448:
809:(refractive lens exchange). Full thickness corneal graft may be a final option for patients with advanced kerataconus although currently there is interest in new techniques that involve collagen crosslinking. As with any surgical procedure complications may arise post-operatively Post-operative monitoring is normally undertaken by the specialist ophthalmic surgical clinic and optometry services. Patients are usually informed pre-operatively about what to expect and where to go if they suspect complications. Any patient reporting pain and redness after surgery should be referred urgently to their ophthalmic surgeon.
842:
40:
599:
311:
668:, where vision may remain permanently blurry. Because young children typically do not complain of blurry vision, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children have yearly vision screening starting at three years old so that unknown refractive errors or other ophthalmic conditions can be found and treated if deemed necessary by healthcare professionals.
624:) to measure objectively in which the person views a distant spot while the clinician changes the lenses held before the person's eye and watches the pattern of reflection of a small light shone on the eye. Following that "objective refraction" the clinician typically shows the person lenses of progressively higher or weaker powers in a process known as
940:
The number of people globally with significant refractive errors has been estimated at one to two billion. Rates vary between regions of the world with about 25% of
Europeans and 80% of Asians affected. Near-sightedness is one of the most prevalent disorders of the eye. Rates among adults are between
510:
2 (RP2; OMIM 312600); Bornholm eye disease (OMIM 310460). Many genes that have been associated with refractive error are clustered into common biological networks involved in connective tissue growth and extracellular matrix organization. Although a large number of chromosomal localisations have been
433:
meaning the eye is in a state in which it can focus parallel rays of light (light from distant objects) on the retina, without using any accommodation. A distant object, in this case, is defined as an object located beyond 6 meters, or 20 feet, from the eye, since the light from those objects arrives
733:
Alternatively, many people choose to wear contact lenses. One style is hard contact lenses, which can distort the shape of the cornea to a desired shape. Another style, soft contact lenses, are made of silicone or hydrogel. Depending on the duration they are designed for, they may be worn daily or
700:
These are the most effective ways of correcting the refractive error. However, the availability and affordability of eyeglasses can present a difficulty for people in many low income settings of the world. Glasses also pose a challenge to children to whom they are prescribed to, due to children's
524:
has also been found to be a predictor of myopia in children. It has been reported that children with myopia spent significantly more time reading than non-myopic children who spent more time playing outdoors. Additionally, focusing on near objects for long periods of time - such as when reading,
278:
The number of people globally with refractive errors has been estimated at one to two billion. Rates vary between regions of the world with about 25% of
Europeans and 80% of Asians affected. Near-sightedness is the most common disorder. Rates among adults are between 15 and 49% while rates among
679:
How refractive errors are treated or managed depends upon the amount and severity of the condition. Those who possess mild amounts of refractive error may elect to leave the condition uncorrected, particularly if the person is asymptomatic. For those who are symptomatic,
756:
Caused in response to the allergen present in the material from which the contact lens is made from. There is often discomfort in the eye after wearing and vision may be affected. Choosing the right lens material and changing it regularly might prevent conjunctivitis.
704:
As mentioned earlier refractive errors are because of the improper focusing of the light in the retina. Eyeglasses work as an added lens of the eye serving to bend the light to bring it to focus on the retina. Depending on the eyeglasses, they serve many functions.
339:
or nearsightedness. People with myopia typically have blurry vision when viewing distant objects because the eye is refracting more than necessary. Myopia can be corrected with a concave lens, which causes the divergence of light rays before they reach the
4628:
1450:
Lawrenson, John G; Shah, Rakhee; Huntjens, Byki; Downie, Laura E; Virgili, Gianni; Dhakal, Rohit; Verkicharla, Pavan K; Li, Dongfeng; Mavi, Sonia; Kernohan, Ashleigh; Li, Tianjing; Walline, Jeffrey J (2023-02-16). Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group (ed.).
945:. Presbyopia affects most people over the age of 35, and nearly 100% of people by the ages of 55–65. Uncorrected refractive error is responsible for visual impairment and disability for many people worldwide. It is one of the most common causes of
804:
Laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) and photo-refractive keratectomy (PRK) are popular procedures; while use of laser epithelial keratomileusis (LASEK) is increasing. Other surgical treatments for severe myopia include insertion of implants after
936:
Refractive Errors are the first common cause of Visual
Impairment and second most common cause of visual loss . The assessment of Refractive Error is now done in DALY (Disability Adjusted Life Years) which showed an 8% increase from 1990 to 2019.
825:
Strategies being studied to slow worsening include adjusting working conditions, increasing the time children spend outdoors, and special types of contact lenses. In children special contact lenses appear to slow worsening of nearsightedness.
356:
or farsightedness. People with hyperopia have blurry vision when viewing near objects because the eye is unable to focus the light sufficiently. This can be corrected with convex lenses, which cause light rays to converge prior to hitting the
3009:
2990:
941:
15 and 49% while rates among children are between 1.2 and 42%. Far-sightedness more commonly affects young children, whose eyes have yet to grow to their full length, and the elderly, who have lost the ability to compensate with their
1351:"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013"
519:
In studies of the genetic predisposition of refractive error, there is a correlation between environmental factors and the risk of developing myopia. Myopia has been observed in individuals with visually intensive occupations.
1961:
Dutheil, Frédéric; Oueslati, Tharwa; Delamarre, Louis; Castanon, Joris; Maurin, Caroline; Chiambaretta, Frédéric; Baker, Julien S.; Ugbolue, Ukadike C.; Zak, Marek; Lakbar, Ines; Pereira, Bruno; Navel, Valentin (2023-01-03).
932:
It is estimated that at least 2 billion people in the world have refractive errors. The number of people globally with refractive errors that have not been corrected was estimated at 660 million (10 per 100 people) in 2013.
373:
is when the refractive power of the eye is not uniform across the surface of the cornea because of asymmetry. In other words, the eye focuses light more strongly in one direction than another, leading to distortion of the
789:
Various viral, bacterial, and fungal infection may be seen in the eye post-contact-lens wear, if proper lens hygiene is not maintained. Acanthamoeba are the most common infections in the people using contact lenses.
574:
This means that the refractive power of the eye matches what is needed to focus parallel rays of light onto the retina. A distant object is defined as an object located beyond 6 meters (20 feet) from the eye.
318:
Refractive error - sometimes called "ametropia" - is when the refractive power of an eye does not match the length of the eye, so the image is focused away from the central retina, instead of directly on it.
407:
This number denotes the strength of the lens needed to correct your vision. A "-" indicates nearsightedness while a "+" indicates farsightedness. Higher numbers indicate more power in either direction.
365:: When the flexibility of the lens declines, typically due to age. The individual would experience difficulty in near vision, often relieved by reading glasses, bifocal, or progressive lenses.
2080:
Owji, N; Khalili, MR; Bazrafkan, H; Heydari, M (September 2022). "Long-term outcome of refractive errors in patients with congenital blepharoptosis who have undergone ptosis surgery".
459:
There is evidence to suggest genetic predilection for refractive error. Individuals that have parents with certain refractive errors are more likely to have similar refractive errors.
244:
Near-sightedness is due to the length of the eyeball being too long, far-sightedness the eyeball too short, astigmatism, the cornea being the wrong shape, and presbyopia aging of the
1500:
Walline, Jeffrey J; Lindsley, Kristina B; Vedula, S Swaroop; Cotter, Susan A; Mutti, Donald O; Ng, Sueko M; Twelker, J. Daniel (2020-01-13). Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group (ed.).
47:
A correctly-focused eye (top), and two showing refractive error: in the middle image, the light is focused too far forward; in the bottom image, the focal point is behind the eye
1349:
Vos, Theo; Barber, Ryan M; Bell, Brad; Bertozzi-Villa, Amelia; Biryukov, Stan; Bolliger, Ian; et al. (Global Burden of
Disease Study 2013 Collaborators) (22 August 2015).
2891:
676:
The management of refractive error is done post-diagnosis of the condition by either optometrists, ophthalmologists, refractionists, or ophthalmic medical practitioners.
4073:
773:
Caused by decreased oxygen delivery to the tissue compressed by the lens. Usually resolved after the removal of the lenses. Discomfort upon lens removal may be seen.
724:
The multifocal lenses can correct defective vision in multiple focus, for example: near-vision as well as far-vision. This are particularly beneficial for presbyobia.
817:
Atropine has believed to slow the progression of near-sightedness and is administered in combination with multifocal lenses. These, however, need further research.
796:
If redness, itching, and difficulty in vision develops, the use of the lenses should be stopped immediately and the consultation of ophthalmologists may be sought.
606:
Blurry vision may result from any number of conditions not necessarily related to refractive errors. The diagnosis of a refractive error is usually confirmed by an
229:, far-sightedness and presbyopia result in close objects being blurry, and astigmatism causes objects to appear stretched out or blurry. Other symptoms may include
2648:
Li, X; Friedman, IB; Medow, NB; Zhang, C (1 May 2017). "Update on
Orthokeratology in Managing Progressive Myopia in Children: Efficacy, Mechanisms, and Concerns".
3470:
282:
The number of people with refractive errors that have not been corrected was estimated at 660 million (10 per 100 people) in 2013. Of these 9.5 million were
2812:
4142:
4068:
578:
When an object is located close to the eye, the rays of light from this object no longer approach the eye parallel to each other. Consequently, the eye must
2475:
466:) database has listed 261 genetic disorders in which myopia is one of the symptoms. Myopia may be present in heritable connective tissue disorders such as:
279:
children are between 1.2 and 42%. Far-sightedness more commonly affects young children and the elderly. Presbyopia affects most people over the age of 35.
2726:
Kandel H, Khadka J, Goggin M, Pesudovs K (2017). "Patient-reported outcomes for assessment of quality of life in refractive error: a systematic review".
2398:"Two strategies for correcting refractive errors in school students in Tanzania: randomised comparison, with implications for screening programmes"
3082:
712:
These are general over-the-counter glasses which can be worn for easier reading, especially for defective vision due to aging called presbyopia.
4090:
4085:
3910:
248:
such that it cannot change shape sufficiently. Some refractive errors occur more often among those whose parents are affected. Diagnosis is by
499:
3950:
642:
4063:
2598:
Lee, Jong-Jer; Fang, Po-Chiung; Yang, I-Hui; Chen, Chih-Hsin; Lin, Pei-Wen; Lin, Sue-Ann; Kuo, Hsi-Kung; Wu, Pei-Chang (February 2006).
2161:
1328:
4058:
3945:
3512:
3673:
1670:
1322:
1140:
447:
3813:
2499:
986:
3778:
2898:
4353:
3871:
3783:
2451:
1847:"Genome-wide meta-analyses of multiancestry cohorts identify multiple new susceptibility loci for refractive error and myopia"
3773:
3502:
2924:"Laser-assisted subepithelial keratectomy (LASEK) versus laser-assisted in-situ keratomileusis (LASIK) for correcting myopia"
587:
479:
3866:
3757:
3623:
2769:
Kandel H, Khadka J, Lundström M, Goggin M, Pesudovs K (2017). "Questionnaires for measuring refractive surgery outcomes".
845:
4264:
3955:
3940:
2834:
Hashemi, Hassan; Fotouhi, Akbar; Yekta, Abbasali; Pakzad, Reza; Ostadimoghaddam, Hadi; Khabazkhoob, Mehdi (2017-09-27).
2804:
2182:
3152:
3110:
3075:
1634:
1090:
969:
The yearly cost of correcting refractive errors is estimated at 3.9 to 7.2 billion dollars in the United States.
558:
378:
Children are typically born hyperopic and shift toward emmetropia or myopia as their eyes lengthen through childhood.
641:
is an instrument that is sometimes used in place of retinoscopy to objectively estimate a person's refractive error.
841:
4638:
4080:
3876:
3850:
3808:
3803:
3668:
3541:
3529:
3485:
4147:
3546:
4259:
4053:
3900:
3745:
3492:
634:
agents are frequently used to more accurately determine the amount of refractive error, particularly in children
554:
3798:
3769:
3393:
3358:
3032:
2549:
Shih, Yung-Feng; Hsiao, C. Kate; Chen, Chien-Jen; Chang, Ching-Wei; Hung, Por T.; Lin, Luke L.-K. (June 2001).
541:
In order to see a clear image, the eye must focus rays of light on to the light-sensing part of the eye - the
4269:
4023:
3823:
3343:
3336:
92:
1896:"The Association between Near Work Activities and Myopia in Children—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
737:
There are a number of complication associated with contact lenses. Typically the ones that are used daily.
4538:
4508:
4443:
4438:
4165:
3443:
3308:
3068:
646:
2551:"An intervention trial on efficacy of atropine and multi-focal glasses in controlling myopic progression"
4481:
4157:
1259:"Hyperopia: a meta-analysis of prevalence and a review of associated factors among school-aged children"
806:
626:
607:
2836:"Global and regional estimates of prevalence of refractive errors: Systematic review and meta-analysis"
4254:
3840:
3835:
3793:
3608:
3524:
1907:
958:
954:
526:
507:
452:
299:
295:
1453:"Interventions for myopia control in children: a living systematic review and network meta-analysis"
1211:
Pan, CW; Ramamurthy, D; Saw, SM (January 2012). "Worldwide prevalence and risk factors for myopia".
4633:
4559:
4433:
4233:
4116:
4108:
3896:
3860:
3845:
3700:
3480:
3260:
3013:
942:
638:
2211:
Schiefer, Ulrich; Kraus, Christina; Baumbach, Peter; UngewiĂź, Judith; Michels, Ralf (2016-10-14).
564:
When an eye focuses light correctly on to the retina when viewing distant objects, this is called
4170:
3920:
3828:
3752:
3705:
3517:
3453:
3438:
3298:
3247:
2751:
2708:
2433:
2378:
2320:
2272:"Refractive Errors in Children - American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus"
2105:
1716:
1432:
1236:
689:
487:
272:
267:. Eyeglasses are the easiest and safest method of correction. Contact lenses can provide a wider
171:
68:
718:
They can correct only one form of defective vision, either far-sightedness or near-sightedness.
419:
This number notes the direction of the astigmatism and is written in degrees between 1 and 180.
39:
4513:
4410:
4175:
4035:
3818:
3475:
3381:
3043:
2953:
2873:
2855:
2786:
2743:
2700:
2665:
2627:
2619:
2580:
2572:
2425:
2417:
2370:
2362:
2312:
2250:
2232:
2097:
2062:
2044:
2003:
1985:
1943:
1925:
1876:
1824:
1768:
1708:
1666:
1660:
1558:
1531:
1482:
1424:
1380:
1318:
1290:
1228:
1190:
1136:
1041:
475:
467:
148:
52:
1312:
314:
Top: farsighted corrected using convex lens Bottom: nearsighted corrected using concave lens.
4301:
4137:
4112:
4045:
4011:
3930:
3561:
3551:
3448:
3303:
3190:
3180:
2943:
2935:
2863:
2847:
2778:
2735:
2692:
2657:
2611:
2562:
2409:
2354:
2304:
2240:
2224:
2153:
2089:
2052:
2034:
1993:
1975:
1933:
1915:
1866:
1858:
1814:
1806:
1758:
1750:
1700:
1521:
1513:
1472:
1464:
1414:
1370:
1362:
1280:
1270:
1220:
1180:
1172:
1031:
653:
483:
386:
327:
2892:"Global Disease Burden of Uncorrected Refractive Error Among Adolescents From 1990 to 2019"
2271:
2183:"NETRA: Inverse Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensor using High Resolution Mobile Phone Display"
664:
When refractive errors in children are not treated, the child may be at risk of developing
652:
Vision defects caused by refractive error can be distinguished from other problems using a
4623:
4368:
4332:
4296:
3915:
3740:
3727:
3661:
3618:
3536:
3348:
3280:
3200:
3185:
1894:
Huang, Hsiu-Mei; Chang, Dolly Shuo-Teh; Wu, Pei-Chang (2015-10-20). Jhanji, Vishal (ed.).
830:
611:
530:
471:
400:
Refractive errors are typically measured using three numbers: sphere, cylinder, and axis.
344:
331:
268:
249:
245:
153:
1911:
335:: When the refractive power is too strong for the length of the eyeball, this is called
4598:
4450:
4395:
4238:
4006:
3935:
3717:
3687:
3633:
3587:
3458:
3331:
3265:
3255:
2948:
2923:
2868:
2835:
2245:
2212:
2057:
2022:
1998:
1963:
1938:
1895:
1871:
1846:
1819:
1794:
1763:
1738:
1526:
1501:
1477:
1452:
1375:
1350:
1285:
1258:
1185:
1160:
1036:
1019:
993:
685:
598:
529:
and higher levels of education have also been reported to be a risk factor for myopia.
348:
260:
226:
191:
167:
3026:
3022:
3018:
2567:
2550:
2128:
1704:
1366:
781:
New blood vessels may form in the iris region and the limbus. This may impair vision.
602:
A doctor uses a trial frame and trial lenses to measure the person's refractive error.
4617:
4518:
4373:
4313:
4030:
3978:
3925:
3855:
3764:
3651:
3628:
3556:
3465:
3270:
3175:
2396:
Wedner, S.; Masanja, H.; Bowman, R.; Todd, J.; Bowman, R.; Gilbert, C. (2008-01-01).
2324:
2109:
1862:
1810:
1754:
1720:
1224:
394:
382:
230:
77:
73:
57:
2755:
2712:
1436:
1240:
4383:
4211:
3592:
3507:
3415:
3293:
3288:
3233:
3228:
2939:
2437:
2382:
1517:
1468:
434:
as essentially parallel rays when considering the limitations of human perception.
2524:
2093:
322:
Types of refractive error include myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, and astigmatism.
3037:
2782:
2739:
2696:
2661:
1920:
1582:"Anisometropia - American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus"
1419:
1402:
423:
An eye that has no refractive error when viewing distant objects is said to have
4582:
4533:
4476:
4471:
4428:
4406:
4317:
4308:
4228:
4206:
4018:
3990:
3788:
3656:
3497:
3318:
3195:
3147:
3094:
1257:
Castagno, VD; Fassa, AG; Carret, ML; Vilela, MA; Meucci, RD (23 December 2014).
946:
631:
620:
615:
390:
369:
287:
218:
119:
16:
Problem with focusing light accurately on the retina due to the shape of the eye
3048:
2851:
1550:
352:: When the refractive power is too weak for the length of the eyeball, one has
310:
4503:
4466:
4390:
4378:
4322:
4283:
4189:
4125:
4104:
3994:
3353:
3218:
3003:
2999:
2228:
1317:(5 ed.). St. Louis (Miss.): Butterworth Heinemann, Elsevier. p. 70.
566:
546:
511:
associated with myopia (MYP1-MYP17), few specific genes have been identified.
495:
491:
425:
361:
238:
222:
123:
85:
4629:
Disorders of ocular muscles, binocular movement, accommodation and refraction
2859:
2623:
2576:
2421:
2366:
2316:
2308:
2236:
2048:
1989:
1929:
1275:
478:(type 1, OMIM 108300; type 2, OMIM 604841). Myopia has also been reported in
4554:
4528:
4402:
4348:
4336:
4221:
4216:
4201:
4197:
3735:
3433:
3410:
3223:
3170:
3165:
3142:
3060:
2599:
2413:
2342:
2341:
Cochrane, Gillian M.; Toit, Rènée du; Mesurier, Richard T. Le (2010-04-12).
2190:
665:
353:
283:
234:
214:
115:
101:
97:
81:
61:
2957:
2877:
2790:
2747:
2704:
2669:
2631:
2615:
2584:
2429:
2374:
2296:
2254:
2101:
2066:
2007:
1980:
1947:
1880:
1828:
1772:
1712:
1581:
1562:
1535:
1486:
1428:
1384:
1294:
1232:
1194:
1098:
1045:
4593:
4358:
3892:
3695:
3326:
2039:
1795:"Nature and Nurture: the complex genetics of myopia and refractive error"
1739:"Nature and Nurture: the complex genetics of myopia and refractive error"
1176:
950:
291:
256:
163:
614:
using a large number of lenses of different optical powers, and often a
525:
looking at close screens, or writing - has been associated with myopia.
4420:
4363:
3905:
3712:
3643:
3613:
3603:
3210:
681:
521:
264:
133:
2982:
2397:
2358:
1606:
765:
Caused by a foreign body, dust, sand, or grit trapped under the lens.
4523:
3425:
3402:
3122:
2994:
583:
550:
542:
336:
210:
206:
198:
137:
111:
286:
due to the refractive error. It is one of the most common causes of
2154:"Frequently Asked Questions: How do you measure refractive errors?"
4495:
840:
656:, which will improve vision only in the case of refractive error.
597:
582:
its refractive power to bring those rays of light together on the
545:, which is located in the back of the eye. This focusing - called
446:
309:
194:
2187:
Vitor F. Pamplona, Ankit Mohan, Manuel M. Oliveira, Ramesh Raskar
1968:
International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
3575:
3137:
1403:"The age-specific prevalence of myopia in Asia: a meta-analysis"
503:
463:
141:
4580:
3976:
3379:
3108:
3064:
2600:"Prevention of Myopia Progression with 0.05% Atropine Solution"
1401:
Pan, CW; Dirani, M; Cheng, CY; Wong, TY; Saw, SM (March 2015).
734:
may be worn for an extended period of time, such as for weeks.
202:
1964:"Myopia and Near Work: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
2476:"Eyeglasses for Refractive Errors | National Eye Institute"
701:
tendency to not wear them as consistently as recommended.
1788:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1502:"Interventions to slow progression of myopia in children"
2683:
Walline, JJ (January 2016). "Myopia
Control: A Review".
1732:
1730:
271:; however they are associated with a risk of infection.
590:, and is accomplished by the eye thickening the lens.
413:
This number denotes the amount of astigmatism, if any.
1691:
Morgan, Ian; Kyoko Ohno-Matsui (May 2012). "Myopia".
225:. Near-sightedness results in far away objects being
2972:
848:
per 100,000 people due to refractive errors in 2004.
4547:
4494:
4459:
4419:
4331:
4282:
4247:
4188:
4156:
4124:
4103:
4044:
3989:
3885:
3726:
3686:
3642:
3583:
3574:
3424:
3401:
3392:
3317:
3279:
3246:
3209:
3130:
3121:
2976:
2500:"10 Cataract Surgery Side Effects, and How to Cope"
2452:"Pediatric Ophthalmology, Optometry and Orthoptics"
1686:
1684:
1682:
177:
159:
147:
129:
107:
91:
67:
51:
29:
24:
833:impact of refractive errors and their correction.
4069:arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)
2650:Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus
2336:
2334:
645:and its inverse can also be used to characterize
557:, which are located at the front of the eye, the
209:. The most common types of refractive error are
2604:Journal of Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics
1557:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
2129:"Eye Anatomy: Parts of the Eye and How We See"
829:A number of questionnaires exist to determine
649:in a higher level of resolution and accuracy.
3076:
275:permanently changes the shape of the cornea.
8:
4143:Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia
1659:Bope, Edward T.; Kellerman, Rick D. (2015).
1131:Denniston, Alastair; Murray, Philip (2018).
3471:Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy
4577:
4341:
4130:
4121:
3999:
3986:
3973:
3580:
3398:
3389:
3376:
3127:
3118:
3105:
3083:
3069:
3061:
2973:
2805:"WHO Disease and injury country estimates"
1396:
1394:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1075:
38:
21:
2947:
2867:
2643:
2641:
2566:
2244:
2056:
2038:
1997:
1979:
1937:
1919:
1870:
1818:
1762:
1665:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 354.
1551:"Childhood Myopia and Ocular Development"
1525:
1476:
1418:
1374:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1306:
1304:
1284:
1274:
1252:
1250:
1206:
1204:
1184:
1154:
1152:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1035:
1024:Bulletin of the World Health Organization
462:The Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (
1635:"How to Read an Eyeglasses Prescription"
1549:Saluja, Gunjan; Kaur, Kirandeep (2023),
739:
2021:Foster, P J; Jiang, Y (February 2014).
1506:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1457:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1135:(4 ed.). OUP Oxford. p. 926.
978:
692:, or a combination are typically used.
2266:
2264:
1159:Foster, PJ; Jiang, Y (February 2014).
753:Conjunctivitis (giant papillary form)
2922:Kuryan J, Cheema A, Chuck RS (2017).
2123:
2121:
2119:
2082:Clinical & Experimental Optometry
1840:
1838:
1793:Wojcienchowski, Robert (April 2011).
1629:
1627:
1213:Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics
500:congenital stationary night blindness
498:, MYP1) such as: autosomal recessive
255:Refractive errors are corrected with
7:
3951:Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy
1737:Wojciechowski, Robert (April 2011).
987:"Care of the Patient with Amblyopia"
4074:non-arteritic anterior (NAION)
3911:Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
745:Complications of contact lens wear
533:can also induce refractive errors.
3946:Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis
2217:Deutsches Ă„rzteblatt International
2158:The New York Eye And Ear Infirmary
14:
3674:Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy
2568:10.1034/j.1600-0420.2001.790304.x
2555:Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica
2529:American Academy of Ophthalmology
2504:American Academy of Ophthalmology
2343:"Management of refractive errors"
2133:American Academy of Ophthalmology
1639:American Academy of Ophthalmology
715:Single vision prescription lenses
385:, when the two eyes have unequal
3779:Central retinal artery occlusion
2840:Journal of Current Ophthalmology
2402:British Journal of Ophthalmology
1863:10.1111/j.1399-0004.2010.01592.x
1811:10.1111/j.1399-0004.2010.01592.x
1755:10.1111/j.1399-0004.2010.01592.x
1331:from the original on 2016-08-15.
1225:10.1111/j.1475-1313.2011.00884.x
1133:Oxford Handbook of Ophthalmology
3784:Branch retinal artery occlusion
3513:Terrien's marginal degeneration
2815:from the original on 2009-11-11
2164:from the original on 2006-09-01
1091:"Facts About Refractive Errors"
1018:Dandona, R; Dandona, L (2001).
643:Shack–Hartmann wavefront sensor
397:power between the eyes differ.
3814:Bietti's crystalline dystrophy
3774:Central retinal vein occlusion
3503:Pellucid marginal degeneration
2940:10.1002/14651858.CD011080.pub2
1845:Barnes, Katherine (Feb 2013).
1518:10.1002/14651858.CD004916.pub4
1469:10.1002/14651858.CD014758.pub2
1097:. October 2010. Archived from
1:
3867:Vitelliform macular dystrophy
3758:Posterior vitreous detachment
3624:Persistent pupillary membrane
2771:Journal of Refractive Surgery
2094:10.1080/08164622.2021.1973344
1705:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60272-4
1367:10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60692-4
549:- is performed mainly by the
4354:Leber's congenital amaurosis
4265:Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
3956:Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease
3941:Persistent fetal vasculature
3872:Leber's congenital amaurosis
2783:10.3928/1081597X-20170310-01
2740:10.1097/OPX.0000000000001143
2728:Optometry and Vision Science
2697:10.1097/ICL.0000000000000207
2662:10.3928/01913913-20170106-01
1921:10.1371/journal.pone.0140419
1420:10.1097/opx.0000000000000516
1407:Optometry and Vision Science
1311:Grosvenor, Theodore (2007).
1020:"Refractive error blindness"
3153:Meibomian gland dysfunction
2525:"LASIK — Laser Eye Surgery"
1662:Conn's Current Therapy 2016
4655:
3877:Birdshot chorioretinopathy
3851:Central serous retinopathy
3669:Focal choroidal excavation
3542:Corneal neovascularization
3359:Subconjunctival hemorrhage
2928:Cochrane Database Syst Rev
2852:10.1016/j.joco.2017.08.009
2295:Adam, Henry (2020-04-02).
381:Other terminology include
4589:
4576:
4344:
4260:Convergence insufficiency
4133:
4002:
3985:
3972:
3901:Primary juvenile glaucoma
3746:Cytomegalovirus retinitis
3388:
3375:
3161:
3117:
3104:
3095:Diseases of the human eye
2809:World Health Organization
2229:10.3238/arztebl.2016.0693
46:
37:
3770:Ocular ischemic syndrome
2309:10.1542/aap.ppcqr.396022
2023:"Epidemiology of myopia"
1276:10.1186/1471-2415-14-163
1161:"Epidemiology of myopia"
201:due to the shape of the
4270:One and a half syndrome
4024:Foster Kennedy syndrome
2414:10.1136/bjo.2007.119198
1607:"Aniseikonia - EyeWiki"
482:caused by mutations in
4509:Argyll Robertson pupil
3309:Periorbital cellulitis
2685:Eye & Contact Lens
2616:10.1089/jop.2006.22.41
1981:10.3390/ijerph20010875
1314:Primary care optometry
929:
618:(a procedure entitled
603:
456:
451:Fundus of person with
315:
136:length, problems with
4482:Scintillating scotoma
4148:Kearns–Sayre syndrome
4091:Toxic and nutritional
4064:posterior (PION)
3547:Kayser–Fleischer ring
2301:Pediatric Care Online
844:
807:clear lens extraction
627:subjective refraction
608:eye care professional
601:
450:
313:
4255:Conjugate gaze palsy
4126:Paralytic strabismus
4059:anterior (AION)
3841:Retinitis pigmentosa
3836:Macular degeneration
3609:Intermediate uveitis
3525:Keratoconjunctivitis
2040:10.1038/eye.2013.280
1177:10.1038/eye.2013.280
959:vitamin A deficiency
955:macular degeneration
943:accommodation system
527:Socioeconomic status
508:retinitis pigmentosa
486:involved in retinal
453:retinitis pigmentosa
300:vitamin A deficiency
296:macular degeneration
140:shape, aging of the
4560:Childhood blindness
4539:Parinaud's syndrome
4109:Extraocular muscles
3897:Ocular hypertension
3861:Epiretinal membrane
3846:Retinal haemorrhage
3701:Congenital cataract
2456:Asian Eye Institute
2213:"Refractive errors"
1912:2015PLoSO..1040419H
1699:(9827): 1739–1748.
926: More than 800
860: Less than 100
778:Neovascularization
741:
639:automated refractor
474:(OMIM 154700); and
4086:Leber's hereditary
3753:Retinal detachment
3706:Childhood cataract
3518:Post-LASIK ectasia
3299:Orbital cellulitis
3248:Lacrimal apparatus
2297:"Vision Screening"
930:
740:
690:refractive surgery
604:
480:X-linked disorders
457:
393:which is when the
316:
273:Refractive surgery
197:accurately on the
190:is a problem with
172:refractive surgery
4639:Corrective lenses
4611:
4610:
4607:
4606:
4572:
4571:
4568:
4567:
4514:Marcus Gunn pupil
4490:
4489:
4411:Visual impairment
4278:
4277:
4184:
4183:
4171:Fourth-nerve (IV)
4099:
4098:
4036:Optic disc drusen
3968:
3967:
3964:
3963:
3682:
3681:
3570:
3569:
3476:Corneal dystrophy
3371:
3370:
3367:
3366:
3242:
3241:
3058:
3057:
2734:(12): 1102–1119.
2359:10.1136/bmj.c1711
1851:Clinical Genetics
1799:Clinical Genetics
1361:(9995): 743–800.
1263:BMC Ophthalmology
999:on 19 August 2016
813:Medical treatment
794:
793:
762:Corneal abrasion
721:Multifocal lenses
586:. This is called
537:Normal Refraction
476:Stickler syndrome
468:Knobloch syndrome
185:
184:
181:~1.5 billion
149:Diagnostic method
19:Medical condition
4646:
4578:
4342:
4333:Vision disorders
4292:Refractive error
4234:Brown's syndrome
4190:Other strabismus
4176:Sixth-nerve (VI)
4166:Oculomotor (III)
4138:Ophthalmoparesis
4131:
4122:
4113:Binocular vision
4046:Optic neuropathy
4012:optic papillitis
4000:
3987:
3974:
3863:(Macular pucker)
3581:
3562:Band keratopathy
3399:
3390:
3377:
3304:Orbital lymphoma
3191:Blepharophimosis
3181:Blepharochalasis
3128:
3119:
3106:
3085:
3078:
3071:
3062:
2974:
2962:
2961:
2951:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2909:
2903:
2897:. Archived from
2896:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2871:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2645:
2636:
2635:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2570:
2546:
2540:
2539:
2537:
2536:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2511:
2496:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2462:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2338:
2329:
2328:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2282:
2268:
2259:
2258:
2248:
2208:
2202:
2201:
2199:
2198:
2189:. Archived from
2179:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2169:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2140:
2125:
2114:
2113:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2060:
2042:
2018:
2012:
2011:
2001:
1983:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1941:
1923:
1906:(10): e0140419.
1891:
1885:
1884:
1874:
1842:
1833:
1832:
1822:
1790:
1777:
1776:
1766:
1734:
1725:
1724:
1688:
1677:
1676:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1646:
1631:
1622:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1529:
1497:
1491:
1490:
1480:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1422:
1398:
1389:
1388:
1378:
1346:
1333:
1332:
1308:
1299:
1298:
1288:
1278:
1254:
1245:
1244:
1208:
1199:
1198:
1188:
1156:
1147:
1146:
1128:
1111:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1087:
1050:
1049:
1039:
1015:
1009:
1008:
1006:
1004:
998:
992:. Archived from
991:
983:
925:
919:
913:
907:
901:
895:
889:
883:
877:
871:
865:
859:
853:
742:
654:pinhole occluder
559:anterior segment
506:; OMIM 310500);
387:refractive power
211:near-sightedness
188:Refractive error
112:Near-sightedness
42:
33:Refraction error
25:Refractive error
22:
4654:
4653:
4649:
4648:
4647:
4645:
4644:
4643:
4614:
4613:
4612:
4603:
4585:
4564:
4543:
4486:
4455:
4415:
4369:Color blindness
4335:
4327:
4274:
4248:Other binocular
4243:
4180:
4152:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4095:
4040:
3993:
3981:
3960:
3916:Ocular hypotony
3881:
3741:Chorioretinitis
3722:
3678:
3662:Chorioretinitis
3638:
3619:Rubeosis iridis
3597:
3566:
3537:Corneal opacity
3493:Corneal ectasia
3420:
3384:
3363:
3349:Pseudopterygium
3313:
3275:
3238:
3205:
3201:Ankyloblepharon
3157:
3113:
3100:
3099:
3089:
3059:
3054:
3053:
2985:
2971:
2966:
2965:
2934:(2): CD011080.
2921:
2920:
2916:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2894:
2890:
2889:
2885:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2818:
2816:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2647:
2646:
2639:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2534:
2532:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2509:
2507:
2498:
2497:
2493:
2484:
2482:
2480:www.nei.nih.gov
2474:
2473:
2469:
2460:
2458:
2450:
2449:
2445:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2340:
2339:
2332:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2280:
2278:
2270:
2269:
2262:
2223:(41): 693–702.
2210:
2209:
2205:
2196:
2194:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2167:
2165:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2138:
2136:
2127:
2126:
2117:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2020:
2019:
2015:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1893:
1892:
1888:
1844:
1843:
1836:
1792:
1791:
1780:
1736:
1735:
1728:
1690:
1689:
1680:
1673:
1658:
1657:
1653:
1644:
1642:
1633:
1632:
1625:
1615:
1613:
1611:eyewiki.aao.org
1605:
1604:
1600:
1590:
1588:
1580:
1579:
1575:
1567:
1565:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1512:(9): CD004916.
1499:
1498:
1494:
1463:(2): CD014758.
1449:
1448:
1444:
1400:
1399:
1392:
1348:
1347:
1336:
1325:
1310:
1309:
1302:
1256:
1255:
1248:
1210:
1209:
1202:
1158:
1157:
1150:
1143:
1130:
1129:
1114:
1104:
1102:
1101:on 28 July 2016
1089:
1088:
1053:
1017:
1016:
1012:
1002:
1000:
996:
989:
985:
984:
980:
975:
967:
928:
927:
923:
921:
917:
915:
911:
909:
905:
903:
899:
897:
893:
891:
887:
885:
881:
879:
875:
873:
869:
867:
863:
861:
857:
855:
851:
839:
831:quality of life
823:
815:
802:
731:
709:Reading glasses
698:
674:
662:
647:eye aberrations
612:eye examination
596:
539:
517:
472:Marfan syndrome
470:(OMIM 267750);
445:
440:
332:Nearsightedness
308:
269:field of vision
250:eye examination
246:lens of the eye
215:far-sightedness
154:Eye examination
116:far-sightedness
20:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4652:
4650:
4642:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4616:
4615:
4609:
4608:
4605:
4604:
4602:
4601:
4599:Onchocerciasis
4596:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4581:
4574:
4573:
4570:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4562:
4557:
4551:
4549:
4545:
4544:
4542:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4500:
4498:
4492:
4491:
4488:
4487:
4485:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4463:
4461:
4457:
4456:
4454:
4453:
4451:Quadrantanopia
4448:
4447:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4425:
4423:
4417:
4416:
4414:
4413:
4400:
4399:
4398:
4396:Oguchi disease
4388:
4387:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4345:
4339:
4329:
4328:
4326:
4325:
4320:
4311:
4306:
4305:
4304:
4299:
4288:
4286:
4280:
4279:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4251:
4249:
4245:
4244:
4242:
4241:
4239:Duane syndrome
4236:
4231:
4226:
4225:
4224:
4219:
4209:
4204:
4194:
4192:
4186:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4179:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4162:
4160:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4134:
4128:
4119:
4101:
4100:
4097:
4096:
4094:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4077:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4050:
4048:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4027:
4026:
4016:
4015:
4014:
4007:Optic neuritis
4003:
3997:
3983:
3982:
3977:
3970:
3969:
3966:
3965:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3936:Phthisis bulbi
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3889:
3887:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3832:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3819:Coats' disease
3816:
3811:
3809:of prematurity
3806:
3801:
3796:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3767:
3762:
3761:
3760:
3750:
3749:
3748:
3743:
3732:
3730:
3724:
3723:
3721:
3720:
3718:Ectopia lentis
3715:
3710:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3692:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3680:
3679:
3677:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3654:
3648:
3646:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3595:
3590:
3584:
3578:
3576:Vascular tunic
3572:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3490:
3489:
3488:
3483:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3462:
3461:
3459:Photokeratitis
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3430:
3428:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3418:
3413:
3407:
3405:
3396:
3386:
3385:
3380:
3373:
3372:
3369:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3340:
3339:
3332:Conjunctivitis
3329:
3323:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3285:
3283:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3273:
3268:
3266:Dacryocystitis
3263:
3258:
3256:Dacryoadenitis
3252:
3250:
3244:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3215:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3134:
3132:
3125:
3115:
3114:
3109:
3102:
3101:
3098:
3097:
3091:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3080:
3073:
3065:
3056:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3040:
3029:
3006:
2986:
2981:
2980:
2978:
2977:Classification
2970:
2969:External links
2967:
2964:
2963:
2914:
2883:
2826:
2796:
2777:(6): 416–424.
2761:
2718:
2675:
2656:(3): 142–148.
2637:
2590:
2561:(3): 233–236.
2541:
2516:
2491:
2467:
2443:
2388:
2330:
2287:
2260:
2203:
2174:
2145:
2115:
2088:(7): 715–720.
2072:
2033:(2): 202–208.
2013:
1953:
1886:
1834:
1805:(4): 301–320.
1778:
1749:(4): 301–320.
1726:
1678:
1671:
1651:
1623:
1598:
1573:
1541:
1492:
1442:
1390:
1334:
1323:
1300:
1246:
1200:
1148:
1141:
1112:
1051:
1010:
977:
976:
974:
971:
966:
963:
922:
916:
910:
904:
898:
892:
886:
880:
874:
868:
862:
856:
850:
849:
838:
835:
822:
819:
814:
811:
801:
798:
792:
791:
787:
783:
782:
779:
775:
774:
771:
770:Corneal edema
767:
766:
763:
759:
758:
754:
750:
749:
746:
730:
729:Contact lenses
727:
726:
725:
722:
719:
716:
713:
710:
697:
694:
686:contact lenses
673:
670:
661:
658:
595:
592:
538:
535:
531:Blepharoptosis
516:
513:
444:
441:
439:
436:
421:
420:
414:
408:
376:
375:
366:
358:
349:Farsightedness
341:
307:
306:Classification
304:
261:contact lenses
183:
182:
179:
175:
174:
168:contact lenses
161:
157:
156:
151:
145:
144:
131:
127:
126:
109:
105:
104:
95:
89:
88:
71:
65:
64:
55:
49:
48:
44:
43:
35:
34:
31:
27:
26:
18:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4651:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4621:
4619:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4591:
4588:
4584:
4579:
4575:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4550:
4546:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4519:Adie syndrome
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4501:
4499:
4497:
4493:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4464:
4462:
4458:
4452:
4449:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4431:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4424:
4422:
4418:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4401:
4397:
4394:
4393:
4392:
4389:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4374:Achromatopsia
4372:
4371:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4346:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4315:
4314:Anisometropia
4312:
4310:
4307:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4294:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4287:
4285:
4281:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4252:
4250:
4246:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4214:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4199:
4196:
4195:
4193:
4191:
4187:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4159:
4155:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4135:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4117:Accommodation
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4056:
4055:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4047:
4043:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4031:Optic atrophy
4029:
4025:
4022:
4021:
4020:
4017:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4008:
4005:
4004:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3975:
3971:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3931:Keratomycosis
3929:
3927:
3926:Globe rupture
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3891:
3890:
3888:
3884:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3856:Macular edema
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3791:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3765:Retinoschisis
3763:
3759:
3756:
3755:
3754:
3751:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3738:
3737:
3734:
3733:
3731:
3729:
3725:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3698:
3697:
3694:
3693:
3691:
3689:
3685:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3652:Choroideremia
3650:
3649:
3647:
3645:
3641:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3629:Iridodialysis
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3573:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3557:Arcus senilis
3555:
3553:
3552:Haab's striae
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3531:
3528:
3527:
3526:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3494:
3491:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3466:Corneal ulcer
3464:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3444:acanthamoebic
3442:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3432:
3431:
3429:
3427:
3423:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3394:Fibrous tunic
3391:
3387:
3383:
3378:
3374:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3338:
3335:
3334:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3322:
3320:
3316:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3282:
3278:
3272:
3271:Xerophthalmia
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3249:
3245:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3216:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3176:Lagophthalmos
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3163:
3160:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3107:
3103:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3086:
3081:
3079:
3074:
3072:
3067:
3066:
3063:
3050:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3039:
3035:
3034:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2987:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2968:
2959:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2918:
2915:
2904:on 2021-06-24
2900:
2893:
2887:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2827:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2765:
2762:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2722:
2719:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2591:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2545:
2542:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2517:
2505:
2501:
2495:
2492:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2468:
2457:
2453:
2447:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2392:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2288:
2277:
2273:
2267:
2265:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2207:
2204:
2193:on 2011-12-21
2192:
2188:
2184:
2178:
2175:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2146:
2134:
2130:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2076:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1957:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1887:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1841:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1672:9780323355353
1668:
1664:
1663:
1655:
1652:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1612:
1608:
1602:
1599:
1587:
1583:
1577:
1574:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1545:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1496:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1446:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1413:(3): 258–66.
1412:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1330:
1326:
1324:9780750675758
1320:
1316:
1315:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1142:9780198816751
1138:
1134:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1030:(3): 237–43.
1029:
1025:
1021:
1014:
1011:
995:
988:
982:
979:
972:
970:
964:
962:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
938:
934:
920: 730-800
914: 660-730
908: 590-660
902: 520-590
896: 450-520
890: 380-450
884: 310-380
878: 240-310
872: 170-240
866: 100-170
854: No data
847:
843:
836:
834:
832:
827:
820:
818:
812:
810:
808:
799:
797:
788:
785:
784:
780:
777:
776:
772:
769:
768:
764:
761:
760:
755:
752:
751:
747:
744:
743:
738:
735:
728:
723:
720:
717:
714:
711:
708:
707:
706:
702:
695:
693:
691:
687:
683:
677:
671:
669:
667:
659:
657:
655:
650:
648:
644:
640:
635:
633:
629:
628:
623:
622:
617:
613:
609:
600:
593:
591:
589:
588:accommodation
585:
581:
576:
573:
569:
568:
562:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
536:
534:
532:
528:
523:
515:Environmental
514:
512:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
488:photoreceptor
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
460:
455:, early stage
454:
449:
442:
437:
435:
432:
428:
427:
418:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
402:
401:
398:
396:
395:magnification
392:
388:
384:
383:anisometropia
379:
372:
371:
367:
364:
363:
359:
355:
351:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
333:
329:
325:
324:
323:
320:
312:
305:
303:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
280:
276:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
253:
251:
247:
242:
240:
236:
232:
231:double vision
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
193:
189:
180:
176:
173:
169:
165:
162:
158:
155:
152:
150:
146:
143:
139:
135:
132:
128:
125:
121:
117:
113:
110:
106:
103:
99:
96:
94:
93:Complications
90:
87:
83:
79:
78:double vision
75:
74:Blurry vision
72:
70:
66:
63:
59:
58:Ophthalmology
56:
54:
50:
45:
41:
36:
32:
28:
23:
4409: /
4405: /
4384:Monochromacy
4316: /
4291:
4212:Heterophoria
4200: /
3899: /
3895: /
3799:hypertensive
3772: /
3593:Ciliary body
3508:Keratoglobus
3416:Episcleritis
3294:Enophthalmos
3289:Exophthalmos
3234:Trichomegaly
3229:Distichiasis
3131:Inflammation
3042:
3031:
3008:
2989:
2931:
2927:
2917:
2906:. Retrieved
2899:the original
2886:
2843:
2839:
2829:
2817:. Retrieved
2808:
2799:
2774:
2770:
2764:
2731:
2727:
2721:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2653:
2649:
2610:(1): 41–46.
2607:
2603:
2593:
2558:
2554:
2544:
2533:. Retrieved
2531:. 2023-07-26
2528:
2519:
2508:. Retrieved
2506:. 2023-05-03
2503:
2494:
2483:. Retrieved
2479:
2470:
2459:. Retrieved
2455:
2446:
2408:(1): 19–24.
2405:
2401:
2391:
2350:
2346:
2300:
2290:
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2191:the original
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2135:. 2023-04-29
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1001:. Retrieved
994:the original
981:
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837:Epidemiology
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187:
186:
4534:Cycloplegia
4477:Photophobia
4472:Hemeralopia
4429:Hemianopsia
4407:Vision loss
4318:Aniseikonia
4309:Astigmatism
4229:Cyclotropia
4207:Hypertropia
4019:Papilledema
3991:Optic nerve
3824:Sickle cell
3804:Purtscher's
3789:Retinopathy
3657:Choroiditis
3498:Keratoconus
3319:Conjunctiva
3196:Xanthelasma
3148:Blepharitis
2846:(1): 3–22.
1616:10 February
1591:10 February
1219:(1): 3–16.
1003:17 February
949:along with
947:vision loss
786:Infections
632:Cycloplegic
621:retinoscopy
616:retinoscope
572:emmetropic.
391:aniseikonia
370:Astigmatism
290:along with
288:vision loss
219:astigmatism
120:astigmatism
30:Other names
4634:Refraction
4618:Categories
4583:Infections
4504:Anisocoria
4467:Asthenopia
4460:subjective
4444:homonymous
4439:bitemporal
4391:Nyctalopia
4379:Dichromacy
4323:Presbyopia
4284:Refraction
4105:Strabismus
3995:Optic disc
3354:Pinguecula
3219:Trichiasis
3044:DiseasesDB
2908:2023-03-21
2691:(1): 3–8.
2535:2023-11-06
2510:2023-11-06
2485:2021-06-29
2461:2022-08-03
2281:2023-10-30
2197:2011-12-13
2168:2006-09-13
2139:2023-10-31
1974:(1): 875.
1743:Clin Genet
1693:The Lancet
1645:2023-10-31
1568:2023-10-31
1555:StatPearls
973:References
821:Prevention
672:Management
610:during an
567:emmetropia
547:refraction
490:function (
431:emmetropic
426:emmetropia
362:Presbyopia
257:eyeglasses
239:eye strain
223:presbyopia
164:Eyeglasses
124:presbyopia
86:eye strain
4555:Nystagmus
4529:Mydriasis
4403:Blindness
4349:Amblyopia
4337:Blindness
4297:Hyperopia
4222:Exophoria
4217:Esophoria
4202:Exotropia
4198:Esotropia
3736:Retinitis
3434:Keratitis
3411:Scleritis
3344:Pterygium
3224:Madarosis
3171:Ectropion
3166:Entropion
3143:Chalazion
2860:2452-2325
2624:1080-7683
2577:1395-3907
2422:0007-1161
2367:0959-8138
2353:: c1711.
2325:263605231
2317:2767-6617
2276:aapos.org
2237:1866-0452
2110:237573319
2049:0950-222X
1990:1660-4601
1930:1932-6203
1721:208793136
1586:aapos.org
951:cataracts
666:ambylopia
660:Screening
594:Diagnosis
570:or being
411:Cylinder:
354:hyperopia
345:Hyperopia
292:cataracts
235:headaches
178:Frequency
160:Treatment
102:amblyopia
98:Blindness
82:headaches
62:optometry
53:Specialty
4594:Trachoma
4359:Diplopia
4054:Ischemic
3979:Pathways
3893:Glaucoma
3794:diabetic
3696:Cataract
3634:Synechia
3486:Meesmann
3454:Exposure
3439:herpetic
3337:allergic
3327:Chemosis
3261:Epiphora
2958:28197998
2878:29564404
2813:Archived
2811:. 2009.
2791:28586503
2756:21512136
2748:29095758
2713:24069302
2705:26513719
2670:28092397
2632:16503774
2585:11401629
2430:18156372
2375:20385718
2255:27839543
2162:Archived
2102:34538220
2067:24406412
2008:36613196
1948:26485393
1900:PLOS ONE
1881:23396134
1829:21155761
1773:21155761
1713:22559900
1563:36508524
1536:31930781
1487:36809645
1437:42359341
1429:25611765
1385:26063472
1329:Archived
1295:25539893
1241:32397628
1233:22150586
1195:24406412
1046:11285669
580:increase
553:and the
443:Genetics
192:focusing
69:Symptoms
4434:binasal
4421:Anopsia
4364:Scotoma
4158:palsies
3921:Red eye
3906:Floater
3713:Aphakia
3644:Choroid
3614:Hyphema
3604:Uveitis
3211:Eyelash
3038:D012030
2949:5408355
2869:5859285
2819:Nov 11,
2438:2157969
2383:8240093
2246:5143802
2058:3930282
1999:9820324
1939:4618477
1908:Bibcode
1872:3740568
1820:3058260
1764:3058260
1527:6984636
1478:9933422
1376:4561509
1286:4391667
1269:: 163.
1186:3930282
1105:29 July
1037:2566380
800:Surgery
696:Glasses
682:glasses
522:Reading
405:Sphere:
357:cornea.
340:cornea.
265:surgery
205:and/or
134:Eyeball
4624:Vision
4524:Miosis
4302:Myopia
4081:Kjer's
3829:photic
3728:Retina
3481:Fuchs'
3449:fungal
3426:Cornea
3403:Sclera
3186:Ptosis
3123:Eyelid
3111:Adnexa
2956:
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2876:
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2789:
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584:retina
551:cornea
543:retina
429:or be
389:, and
374:image.
337:myopia
328:Myopia
298:, and
237:, and
227:blurry
221:, and
207:cornea
199:retina
138:cornea
130:Causes
4548:Other
4496:Pupil
3886:Other
3530:sicca
3382:Globe
3281:Orbit
3049:29645
3027:367.9
3023:367.2
3019:367.0
3004:H52.4
3000:H52.0
2902:(PDF)
2895:(PDF)
2752:S2CID
2709:S2CID
2434:S2CID
2379:S2CID
2321:S2CID
2106:S2CID
1717:S2CID
1433:S2CID
1237:S2CID
997:(PDF)
990:(PDF)
846:DALYs
417:Axis:
284:blind
263:, or
195:light
108:Types
3688:Lens
3588:Iris
3138:Stye
3033:MeSH
3014:9-CM
2954:PMID
2932:2017
2874:PMID
2856:ISSN
2821:2009
2787:PMID
2744:PMID
2701:PMID
2666:PMID
2628:PMID
2620:ISSN
2581:PMID
2573:ISSN
2426:PMID
2418:ISSN
2371:PMID
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2313:ISSN
2251:PMID
2233:ISSN
2098:PMID
2063:PMID
2045:ISSN
2004:PMID
1986:ISSN
1944:PMID
1926:ISSN
1877:PMID
1825:PMID
1769:PMID
1709:PMID
1667:ISBN
1618:2020
1593:2020
1559:PMID
1532:PMID
1510:2021
1483:PMID
1461:2023
1425:PMID
1381:PMID
1319:ISBN
1291:PMID
1229:PMID
1191:PMID
1137:ISBN
1107:2016
1042:PMID
1005:2020
965:Cost
555:lens
504:CSNB
484:loci
464:OMIM
142:lens
3010:ICD
2991:ICD
2944:PMC
2936:doi
2864:PMC
2848:doi
2779:doi
2736:doi
2693:doi
2658:doi
2612:doi
2563:doi
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2355:doi
2351:340
2347:BMJ
2305:doi
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2090:doi
2086:105
2053:PMC
2035:doi
2027:Eye
1994:PMC
1976:doi
1934:PMC
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1859:doi
1815:PMC
1807:doi
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1751:doi
1701:doi
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1522:PMC
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1371:PMC
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1281:PMC
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