stanley (March 1943). "Ponca Publicity".
963:White Eagle in Washington, D.C. in November 1877
550:, on June 25, and a young child died outside of
557:
535:
507:
437:
1326:, United States Congress. Senate, 1880, p. xix
1086:. Harrisburg, PA: Telegraph Press. p. 77.
546:, on June 18, two elderly women died south of
1406:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 173.
1238:. University of Nebraska Press. p. 119.
605:White Eagle (L) and Standing Bear (R) in 1890
8:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1061:
975:White Eagle in 1904 prior to his abdication
682:forcing this change in government policy.
375:who served as the hereditary chief of the
41:
25:
393:Family history and early life (1825-1847)
1136:The Mississippi Valley Historical Review
647:and at once solve the Indian Question.â
1485:"Ponca Tribe Code Talkers Bronze Medal"
1467:"Nieuw Amsterdam (Bust of White Eagle)"
1057:
941:
909:Supreme Court's breakup of Standard Oil
1268:. Harper & Brothers. p. 216.
874:has argued that DalĂ's work, known as
846:In 1899, American sculptor and artist
708:culturally assimilate Native Americans
523:Route of the 1877 Ponca Trail of Tears
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1437:
1435:
1334:
1332:
1301:
1299:
1297:
795:Abdication and later life (1904-1914)
7:
1553:20th-century Native American leaders
1538:Native American people from Nebraska
1523:19th-century Native American leaders
1257:
1255:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1117:
1115:
711:White Eagle accurately predicted to
1358:"The Ponca Indians Have Lost Chief"
1097:Coward, John M. (August 10, 1989).
815:Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936
773:King George V of the United Kingdom
16:Ponca chief and civil rights leader
1289:Miami (Oklahoma) Daily News-Record
1236:Standing Bear and the Ponca Chiefs
57:Hereditary chief sovereign of the
14:
1080:Zimmerman, Charles Leroy (1941).
384:. His advocacy against America's
1083:White Eagle, Chief of the Poncas
1004:
992:
980:
968:
956:
944:
502:General William Tecumseh Sherman
1375:Mathes, Valerie Sherer (1998).
1543:People from Nebraska Territory
1400:Hagan, William Thomas (2003).
1346:. November 3, 1880. p. 1.
1234:Tibbles, Thomas Henry (1995).
1170:"Chief White Eagle, 111, dies"
1:
1031:Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee
405:which forms the contemporary
382:President Rutherford B. Hayes
91:Horse Chief Eagle (1904-1940)
1340:"BIG DOINGS AT PONCA AGENCY"
1262:Jackson, Helen Hunt (1881).
1037:Native American civil rights
777:President Theodore Roosevelt
373:American civil rights leader
1313:. July 1, 1879. p. 12.
1569:
1446:. July 3, 1904. p. 6.
660:Indian Removal Act of 1830
652:President Andrew Jackson's
627:Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
498:President Ulysses S. Grant
455:Lewis and Clark Expedition
313:McKinley Horse Chief Eagle
18:
1548:Native American activists
856:Paranoiac-critical method
768:Miller Brothers 101 Ranch
587:President Abraham Lincoln
362:
95:
64:
52:
47:Chief White Eagle in 1877
40:
35:
1187:Mackay, Charles (1859).
924:Ponca Nation of Oklahoma
1042:Ponca Tribe of Nebraska
888:St. Petersburg, Florida
862:'s 1621 acquisition of
728:Harrison administration
654:forced removals of the
591:Lincoln's assassination
589:in 1865 shortly before
474:Chieftaincy (1870-1904)
432:Smithsonian Institution
1442:"Ponca Buffalo Hunt".
1344:Arkansas City Traveler
828:Noble County, Oklahoma
809:
713:Senator Henry L. Dawes
698:
629:, former abolitionist
617:Standing Bear v. Crook
606:
561:
539:
528:on June 7, 1877, near
524:
512:
449:
310:David Horsechief Eagle
224:Victoria DeLodge Eagle
1429:, Jan. 03, 1881, p. 7
1311:Chicago Daily Tribune
1291:, Mar. 1, 1957, p. 3.
1265:A Century of Dishonor
1209:Starita, Joe (2010).
1024:A Century of Dishonor
920:White Eagle, Oklahoma
807:
696:
640:A Century of Dishonor
604:
522:
386:Indian removal policy
168:36.56944°N 97.14472°W
136:White Eagle, Oklahoma
115:Northern Great Plains
111:Niobrara River valley
81:Iron Whip (1846-1870)
1174:The Daily Republican
884:Salvador DalĂ Museum
882:is displayed at the
622:United States Senate
571:Hayes administration
346:Paternal grandfather
1444:The Washington Post
1362:The Altoona Tribune
1176:. February 6, 1914.
848:Charles Schreyvogel
697:White Eagle in 1877
544:Blue Rapids, Kansas
420:dynastic succession
418:the position was a
173:36.56944; -97.14472
164: /
1489:United States Mint
931:United States Mint
810:
699:
635:Helen Hunt Jackson
607:
525:
424:male primogeniture
1386:978-0-8061-5160-1
1364:. March 19, 1914.
1275:978-0-486-42698-3
1191:. pp. 94â96.
704:Dawes Act of 1887
548:Manhattan, Kansas
530:Milford, Nebraska
369:Chief White Eagle
366:
365:
265:Horse Chief Eagle
147:Marland, Oklahoma
1560:
1493:
1492:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1463:
1448:
1447:
1439:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1336:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1307:"The Aborigines"
1303:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1259:
1250:
1249:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1206:
1193:
1192:
1184:
1178:
1177:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1131:
1125:
1119:
1110:
1109:
1103:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1077:
1008:
996:
984:
972:
960:
948:
864:Manhattan Island
842:by Salvador Dali
706:which sought to
631:Wendell Phillips
489:Indian Territory
485:Dakota Territory
235:Buffalo Bull II
179:
178:
176:
175:
174:
169:
165:
162:
161:
160:
157:
131:February 4, 1914
130:
128:
100:Personal details
88:
78:
69:
45:
26:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1557:
1498:
1497:
1496:
1483:
1482:
1478:
1471:The Dali Museum
1465:
1464:
1451:
1441:
1440:
1433:
1427:Chicago Tribune
1425:
1421:
1414:
1399:
1398:
1394:
1387:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1356:
1355:
1351:
1338:
1337:
1330:
1322:
1318:
1305:
1304:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1261:
1260:
1253:
1246:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1208:
1207:
1196:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1168:
1167:
1163:
1148:10.2307/1916600
1133:
1132:
1128:
1120:
1113:
1101:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1079:
1078:
1059:
1055:
1019:
1012:
1009:
1000:
997:
988:
985:
976:
973:
964:
961:
952:
949:
940:
904:
880:Nieuw Amsterdam
876:Nieuw Amsterdam
844:
840:Nieuw Amsterdam
836:
824:
802:
797:
759:
691:
599:
562:
552:Emporia, Kansas
540:
513:
481:
476:
467:Mormon Pioneers
464:Brigham Young's
450:
395:
358:
316:
248:
172:
170:
166:
163:
158:
155:
153:
151:
150:
149:
134:
132:
126:
124:
109:
86:
76:
70:
65:
48:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1566:
1564:
1556:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1533:Trail of Tears
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1494:
1476:
1449:
1431:
1419:
1412:
1392:
1385:
1367:
1349:
1328:
1316:
1293:
1281:
1274:
1251:
1244:
1226:
1220:978-0312606381
1219:
1194:
1179:
1161:
1142:(4): 495â516.
1126:
1111:
1089:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1027:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1013:
1010:
1003:
1001:
998:
991:
989:
986:
979:
977:
974:
967:
965:
962:
955:
953:
950:
943:
939:
936:
935:
934:
927:
916:
903:
900:
892:Plains Indians
843:
837:
835:
832:
823:
820:
801:
798:
796:
793:
758:
755:
690:
687:
598:
595:
556:
534:
506:
480:
477:
475:
472:
459:Charles Mackay
436:
403:Missouri River
399:Niobrara River
394:
391:
364:
363:
360:
359:
357:
356:
355:Buffalo Bull I
349:
343:
340:
334:
331:
324:
322:
318:
317:
315:
314:
311:
308:
302:
299:
296:
293:
290:
287:
284:
281:
278:
272:
269:
266:
263:
256:
254:
250:
249:
247:
246:
243:
240:
233:
226:
225:
222:
219:
216:
213:
210:
203:
201:
197:
196:
193:
189:
188:
185:
181:
180:
145:Monument Hill
143:
139:
138:
122:
118:
117:
106:
102:
101:
97:
96:
93:
92:
89:
83:
82:
79:
73:
72:
62:
61:
54:
53:
50:
49:
46:
38:
37:
33:
32:
29:
21:Basil F. Heath
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1565:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1528:Tribal chiefs
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1503:
1490:
1486:
1480:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1445:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1420:
1415:
1413:9780806135137
1409:
1405:
1404:
1396:
1393:
1388:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1353:
1350:
1345:
1341:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1317:
1312:
1308:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1282:
1277:
1271:
1267:
1266:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1247:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1227:
1222:
1216:
1212:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1190:
1183:
1180:
1175:
1171:
1165:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1100:
1093:
1090:
1085:
1084:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1052:
1048:
1047:Standing Bear
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1032:
1028:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1020:
1016:
1007:
1002:
995:
990:
983:
978:
971:
966:
959:
954:
947:
942:
937:
932:
928:
925:
921:
917:
914:
910:
906:
905:
901:
899:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
852:Salvador DalĂ
849:
841:
838:
833:
831:
829:
821:
819:
816:
806:
799:
794:
792:
788:
784:
782:
778:
774:
769:
765:
764:E. W. Marland
756:
754:
750:
747:
743:
739:
736:
731:
729:
723:
721:
716:
714:
709:
705:
695:
688:
686:
683:
679:
675:
673:
669:
663:
661:
657:
653:
648:
646:
642:
641:
636:
633:, and author
632:
628:
623:
619:
618:
611:
603:
596:
594:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
565:removed to a
560:
555:
553:
549:
545:
538:
533:
531:
521:
517:
511:
505:
503:
499:
495:
494:Standing Bear
490:
486:
478:
473:
471:
468:
465:
460:
456:
448:
444:
440:
435:
433:
429:
428:ethnographers
425:
421:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
392:
390:
387:
383:
378:
374:
370:
361:
354:
350:
347:
344:
341:
338:
335:
332:
329:
326:
325:
323:
319:
312:
309:
306:
305:Grandchildren
303:
300:
297:
294:
291:
288:
285:
282:
279:
276:
275:Daughters (8)
273:
270:
267:
264:
261:
258:
257:
255:
251:
244:
241:
238:
234:
231:
230:Siblings (11)
228:
227:
223:
220:
217:
214:
211:
208:
205:
204:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
177:
148:
144:
142:Resting place
140:
137:
123:
119:
116:
112:
107:
103:
98:
94:
90:
84:
80:
74:
68:
63:
60:
55:
51:
44:
39:
34:
27:
22:
1518:Ponca people
1508:1820s births
1488:
1479:
1470:
1443:
1426:
1422:
1402:
1395:
1376:
1370:
1361:
1352:
1343:
1323:
1319:
1310:
1288:
1284:
1264:
1235:
1229:
1210:
1188:
1182:
1173:
1164:
1139:
1135:
1129:
1122:
1108:. p. 2.
1105:
1092:
1082:
1029:
1022:
918:The town of
902:Other honors
896:reservations
879:
875:
860:Peter Minuit
845:
839:
825:
822:Death (1914)
811:
789:
785:
760:
751:
748:
744:
740:
732:
724:
717:
700:
684:
680:
676:
668:Chief Joseph
664:
649:
638:
615:
612:
608:
583:yellow fever
567:swampy marsh
563:
558:
541:
536:
526:
514:
508:
482:
451:
445:
441:
438:
407:South Dakota
396:
368:
367:
352:
351:Little Bear
345:
336:
327:
304:
298:Ramona Eagle
295:Elaine Eagle
289:Carrie Eagle
274:
271:George Eagle
259:
236:
229:
206:
133:(aged 88â89)
87:Succeeded by
66:
1513:1914 deaths
781:Will Rogers
720:Carl Schurz
645:Indian Wars
575:Carl Schurz
342:Wagahsapphe
301:Emily Eagle
292:Ethel Eagle
283:Neahgewatha
268:Frank Eagle
245:HeqĂĄgajinga
221:Julia Eagle
207:Spouses (5)
192:Nationality
184:Citizenship
171: /
77:Preceded by
30:White Eagle
1502:Categories
1245:0803294263
735:commission
286:Mary Eagle
218:Mary Eagle
159:97°08â˛41âłW
156:36°34â˛10âłN
127:1914-02-04
1053:Footnotes
872:Dawn Adès
868:Coca-Cola
672:Nez Perce
422:based on
415:oligarchy
333:Iron Whip
239:Two Bulls
200:Relations
71:1870â1904
67:In office
1017:See also
933:in 2013.
411:Nebraska
280:Gladahme
260:Sons (3)
253:Children
36:Qithaska
1156:1916600
938:Gallery
670:of the
650:Unlike
579:malaria
487:to the
430:at the
321:Parents
242:WaqpĂŠca
215:Unknown
212:Unknown
1410:
1383:
1272:
1242:
1217:
1154:
834:Honors
779:, and
337:Mother
328:Father
1152:JSTOR
1102:(PDF)
913:Mobil
377:Ponca
195:Ponca
187:Ponca
59:Ponca
1408:ISBN
1381:ISBN
1270:ISBN
1240:ISBN
1215:ISBN
1106:ERIC
581:and
401:and
121:Died
108:1825
105:Born
1144:doi
886:in
783:.
573:or
1504::
1487:.
1469:.
1452:^
1434:^
1360:.
1342:.
1331:^
1309:.
1296:^
1254:^
1197:^
1172:.
1150:.
1140:29
1138:.
1114:^
1104:.
1060:^
830:.
775:,
353:or
237:or
113:,
1491:.
1473:.
1416:.
1389:.
1278:.
1248:.
1223:.
1158:.
1146::
926:.
409:-
348::
339::
330::
307::
277::
262::
232::
209::
129:)
125:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.