343:
Nutrition
Examination Survey. Vitamin A is supplied through the diet, and a deficiency often results from poor dietary intake of Vitamin A-rich foods. Low dietary levels of Vitamin A can be worsened by infections that cause inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract, which prevent the body from fully absorbing Vitamin A available within digested food. Children in the United States have a recommended Vitamin A dietary allowance of at least 300 micrograms/day. Good sources of Vitamin A include vegetables, such as carrots, papaya, and pumpkin. Animal products, such as fish oils, as well as dairy products (milk, cheese, and yogurt) are also sources of Vitamin A.
427:
social burden of blindness for children is much greater due to the increase in blind years. Childhood blindness is most prevalent among children with genetic ancestry from Africa and Asia, who represent 75% of the world's affected population. A 2014 review indicated that an estimated 238,500 children with bilateral blindness (rate 1.2/1,000) live in the
Eastern Mediterranean region. There is also an increase in blindness outside of developing countries due to a lack of screening and prophylactic measures to treat causes of pediatric blindness.
217:
327:
390:
29:
200:
time of birth. Therefore, a baby who is born early is exposed to various stimuli (oxygen, lights, temperature, etc.) that may influence how the blood vessels of the eye develop. Additional risk factors for ROP include low birth weight (3 pounds or less) and giving the baby excess amounts of oxygen following birth. If preterm infants are experiencing other health problems like
2169:
443:" on the second Thursday of October each year. Starting in 2000, World Sight Day has become an opportunity to raise awareness of eye health and highlight the importance of increasing access to eye health services globally. It has also become a tool to influence governments around the world to allocate funds for blindness prevention programs and educational initiatives.
362:. At birth, increased exposure to oxygen from the environment and from medical interventions (such as a high flow nasal cannula) causes damage to retinal blood vessels and stunts their growth. Prevention of ROP in preterm babies involves careful monitoring of oxygen delivery to avoid excess exposure. Neonatal ocular exams can help detect ROP.
310:. From 6-12 months, children are screened at their well-child visits with the red reflex test, assessment of eye movement, and proper pupil dilation. From 1 year to 3 years of age, children often undergo a "photoscreening" test where a camera takes pictures of the child's eyes to assess for developmental abnormalities that may lead to
1616:
160:
Newborn conjunctivitis is present at the time of birth and presents within the first 28 days of life as a severe conjunctival infection with purulent discharge. This increases the risk of corneal ulcerations and perforations that can lead to blindness. The common organisms that lead to this diagnosis
342:
is a leading cause of preventable childhood blindness, particularly in developing countries. Vitamin A deficiency is defined as a serum (blood) concentration of less than 0.70 ÎĽmol/L while a severe deficiency is defined as less than 0.35 ÎĽmol/L, per the
Centers of Disease Control National Health and
199:
Babies who are born prematurely (formally defined as 37 weeks of gestational age or earlier) are at higher risk of developing retinopathy of prematurity. The earlier a preterm baby is born, the greater the baby's risk of developing ROP. Blood vessels in the eye typically finish development by the
426:
Globally, the number children with blindness is approximately 1.4 million, representing 4% of the global blind population, and an additional 17.5 million are at risk of developing poor vision. Although this number is significantly lower than the number of blind adults, the estimated economic and
297:
The diagnosis of childhood blindness is done via methods to ascertain the degree of visual impairment in the affected child. Early detection is essential to provide early intervention to children. The
American Academy of Ophthalmology recommend various screening methods starting in newborns and
409:
is an assistive learning device that can help such children in school. Schools for the blind are a form of management, however the limitations of using studies done in such schools has been recognized. Children that are enrolled presently usually developed blindness 5 or more years prior to
192:. These blood vessels may bleed or grow in the wrong direction. Bleeding can lead to the formation of scar tissue which can cause blurred vision and vision loss. If the vessels grow too far in the wrong direction, they can pull the retina away from the back of the eye – this is called
904:
131:
Vitamin A deficiency is most common in developing countries where many kids experience malnourishment. This vitamin deficiency blinds hundreds of thousands of kids each year, and is a preventable cause of childhood blindness. Since vitamin A is required for
599:
2119:
82:
of <3/60 in the eye with better vision of a child under 16 years of age. This generally means that the child cannot see an object 10 feet (about 3 meters) away, that another child could see if it was 200 feet (about 60 meters) away.
256:
primarily affects the retina, and typically severe visual impairment begins in infancy. Mutations in Aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein like-1 have been linked to Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA).
386:. The review also found that the 360-degree circumferential trabeculotomy may show greater surgical success than conventional trabeculotomy but that further research with one year follow-up was needed.
2001:
Hidalgo-de-Quintana, Juan; Schwarz, Nele; Meschede, Ingrid P.; Stern-Schneider, Gabriele; Powner, Michael B.; Morrison, Ewan E.; Futter, Clare E.; Wolfrum, Uwe; Cheetham, Michael E. (March 23, 2015).
174:
Infected pregnant women and their partners should be treated to avoid infection of the newborn, and newborns presenting with conjunctivitis should be treated with hourly topical antibiotic drops (
410:
enrollment, consequently not reflecting current possible causes. About 66% of children with visual impairment also have one other disability (comorbidity), be it, intellectual disabilities,
1407:
808:
837:
358:
are also effective at preventing ROP. Babies delivered preterm, defined at or before 37 weeks of gestation, have incomplete development of the blood vessels supplying the
1600:
3206:
780:
628:
2603:
148:
significantly reducing the number of measles cases each year. Children who have a vitamin A deficiency and measles infection can develop corneal ulcerations and
3275:
3201:
3761:
888:
1127:"CDC's Second National Report on Biochemical Indicators of Diet and Nutrition in the US Population is a valuable tool for researchers and policy makers"
1319:
866:
947:
1104:
2215:
418:. Eye care/screening for children within primary health care is important, as catching ocular disease issues can lead to better outcomes overall.
3223:
3218:
3043:
1125:
Pfeiffer, Christine M.; Sternberg, Maya R.; Schleicher, Rosemary L.; Haynes, Bridgette M.H.; Rybak, Michael E.; Pirkle, James L. (April 2013).
1875:
Hussain, A. H. M. Enayet; Ferdoush, Junnatul; Mashreky, Saidur Rahman; Rahman, A. K. M. Fazlur; Ferdausi, Nahid; Dalal, Koustuv (2019-06-07).
941:
3083:
583:
1976:
1846:
558:
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Hussain, A. H. M. Enayet; Ferdoush, Junnatul; Mashreky, Saidur Rahman; Rahman, A. K. M. Fazlur; Ferdausi, Nahid; Dalal, Koustuv (2019).
298:
spanning throughout childhood in order to assess for childhood blindness and other ophthalmic disorders. Newborns are screened with the
302:
test performed by shining a light into the child's eyes. If a red reflex is not produced, further workups should be done to assess for
3191:
3078:
2645:
1399:
800:
2806:
1610:
928:
Beare, Nicholas A. V.; Bastawrous, Andrew (2014-01-01), Farrar, Jeremy; Hotez, Peter J.; Junghanss, Thomas; Kang, Gagandeep (eds.),
898:
774:
593:
2946:
314:. Children ages 3 to 5 years of age will be assessed for proper eye alignment and visual acuity. Visual acuity is assessed with a
2911:
829:
468:
3486:
3004:
2916:
253:
188:
Retinopathy of
Prematurity (ROP) is classified by the abnormal growth of blood vessels in the retina, a process called retinal
2906:
2635:
435:
VISION 2020 is a program launched by the
International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness (IAPB) and is supported by the
1696:
1202:
2999:
2890:
2756:
3397:
3088:
3073:
1290:. Proceedings of the 35th International Symposium on Growth Hormone and Growth Factors in Endocrinology and Metabolism.
620:
1225:
Hombali, Aditi S; Solon, Juan
Antonio; Venkatesh, Bhumika T; Nair, N Sreekumaran; Peña-Rosas, Juan Pablo (2019-05-10).
2285:
2243:
2208:
406:
196:. Retinal detachment is a medical emergency that can cause permanent blindness and thus requires urgent intervention.
975:
354:(ROP) is a cause of childhood blindness that can occur around the time of birth. Generally, measures taken to avoid
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3009:
2983:
2941:
2936:
2801:
2674:
2662:
2618:
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in 1999 that has made controlling blindness in children a high priority. In addition, the IAPB and WHO coordinate "
351:
225:
108:
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2679:
370:
Whether blindness is treatable depends upon the cause. Surgical intervention can be performed in cases of primary
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3186:
3033:
2878:
2625:
436:
371:
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2902:
2526:
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104:
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1946:
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3156:
2956:
2476:
2469:
3671:
3641:
3576:
3571:
3298:
2576:
2441:
2201:
858:
1722:"The Status of Childhood Blindness and Functional Low Vision in the Eastern Mediterranean Region in 2012"
929:
3614:
3290:
1096:
169:
163:
1430:"Causes of severe visual impairment and blindness in schools for visually handicapped children in Iran"
2003:"The Leber Congenital Amaurosis Protein AIPL1 and EB Proteins Co-Localize at the Photoreceptor Cilium"
1283:
382:(CTT) and routine conventional trabeculotomy, or between visco-trabeculotomy and routine conventional
3387:
2973:
2968:
2926:
2741:
2657:
2014:
1888:
1792:
996:
Bhattacharjee, H; Das, K; Borah, RR; Guha, K; Gogate, P; Purukayastha, S; Gilbert, C (Nov–Dec 2008).
339:
229:
205:
116:
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3029:
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2613:
2393:
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245:
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383:
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193:
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216:
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3543:
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2608:
2514:
2085:
2077:
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1968:
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1906:
1828:
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1670:
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1078:
1029:
937:
894:
770:
730:
722:
681:
663:
589:
531:
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136:, the photosensitive pigment in the retinol rods, its deficiency can lead to night blindness.
92:
52:
1428:
Mirdehghan, S. A.; Dehghan, M. H.; Mohammadpour, M.; Heidari, K.; Khosravi, M. (2005-05-01).
699:
International
Committee for the Classification of Retinopathy of Prematurity (July 1, 2005).
3434:
3424:
3270:
3245:
3178:
3144:
3063:
2694:
2684:
2581:
2436:
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2313:
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1914:
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1498:
1457:
1441:
1371:
1353:
1295:
1254:
1238:
1154:
1138:
1068:
1060:
1049:"Causes of childhood blindness: results from schools for the blind in south eastern Nigeria"
1019:
1009:
762:
712:
671:
521:
503:
120:
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3465:
3429:
3048:
2873:
2860:
2794:
2751:
2669:
2481:
2413:
2333:
2318:
440:
492:"Severe Visual Impairment and Blindness in Infants: Causes and Opportunities for Control"
2174:
2018:
1892:
1796:
754:
582:
Mabey, David; Gill, Geoffrey; Weber, Martin W.; Whitty, Christopher J. M. (2013-01-17).
3731:
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3528:
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3139:
3068:
2850:
2820:
2766:
2720:
2591:
2464:
2398:
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2002:
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1721:
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1638:
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997:
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651:
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491:
411:
307:
241:
237:
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3163:
3111:
3058:
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2897:
2784:
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2689:
2598:
2403:
2308:
2152:
460:
355:
315:
149:
100:
96:
79:
36:
3516:
3344:
2725:
2640:
2548:
2426:
2421:
2366:
2361:
1502:
1242:
415:
1688:
2027:
1901:
1805:
1655:
3715:
3666:
3609:
3604:
3561:
3539:
3450:
3441:
3361:
3339:
3151:
3123:
2921:
2789:
2630:
2451:
2328:
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2227:
326:
282:
1299:
1186:
717:
700:
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3511:
3455:
3416:
3322:
3258:
3237:
3127:
2486:
2351:
2147:
389:
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with lines of letters that the child reads and helps determine visual acuity.
299:
175:
2081:
1910:
1814:
1747:
1738:
1567:
1559:
1510:
1453:
1367:
1307:
1250:
1150:
726:
667:
517:
74:
is an important contribution to the national prevalence of the disability of
3687:
3661:
3535:
3481:
3469:
3354:
3349:
3334:
3330:
2868:
2566:
2543:
2356:
2303:
2298:
2275:
2193:
1877:"Epidemiology of childhood blindness: A community-based study in Bangladesh"
1781:"Epidemiology of childhood blindness: A community-based study in Bangladesh"
1445:
1014:
508:
311:
133:
112:
75:
2089:
2072:
2055:
2046:
1928:
1832:
1765:
1674:
1585:
1528:
1471:
1385:
1315:
1268:
1198:
1168:
1082:
1033:
734:
685:
535:
208:, and/or breathing problems, they are at increased risk of developing ROP.
28:
2111:
1639:"Blindness in Childhood in Developing Countries: Time for a Reassessment?"
1142:
967:
701:"THe international classification of retinopathy of prematurity revisited"
3726:
3491:
3025:
2828:
2459:
249:
91:
There are many causes of blindness in children. Blindness may be due to
1064:
3553:
3496:
3038:
2845:
2776:
2746:
2736:
2343:
1227:"Fortification of staple foods with vitamin A for vitamin A deficiency"
402:
233:
145:
1358:
3656:
2558:
2535:
2255:
1720:
Khandekar, Rajiv; Kishore, H.; Mansu, Rabiu M.; Awan, Haroon (2014).
359:
276:
267:
201:
405:
is a universal way to learn how to read and write, for the blind. A
998:"Causes of childhood blindness in the northeastern states of India"
3628:
1942:
388:
1637:
Gogate, Parikshit; Kalua, Khumbo; Courtright, Paul (2009-12-08).
2708:
2270:
330:
The chemical structure of
Vitamin A (one of many chemical forms)
3713:
3109:
2512:
2241:
2197:
1485:
Gagrani, Meghal; Garg, Itika; Ghate, Deepta (25 August 2020).
144:
Since 2010, globally 85% of children have been vaccinated for
1340:
Liegl, Raffael; Hellström, Ann; Smith, Lois EH (2016-05-20).
934:
Manson's
Tropical Infectious Diseases (Twenty-third Edition)
224:
Childhood blindness has many causes. Leading causes include
652:"Twenty years of childhood blindness: what have we learnt?"
152:
due to immunosuppression caused by the vitamin deficiency.
1973:
The International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness
1487:"Surgical interventions for primary congenital glaucoma"
2056:"Childhood blindness: a UK epidemiological perspective"
490:
Gogate, Parikshit; Gilbert, Clare; Zin, Andrea (2011).
374:. A 2020 review found no difference between combined
1400:"Retinopathy of Prematurity | National Eye Institute"
1342:"Retinopathy of prematurity: the need for prevention"
801:"Retinopathy of Prematurity | National Eye Institute"
2101:
461:"Eye Problems in Babies. Baby Eye Problems. Patient"
260:
The most frequently affected parts of the eyes are:
3680:
3627:
3592:
3552:
3464:
3415:
3380:
3321:
3289:
3257:
3236:
3177:
3122:
3018:
2859:
2819:
2775:
2716:
2707:
2557:
2534:
2525:
2450:
2412:
2379:
2342:
2263:
2254:
2138:
2105:
930:"67 - Ophthalmology in the Tropics and Sub-tropics"
61:
51:
43:
21:
107:, infections, injuries, and other causes. Severe
3202:arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)
753:Beare, Nicholas A.V.; Bastawrous, Andrew (2014),
1185:Hodge, Christopher; Taylor, Christopher (2022),
1193:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
1047:Ezegwui, IR; Umeh, RE; Ezepue, UF (Jan 2003).
936:, London: W.B. Saunders, pp. 952–994.e1,
755:"Ophthalmology in the Tropics and Sub-tropics"
2209:
1542:Roth, Ginny A.; Fee, Elizabeth (2011-03-01).
8:
3276:Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia
1726:Middle East African Journal of Ophthalmology
1284:"Pathogenesis of retinopathy of prematurity"
496:Middle East African Journal of Ophthalmology
78:. Blindness in children can be defined as a
2604:Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy
1602:Genetic Diseases of the Eye, Second Edition
1491:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1231:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
859:"What Is Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP)?"
3710:
3474:
3263:
3254:
3132:
3119:
3106:
2713:
2531:
2522:
2509:
2260:
2251:
2238:
2216:
2202:
2194:
2102:
1689:"Vision Loss | Kids' Quest | NCBDDD | CDC"
830:"Retinal detachment - Symptoms and causes"
27:
18:
2071:
2036:
2026:
1918:
1900:
1822:
1804:
1755:
1737:
1664:
1654:
1575:
1518:
1461:
1375:
1357:
1258:
1158:
1072:
1023:
1013:
716:
675:
525:
507:
650:Gilbert, Clare; Muhit, Mohammed (2008).
325:
215:
887:Hartnett, Mary Elizabeth (2005-01-01).
452:
1220:
1218:
631:from the original on 23 September 2022
551:GLOBAL DATA ON VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS 2010
1715:
1713:
1599:MD, Elias I. Traboulsi (2011-12-01).
1180:
1178:
968:"NCBI - WWW Error Blocked Diagnostic"
923:
921:
893:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
759:Manson's Tropical Infectious Diseases
7:
3084:Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy
1949:from the original on 23 October 2016
1053:The British Journal of Ophthalmology
748:
746:
744:
3207:non-arteritic anterior (NAION)
3044:Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
471:from the original on 2 January 2018
3079:Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis
767:10.1016/b978-0-7020-5101-2.00068-6
14:
3762:Visual disturbances and blindness
2807:Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy
1548:American Journal of Public Health
1288:Growth Hormone & IGF Research
1101:American Academy of Ophthalmology
863:American Academy of Ophthalmology
761:, Elsevier, pp. 952–994.e1,
2912:Central retinal artery occlusion
2167:
1605:. Oxford University Press, USA.
1434:British Journal of Ophthalmology
1282:Smith, Lois E. H. (2004-06-01).
621:"The criteria for certification"
585:Principles of Medicine in Africa
2917:Branch retinal artery occlusion
2646:Terrien's marginal degeneration
1979:from the original on 2022-09-25
1699:from the original on 2015-07-21
1619:from the original on 2023-11-21
1410:from the original on 2022-08-27
1322:from the original on 2023-11-21
1205:from the original on 2022-04-05
1107:from the original on 2022-08-29
1002:Indian Journal of Ophthalmology
978:from the original on 2015-07-23
950:from the original on 2022-09-12
907:from the original on 2023-11-21
869:from the original on 2022-09-14
840:from the original on 2022-09-12
811:from the original on 2022-08-27
783:from the original on 2023-11-21
602:from the original on 2023-11-21
564:from the original on 2015-03-31
39:used to determine visual acuity
2947:Bietti's crystalline dystrophy
2907:Central retinal vein occlusion
2636:Pellucid marginal degeneration
1503:10.1002/14651858.CD008213.pub3
1243:10.1002/14651858.CD010068.pub2
588:. Cambridge University Press.
119:, measles, conjunctivitis and
57:Pupillary reflex(among others)
1:
3000:Vitelliform macular dystrophy
2891:Posterior vitreous detachment
2757:Persistent pupillary membrane
1847:"WHO | Priority eye diseases"
244:, and congenital conditions (
3487:Leber's congenital amaurosis
3398:Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
3089:Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease
3074:Persistent fetal vasculature
3005:Leber's congenital amaurosis
2028:10.1371/journal.pone.0121440
1902:10.1371/journal.pone.0211991
1806:10.1371/journal.pone.0211991
1656:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000177
1097:"Eye Screening for Children"
2286:Meibomian gland dysfunction
407:refreshable braille display
47:Genetic disorder, Infection
3778:
3010:Birdshot chorioretinopathy
2984:Central serous retinopathy
2802:Focal choroidal excavation
2675:Corneal neovascularization
2492:Subconjunctival hemorrhage
2054:Rahi, J. S. (2007-01-01).
1544:"The Invention of Braille"
1300:10.1016/j.ghir.2004.03.030
718:10.1001/archopht.123.7.991
352:Retinopathy of prematurity
347:Retinopathy of Prematurity
254:Leber congenital amaurosis
226:retinopathy of prematurity
184:Retinopathy of prematurity
109:retinopathy of prematurity
3722:
3709:
3477:
3393:Convergence insufficiency
3266:
3135:
3118:
3105:
3034:Primary juvenile glaucoma
2879:Cytomegalovirus retinitis
2521:
2508:
2294:
2250:
2237:
2228:Diseases of the human eye
705:Archives of Ophthalmology
35:
26:
2903:Ocular ischemic syndrome
1739:10.4103/0974-9233.142273
1560:10.2105/AJPH.2010.200865
1131:The Journal of Nutrition
557:. WHO. 2012. p. 6.
105:nutritional deficiencies
3403:One and a half syndrome
3157:Foster Kennedy syndrome
1969:"About World Sight Day"
1446:10.1136/bjo.2004.050799
1015:10.4103/0301-4738.43368
509:10.4103/0974-9233.80698
232:, infectious diseases (
3642:Argyll Robertson pupil
2442:Periorbital cellulitis
2073:10.1038/sj.eye.6702837
1187:"Vitamin A Deficiency"
625:RNIB - See differently
394:
331:
221:
156:Newborn conjunctivitis
3615:Scintillating scotoma
3281:Kearns–Sayre syndrome
3224:Toxic and nutritional
3197:posterior (PION)
2680:Kayser–Fleischer ring
1143:10.3945/jn.112.172858
392:
329:
219:
170:Chlamydia trachomatis
3388:Conjugate gaze palsy
3259:Paralytic strabismus
3192:anterior (AION)
2974:Retinitis pigmentosa
2969:Macular degeneration
2742:Intermediate uveitis
2658:Keratoconjunctivitis
972:www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
656:Community Eye Health
627:. 19 February 2014.
340:Vitamin A deficiency
335:Vitamin A Deficiency
304:congenital cataracts
230:vitamin A deficiency
206:vitamin E deficiency
164:Neisseria gonorrhoea
127:Vitamin A deficiency
117:Vitamin A deficiency
65:Vitamin A supplement
3693:Childhood blindness
3672:Parinaud's syndrome
3242:Extraocular muscles
3030:Ocular hypertension
2994:Epiretinal membrane
2979:Retinal haemorrhage
2834:Congenital cataract
2185:Childhood blindness
2153:Childhood blindness
2019:2015PLoSO..1021440H
1893:2019PLoSO..1411991H
1797:2019PLoSO..1411991H
1065:10.1136/bjo.87.1.20
431:Society and culture
372:congenital glaucoma
72:Childhood blindness
22:Childhood blindness
3219:Leber's hereditary
2886:Retinal detachment
2839:Childhood cataract
2651:Post-LASIK ectasia
2432:Orbital cellulitis
2381:Lacrimal apparatus
2139:External resources
395:
332:
222:
194:retinal detachment
190:neovascularization
3744:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3705:
3704:
3701:
3700:
3647:Marcus Gunn pupil
3623:
3622:
3544:Visual impairment
3411:
3410:
3317:
3316:
3304:Fourth-nerve (IV)
3232:
3231:
3169:Optic disc drusen
3101:
3100:
3097:
3096:
2815:
2814:
2703:
2702:
2609:Corneal dystrophy
2504:
2503:
2500:
2499:
2375:
2374:
2162:
2161:
2066:(10): 1249–1253.
1857:on March 22, 2006
1359:10.2147/EB.S99038
943:978-0-7020-5101-2
264:Whole globe (36%)
123:are also causes.
93:genetic mutations
69:
68:
53:Diagnostic method
16:Medical condition
3769:
3711:
3475:
3466:Vision disorders
3425:Refractive error
3367:Brown's syndrome
3323:Other strabismus
3309:Sixth-nerve (VI)
3299:Oculomotor (III)
3271:Ophthalmoparesis
3264:
3255:
3246:Binocular vision
3179:Optic neuropathy
3145:optic papillitis
3133:
3120:
3107:
2996:(Macular pucker)
2714:
2695:Band keratopathy
2532:
2523:
2510:
2437:Orbital lymphoma
2324:Blepharophimosis
2314:Blepharochalasis
2261:
2252:
2239:
2218:
2211:
2204:
2195:
2171:
2170:
2103:
2093:
2075:
2050:
2040:
2030:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1922:
1904:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1853:. Archived from
1843:
1837:
1836:
1826:
1808:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1759:
1741:
1717:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1704:
1685:
1679:
1678:
1668:
1658:
1649:(12): e1000177.
1634:
1628:
1627:
1625:
1624:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1579:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1522:
1482:
1476:
1475:
1465:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1416:
1415:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1379:
1361:
1337:
1331:
1330:
1328:
1327:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1262:
1222:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1210:
1182:
1173:
1172:
1162:
1137:(6): 938S–947S.
1122:
1116:
1115:
1113:
1112:
1093:
1087:
1086:
1076:
1044:
1038:
1037:
1027:
1017:
993:
987:
986:
984:
983:
964:
958:
957:
956:
955:
925:
916:
915:
913:
912:
890:Pediatric Retina
884:
878:
877:
875:
874:
855:
849:
848:
846:
845:
826:
820:
819:
817:
816:
797:
791:
790:
789:
788:
750:
739:
738:
720:
696:
690:
689:
679:
647:
641:
640:
638:
636:
617:
611:
610:
608:
607:
579:
573:
572:
570:
569:
563:
556:
546:
540:
539:
529:
511:
487:
481:
480:
478:
476:
457:
121:refractive error
31:
19:
3777:
3776:
3772:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3747:
3746:
3745:
3736:
3718:
3697:
3676:
3619:
3588:
3548:
3502:Color blindness
3468:
3460:
3407:
3381:Other binocular
3376:
3313:
3285:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3228:
3173:
3126:
3114:
3093:
3049:Ocular hypotony
3014:
2874:Chorioretinitis
2855:
2811:
2795:Chorioretinitis
2771:
2752:Rubeosis iridis
2730:
2699:
2670:Corneal opacity
2626:Corneal ectasia
2553:
2517:
2496:
2482:Pseudopterygium
2446:
2408:
2371:
2338:
2334:Ankyloblepharon
2290:
2246:
2233:
2232:
2222:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2157:
2134:
2133:
2114:
2100:
2053:
2013:(3): e0121440.
2000:
1997:
1995:Further reading
1992:
1991:
1982:
1980:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1952:
1950:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1887:(6): e0211991.
1874:
1873:
1869:
1860:
1858:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1791:(6): e0211991.
1778:
1777:
1773:
1719:
1718:
1711:
1702:
1700:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1636:
1635:
1631:
1622:
1620:
1613:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1541:
1540:
1536:
1497:(8): CD008213.
1484:
1483:
1479:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1413:
1411:
1404:www.nei.nih.gov
1398:
1397:
1393:
1339:
1338:
1334:
1325:
1323:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1237:(5): CD010068.
1224:
1223:
1216:
1208:
1206:
1184:
1183:
1176:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1110:
1108:
1095:
1094:
1090:
1046:
1045:
1041:
995:
994:
990:
981:
979:
966:
965:
961:
953:
951:
944:
927:
926:
919:
910:
908:
901:
886:
885:
881:
872:
870:
857:
856:
852:
843:
841:
828:
827:
823:
814:
812:
805:www.nei.nih.gov
799:
798:
794:
786:
784:
777:
752:
751:
742:
698:
697:
693:
649:
648:
644:
634:
632:
619:
618:
614:
605:
603:
596:
581:
580:
576:
567:
565:
561:
554:
548:
547:
543:
489:
488:
484:
474:
472:
459:
458:
454:
449:
441:World Sight Day
433:
424:
400:
368:
349:
337:
324:
295:
214:
186:
158:
142:
129:
101:premature birth
89:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3775:
3773:
3765:
3764:
3759:
3749:
3748:
3742:
3741:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3734:
3732:Onchocerciasis
3729:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3714:
3707:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3699:
3698:
3696:
3695:
3690:
3684:
3682:
3678:
3677:
3675:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3633:
3631:
3625:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3596:
3594:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3586:
3584:Quadrantanopia
3581:
3580:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3558:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3529:Oguchi disease
3521:
3520:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3453:
3444:
3439:
3438:
3437:
3432:
3421:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3384:
3382:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3374:
3372:Duane syndrome
3369:
3364:
3359:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3342:
3337:
3327:
3325:
3319:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3295:
3293:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3267:
3261:
3252:
3234:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3183:
3181:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3149:
3148:
3147:
3140:Optic neuritis
3136:
3130:
3116:
3115:
3110:
3103:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3069:Phthisis bulbi
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2965:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2952:Coats' disease
2949:
2944:
2942:of prematurity
2939:
2934:
2929:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2900:
2895:
2894:
2893:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2876:
2865:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2851:Ectopia lentis
2848:
2843:
2842:
2841:
2836:
2825:
2823:
2817:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2787:
2781:
2779:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2733:
2731:
2729:
2728:
2723:
2717:
2711:
2709:Vascular tunic
2705:
2704:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2592:Photokeratitis
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2563:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2538:
2529:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2506:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2473:
2472:
2465:Conjunctivitis
2462:
2456:
2454:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2399:Dacryocystitis
2396:
2391:
2389:Dacryoadenitis
2385:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2348:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2337:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2267:
2265:
2258:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2235:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2220:
2213:
2206:
2198:
2173:
2166:
2165:
2164:
2160:
2159:
2156:
2155:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2115:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2106:Classification
2099:
2098:External links
2096:
2095:
2094:
2051:
1996:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1960:
1934:
1867:
1838:
1771:
1709:
1695:. 2015-02-07.
1680:
1629:
1611:
1591:
1534:
1477:
1440:(5): 612–614.
1420:
1391:
1332:
1274:
1214:
1174:
1117:
1103:. 2021-03-23.
1088:
1039:
988:
959:
942:
917:
899:
879:
865:. 2022-05-11.
850:
821:
792:
775:
740:
711:(7): 991–999.
691:
642:
612:
594:
574:
541:
502:(2): 109–114.
482:
451:
450:
448:
445:
432:
429:
423:
420:
412:cerebral palsy
399:
396:
380:trabeculectomy
367:
364:
348:
345:
336:
333:
323:
320:
308:retinoblastoma
294:
291:
290:
289:
286:
280:
274:
271:
265:
242:retinoblastoma
238:conjunctivitis
213:
210:
185:
182:
157:
154:
141:
138:
128:
125:
88:
85:
67:
66:
63:
59:
58:
55:
49:
48:
45:
41:
40:
33:
32:
24:
23:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3774:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3754:
3752:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3724:
3721:
3717:
3712:
3708:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3685:
3683:
3679:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3652:Adie syndrome
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3632:
3630:
3626:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3597:
3595:
3591:
3585:
3582:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3564:
3563:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3555:
3551:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3525:
3522:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3507:Achromatopsia
3505:
3504:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3448:
3447:Anisometropia
3445:
3443:
3440:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3332:
3329:
3328:
3326:
3324:
3320:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3288:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3250:Accommodation
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3176:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3164:Optic atrophy
3162:
3158:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3150:
3146:
3143:
3142:
3141:
3138:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3108:
3104:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3064:Keratomycosis
3062:
3060:
3059:Globe rupture
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3024:
3023:
3021:
3017:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2989:Macular edema
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2898:Retinoschisis
2896:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2871:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2785:Choroideremia
2783:
2782:
2780:
2778:
2774:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2762:Iridodialysis
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2706:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2690:Arcus senilis
2688:
2686:
2685:Haab's striae
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2624:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2599:Corneal ulcer
2597:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2577:acanthamoebic
2575:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2556:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2537:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2527:Fibrous tunic
2524:
2520:
2516:
2511:
2507:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
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2404:Xerophthalmia
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2309:Lagophthalmos
2307:
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2020:
2016:
2012:
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1999:
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1994:
1978:
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1970:
1964:
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1948:
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1943:"VISION 2020"
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1732:(4): 336–43.
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1346:Eye and Brain
1343:
1336:
1333:
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776:9780702051012
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669:
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662:(67): 46–47.
661:
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595:9781107002517
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397:
391:
387:
385:
384:trabeculotomy
381:
377:
376:trabeculotomy
373:
365:
363:
361:
357:
356:preterm birth
353:
346:
344:
341:
334:
328:
321:
319:
317:
316:Snellen chart
313:
309:
305:
301:
292:
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151:
150:keratomalacia
147:
139:
137:
135:
126:
124:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
97:birth defects
94:
86:
84:
81:
80:visual acuity
77:
73:
64:
60:
56:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
37:Snellen chart
34:
30:
25:
20:
3692:
3542: /
3538: /
3517:Monochromacy
3449: /
3345:Heterophoria
3333: /
3032: /
3028: /
2932:hypertensive
2905: /
2726:Ciliary body
2641:Keratoglobus
2549:Episcleritis
2427:Enophthalmos
2422:Exophthalmos
2367:Trichomegaly
2362:Distichiasis
2264:Inflammation
2183:
2182:
2181:profile for
2178:
2146:
2118:
2063:
2059:
2010:
2006:
1981:. Retrieved
1972:
1963:
1951:. Retrieved
1937:
1884:
1880:
1870:
1859:. Retrieved
1855:the original
1850:
1841:
1788:
1784:
1774:
1729:
1725:
1701:. Retrieved
1692:
1683:
1646:
1642:
1632:
1621:. Retrieved
1601:
1594:
1551:
1547:
1537:
1494:
1490:
1480:
1437:
1433:
1423:
1412:. Retrieved
1403:
1394:
1349:
1345:
1335:
1324:. Retrieved
1291:
1287:
1277:
1234:
1230:
1207:, retrieved
1190:
1134:
1130:
1120:
1109:. Retrieved
1100:
1091:
1056:
1052:
1042:
1008:(6): 495–9.
1005:
1001:
991:
980:. Retrieved
971:
962:
952:, retrieved
933:
909:. Retrieved
889:
882:
871:. Retrieved
862:
853:
842:. Retrieved
833:
824:
813:. Retrieved
804:
795:
785:, retrieved
758:
708:
704:
694:
659:
655:
645:
633:. Retrieved
624:
615:
604:. Retrieved
584:
577:
566:. Retrieved
550:
544:
499:
495:
485:
473:. Retrieved
465:patient.info
464:
455:
434:
425:
422:Epidemiology
416:hearing loss
401:
369:
350:
338:
296:
259:
223:
198:
187:
179:
168:
162:
159:
143:
130:
90:
71:
70:
3667:Cycloplegia
3610:Photophobia
3605:Hemeralopia
3562:Hemianopsia
3540:Vision loss
3451:Aniseikonia
3442:Astigmatism
3362:Cyclotropia
3340:Hypertropia
3152:Papilledema
3124:Optic nerve
2957:Sickle cell
2937:Purtscher's
2922:Retinopathy
2790:Choroiditis
2631:Keratoconus
2452:Conjunctiva
2329:Xanthelasma
2281:Blepharitis
1851:www.who.int
1693:www.cdc.gov
1294:: 140–144.
1059:(1): 20–3.
834:Mayo Clinic
283:Optic nerve
3751:Categories
3716:Infections
3637:Anisocoria
3600:Asthenopia
3593:subjective
3577:homonymous
3572:bitemporal
3524:Nyctalopia
3512:Dichromacy
3456:Presbyopia
3417:Refraction
3238:Strabismus
3128:Optic disc
2487:Pinguecula
2352:Trichiasis
2148:Patient UK
1983:2022-09-12
1953:12 October
1861:2015-07-17
1703:2015-07-17
1623:2020-11-09
1554:(3): 454.
1414:2022-09-12
1352:: 91–102.
1326:2022-09-12
1209:2022-09-12
1191:StatPearls
1111:2022-08-29
982:2015-07-15
954:2022-09-12
911:2020-11-09
873:2022-09-14
844:2022-09-14
815:2022-09-13
787:2022-09-12
606:2020-11-09
568:2020-10-04
447:References
398:Management
322:Prevention
300:red reflex
273:Lens (11%)
236:, newborn
176:gentamicin
62:Prevention
3757:Blindness
3688:Nystagmus
3662:Mydriasis
3536:Blindness
3482:Amblyopia
3470:Blindness
3430:Hyperopia
3355:Exophoria
3350:Esophoria
3335:Exotropia
3331:Esotropia
2869:Retinitis
2567:Keratitis
2544:Scleritis
2477:Pterygium
2357:Madarosis
2304:Ectropion
2299:Entropion
2276:Chalazion
2082:0950-222X
1911:1932-6203
1815:1932-6203
1748:0974-9233
1568:0090-0036
1511:1469-493X
1454:1468-2079
1368:1179-2744
1308:1096-6374
1251:1469-493X
1151:0022-3166
727:0003-9950
668:0953-6833
518:0974-9233
475:2 January
366:Treatment
312:amblyopia
293:Diagnosis
288:Uvea (2%)
246:cataracts
220:Human Eye
212:Mechanism
134:rhodopsin
113:cataracts
76:blindness
3727:Trachoma
3492:Diplopia
3187:Ischemic
3112:Pathways
3026:Glaucoma
2927:diabetic
2829:Cataract
2767:Synechia
2619:Meesmann
2587:Exposure
2572:herpetic
2470:allergic
2460:Chemosis
2394:Epiphora
2090:17914426
2047:25799540
2007:PLOS ONE
1977:Archived
1947:Archived
1945:. IAPB.
1929:31173584
1881:PLOS ONE
1833:31173584
1785:PLOS ONE
1766:25371641
1697:Archived
1675:19997501
1643:PLOS Med
1617:Archived
1586:21307377
1529:32816311
1472:15834095
1408:Archived
1386:28539804
1320:Archived
1316:15135797
1269:31074495
1203:archived
1199:33620821
1169:23596164
1105:Archived
1083:12488255
1034:18974521
976:Archived
948:archived
905:Archived
867:Archived
838:Archived
809:Archived
781:archived
735:16009843
686:19030129
629:Archived
600:Archived
559:Archived
536:21731320
469:Archived
250:glaucoma
161:include
3567:binasal
3554:Anopsia
3497:Scotoma
3291:palsies
3054:Red eye
3039:Floater
2846:Aphakia
2777:Choroid
2747:Hyphema
2737:Uveitis
2344:Eyelash
2175:Scholia
2038:4370678
2015:Bibcode
1920:6555501
1889:Bibcode
1824:6555501
1793:Bibcode
1757:4219227
1666:2779494
1577:3036681
1520:8094178
1463:1772642
1377:5398747
1260:6509778
1160:4822995
1074:1771452
1025:2612985
677:2580065
527:3119278
403:Braille
393:Braille
234:measles
146:measles
140:Measles
111:(ROP),
3657:Miosis
3435:Myopia
3214:Kjer's
2962:photic
2861:Retina
2614:Fuchs'
2582:fungal
2559:Cornea
2536:Sclera
2319:Ptosis
2256:Eyelid
2244:Adnexa
2177:has a
2129:369.00
2088:
2080:
2045:
2035:
1927:
1917:
1909:
1831:
1821:
1813:
1764:
1754:
1746:
1673:
1663:
1609:
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1527:
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1314:
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1149:
1081:
1071:
1032:
1022:
940:
897:
773:
733:
725:
684:
674:
666:
635:5 June
592:
534:
524:
516:
360:retina
277:Retina
268:Cornea
202:anemia
87:Causes
44:Causes
3681:Other
3629:Pupil
3019:Other
2663:sicca
2515:Globe
2414:Orbit
2179:topic
562:(PDF)
555:(PDF)
414:, or
270:(36%)
2821:Lens
2721:Iris
2271:Stye
2124:9-CM
2086:PMID
2078:ISSN
2043:PMID
1955:2014
1925:PMID
1907:ISSN
1829:PMID
1811:ISSN
1762:PMID
1744:ISSN
1671:PMID
1607:ISBN
1582:PMID
1564:ISSN
1525:PMID
1507:ISSN
1495:2020
1468:PMID
1450:ISSN
1382:PMID
1364:ISSN
1312:PMID
1304:ISSN
1265:PMID
1247:ISSN
1235:2019
1195:PMID
1165:PMID
1147:ISSN
1079:PMID
1030:PMID
938:ISBN
895:ISBN
771:ISBN
731:PMID
723:ISSN
682:PMID
664:ISSN
637:2020
590:ISBN
532:PMID
514:ISSN
477:2018
378:and
285:(5%)
279:(6%)
248:and
167:and
2120:ICD
2068:doi
2060:Eye
2033:PMC
2023:doi
1915:PMC
1897:doi
1819:PMC
1801:doi
1752:PMC
1734:doi
1661:PMC
1651:doi
1572:PMC
1556:doi
1552:101
1515:PMC
1499:doi
1458:PMC
1442:doi
1372:PMC
1354:doi
1296:doi
1255:PMC
1239:doi
1155:PMC
1139:doi
1135:143
1069:PMC
1061:doi
1020:PMC
1010:doi
763:doi
713:doi
709:123
672:PMC
522:PMC
504:doi
437:WHO
306:or
252:).
240:),
178:).
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