233:). Initially, these would be subject to mirroring high in the atmosphere, where they are unlikely to react with atmospheric atoms and might reflect back and forth for some time. When one considers a complete "orbit" from north pole to south and back again, the electrons naturally spend more time in the mirror regions because this is where they are slowing down and reversing. This leads to increased electron density at the mirror points. The magnetic field created by the moving electrons in this region interacts with the geomagnetic field in a way that causes the mirror points to be forced down into the atmosphere. Here, the electrons undergo more interactions as the density of the atmosphere increases rapidly. These interactions slow the electrons so they produce less magnetic field, resulting in an equilibrium point being reached in the upper atmosphere about 110 kilometers (70 mi) in altitude.
196:
175:, which, in this case, stops them from moving sideways and hitting the walls of the chamber. In a normal solenoid, they would still be free to move along the lines and thus escape out the ends. Post's insight was to wind the electromagnet in such a way that the field was stronger at the ends than in the center of the chamber. As particles flow towards the ends, these stronger fields force the lines together, and the resulting curved field causes particles to "reflect" back, thus leading to the name
629:
letter to York, noting that the hints about the project were already public and were simply waiting for someone to connect the dots. York called him to the
Pentagon and asked him again to hold off. Sullivan concluded this was no longer due to military necessity but was political; the test ban negotiations were ongoing and the sudden release of news the US had performed new tests in space would be a serious problem. Sullivan and Baldwin once again sat on the story.
128:
246:
262:) bomb. This would produce 10 fission events, which in turn produce four electrons per fission. For the mirror points being considered, almost any beta particle traveling roughly upward or downward would be captured, which he estimated to be about half of them, leaving 2×10 electrons trapped in the field. Because of the shape of the Earth's field, and the results of the
617:, Sullivan heard that a paper on the topic, titled "Artificial Modification of the Earth's Radiation Belt", was being readied for publication. Sullivan and Baldwin realized they were about to lose their "scoop", so Sullivan wrote to York asking for clearance as it was clear other reporters were learning of the tests. York discussed the matter with
245:
534:, which was under production for reentry testing and was available in some quantity. Unfortunately, the X-17's limited altitude capability meant it could not reach the required altitude to hit mirror points in the South Pacific over the testing grounds. The only area that had a field low enough for the X-17 to hit easily was the
665:, who approved publication. On 18 March 1959, Sullivan tried to call Killian but reached his assistant instead, while Baldwin spoke with ARPA director Roy Johnson. The two wrote the story that night, waiting for the phone call that would again kill the story. The phone never rang and the story was published the next day.
461:, was already nearing completion. This included several high-altitude explosions launched over the South Pacific testing range. As these were relatively close to the equator, the proper injection point for the magnetic field was at a relatively high altitude, far higher than the 75 kilometres (47 mi) of
410:. This consisted of a mirror with an associated particle accelerator that injected electrons outside the traditional mirror area. Their rapid movement formed a second magnetic field which mixed with that of the electromagnet and caused the resulting net field to "close", fixing the mirror's biggest problem.
483:(ARPA) in February 1958, initially with the mission of centralizing the various US missile development projects. Its charter was soon expanded to consider the topic of defense in general, especially defense against missile attack that Sputnik made clear was a real possibility. ARPA's scientific director,
182:
In a perfect magnetic mirror, the particles of fuel would bounce back and forth, never reaching the ends nor touching the sides of the cylinder. However, even in theory, no mirror is perfect; there is always a population of particles with the right energy and trajectory that allow them to flow out of
561:
were launched in August, although only IV reached orbit. Operation Argus was carried out in late August and early
September 1958. Three low-yield atomic bombs were detonated over the south Atlantic at a height of 480 kilometers (300 mi). The bombs released charged particles that behaved exactly
637:
had been patiently waiting on approval from the
Pentagon that appeared not to be forthcoming. Meanwhile, scientists working on the project were becoming increasingly vocal about the publication of the data, and a late February meeting resulted in arguments. At a PSAC meeting, Killian finally agreed
545:
tests went from initial approval by the
President on 6 March 1958 to actual tests in only five months. Among other firsts, the tests were to be kept entirely secret from start to after completion, were the first ballistic missile tests from a ship at sea, and were the only atmospheric nuclear test
570:
These tests demonstrated that the possibility of using the effect as a defensive system did not work. However, exact details on the lack of effectiveness remain absent in available sources. Most references state that the effect did not last long enough to be useful, with an ARPA report concluding
628:
Sullivan later drove home his point about the information coming out anyway by calling the IGY monitoring stations and asking about records for aurora during August and
September. He was told there was a "rather remarkable event" that did not correspond to any known solar storm. He sent another
305:
approach their targets, they travel at about 8 kilometers per second (5 mi/s), or around 28,000 kilometers per hour (17,000 mph). An RV traveling through the mirror layer, where the electrons are at their densest, would thus be in the midst of the electric field for about ten seconds.
269:
Assuming the electrons were evenly spread, a density of 0.2 electrons per cubic centimeter would be produced. Because the electrons are moving rapidly, any object within the field would be subjected to impacts of about 1.5×10 electrons per second per square centimeter. These impacts cause the
54:
flying through the region would experience huge electrical currents that would destroy their trigger electronics. The concept that a few friendly warheads could disrupt an enemy attack was so promising that a series of new nuclear tests was rushed into the US schedule before a testing
605:
about the matter. Sullivan spoke to
Richard Porter, chair of the IGY Panel on Rockets and Satellites, who was "horrified" by how much information Baldwin had found out. An hour later, Sullivan received a call from ARPA, asking him to hold the story until the tests were complete.
632:
In
February 1959, Killian was in New York giving a speech. Sullivan attended and at the end handed him a letter. The two sat down and Killian read it. The letter outlined the fact that an increasing amount of information was leaking about the tests and that the
349:(ABM) system without warning. Since these effects were expected to endure for up to five minutes, about the amount of time that a line-of-sight radar in Russia would have to see the warheads, careful timing of the attack could render the ABM system useless.
236:
Using this as the average altitude as the basis for the air density calculation allowed the interaction rate with the atmosphere to be calculated. Running the numbers, it appeared that the average lifetime of an electron would be of the order of 2.8 days.
118:
At high altitudes, the much less-dense atmosphere means the electrons are free to travel long distances. They have enough energy that they will not be recaptured by the proton that is created in the beta decay, so they can, in theory, last indefinitely.
321:. The explosion can take place at either of these two points, and the magnetic field will cause them to concentrate at the other point as well. Christofilos noted that the conjugate point for most of the continental United States is in the South
249:
The
Christofilos effect would produce an area of highly charged particles at a selected location. It was believed that by flying through this region at high speeds, the warheads or guidance systems of attacking missiles might be
221:
begin orbiting around the field lines, bouncing back and forth between the poles. With every pass, some of the particles leak past the mirror points and interact with the atmosphere, ionizing the air and causing the light.
336:
Of additional interest to military planners was the possibility of using this effect as an offensive weapon. In the case of an attack by US forces on the Soviet Union, the southern conjugate locations are generally in the
454:(PSAC), convened a working group at Livermore to explore the concept. The group agreed that the basic concept was sound, but many practical issues could only be solved by direct testing with explosions at high altitudes.
433:
Among those worried about the Soviet advances was
Christofilos, who published his idea in an internal memo that same month. When Explorer launched in January 1958, it confirmed the existence of what became known as the
397:
Christofilos soon became more interested in nuclear fusion efforts than particle accelerator design. At the time there were three primary designs being actively worked on in the US program, the magnetic mirror, the
438:. This led to new panic within the defense establishment when some concluded that the Van Allen belts were not due to the Sun's particles, but secret Soviet high-altitude nuclear tests of the Christofilos concept.
131:
Charged particles (black) naturally orbit around the lines of a magnetic field (green lines). In the mirror, the strong field at the ends causes the particles to slow and then reverse their motion along the
329:, where such explosions would not be noticed. Thus, if one were to explode a series of such bombs in these locations, a massive radiation belt would form over the US, which might disable the warheads of a
183:
the ends through the "loss cone". This makes magnetic mirrors inherently leaky systems, although initial calculations suggested the rate of leakage was low enough that one could still use it to produce a
476:
fall of 1958. The
Soviets would react negatively if the US began high-altitude tests while negotiations were taking place. The planners were given the task of completing the tests by 1 September 1958.
213:. Such a field would thus reflect charged particles in the same fashion as Post's mirrors. This was not a new revelation; it was already long understood to be the underlying basis for the formation of
59:
came into effect in late 1958. These tests demonstrated that the effect was not nearly as strong as predicted, and not enough to damage a warhead. However, the effect is strong enough to be used to
446:
Christofilos' idea immediately sparked intense interest; if the concept worked in practice, the US would have a "magic bullet" that might render the Soviet ICBM fleet useless. In February 1958,
314:
spike would induce an enormous current in any of its metal components. This might be so high as to melt the airframe, but more realistically, could destroy the trigger or guidance mechanisms.
141:
406:. The mirror was often viewed unfavorably due to its inherent leakiness, a side effect of its open field lines. Christofilos developed a new concept to address this problem, known as the
745:
Christofilos' 1959 paper on the topic frames the discussion in terms of space safety. It mentions the issue of the radiation field, but ignores any of the electrical effects on warheads.
508:
on the Christofilos concept and, on 6 March 1958, received a go-ahead to run a separate test series. Intense planning was carried out over the next two months. Christofilos did not have
199:
Near the poles, the Earth's field becomes denser, forming a natural magnetic mirror. This image, from 1962, reflects the lack of knowledge of the overall shape of the field at that time.
562:
as Christofilos had predicted, being trapped along the lines of force. Those that managed to get far enough into the atmosphere to the north and south set up a small magnetic storm.
571:
that it "dissipated rapidly" and would thus have little value as an anti-warhead system. However, other sources state that the effect persisted for over six days on the last test.
530:
To achieve the September deadline, weapons and equipment would need to be drawn as much as possible from existing stocks. This resulted in the only suitable launcher being the
614:
609:
By the end of the year, with the tests over and the concept largely abandoned, Christofilos was able to talk about the concept openly at an October 1958 meeting of the
491:
under the name "Project 137" to "identify problems not now receiving adequate attention". The twenty-two man committee of who's-who in the physics world was chaired by
1523:
171:
along the center of its axis, in this case down the middle of the vacuum chamber. When charged particles are placed in a magnetic field, they orbit around the
378:
when he had little else to do. In the post-war era, he started an elevator repair service, during which time he began to develop the concept today known as
107:
Because electrons are electrically charged, they induce electrical currents in surrounding atoms as they pass them at high speed. This causes the atoms to
465:
This would limit the usefulness of these explosions for testing the Christofilos effect. A new series of explosions to test the effect would be needed.
468:
Adding to the urgency of the planning process was the ongoing negotiations in Geneva between the US and the USSR to arrange what eventually became the
451:
430:
in October 1957. This event caused near-panic in US defense circles, where many concluded the Soviets had achieved an insurmountable scientific lead.
1495:
394:, which published on the topic. Convinced they had stolen the idea, Christofilos traveled to the US where he managed to win a job at Brookhaven.
1025:
622:
111:
while also causing the beta particles to slow down. In the lower atmosphere, this reaction is so powerful that the beta particles slow to
1376:
673:
In 2008, science writer Mark Wolverton noted ongoing concerns about the use of the Christofilos effect as a way to disable satellites.
1367:
1255:
712:
115:
within a few tens of meters at most. This is well within a typical nuclear explosion fireball, so the effect is too small to be seen.
1424:
1399:
1355:
209:, is similar to that of a magnetic mirror. The field balloons outward over the equator, and then necks down as it approaches the
1528:
1351:
1301:
541:
Planning for tests normally took a year or more, which is why tests normally occurred in closely spaced "series". In contrast,
469:
418:
During the same period, plans were being made by the US to test the presence of the expected charged layer directly using the
317:
The density of the field is greatest at the mirror points, of which there are always two for a given explosion, the so-called
1518:
697:
423:
391:
1480:
1247:
294:
of about 450. Christofilos noted that this would be a significant risk to space travelers and their electronic equipment.
512:
and could not be part of the planning. The Project 137 group nevertheless arranged for Christofilos to meet with them at
639:
613:, leaving out only the detail that an atomic bomb would be used to create the radiation. At the December meeting of the
602:
195:
1485:
610:
375:
35:
707:
435:
601:, which was working with ARPA on Argus throughout this period. Baldwin asked his science reporter colleague
593:, received tantalizing hints of a major US military operation. It is now believed that this leaked from the
407:
654:
535:
492:
346:
1435:
1036:
717:
488:
39:
390:
but they rejected it after finding a minor error. In 1952, the idea was developed independently at the
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342:
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594:
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367:
291:
736:
Which may seem low for an object made of metal, but a space capsule is mostly open space inside.
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1395:
1251:
866:
841:
580:
205:
85:
1241:
1460:
1318:
1116:
1098:
1074:
998:
858:
658:
266:, the electrons would drift eastward and eventually create a shell around the entire Earth.
210:
112:
60:
56:
1049:
979:
Foster, J. S.; Fowler, T. K.; Mills, F. E. (1973). "Nicholas C. Christofilos (obituary)".
682:
662:
598:
542:
525:
379:
298:
287:
263:
149:
145:
101:
25:
345:. A series of explosions would cause a massive radar blackout over Russia, degrading its
1456:
1342:
1314:
1094:
994:
854:
152:
concept. The mirror is a deceptively simple device, consisting largely of a cylindrical
702:
584:
547:
271:
255:
184:
168:
153:
104:
portions of the bomb, which, in most designs, represents about 50% of the total yield.
31:
1464:
1121:
1079:"Satellite Observations of Electrons Artificially Injected into the Geomagnetic Field"
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127:
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1416:
1391:
1010:
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618:
531:
462:
322:
157:
137:
89:
47:
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338:
330:
226:
1410:
1385:
862:
625:(PSAC), who added that Van Allan was also pressing hard for publication rights.
554:
538:, where the Van Allen Belt descends as low as 200 kilometers (660,000 ft).
513:
509:
399:
274:, releases radiation into the object. The rate of bremsstrahlung depends on the
43:
225:
Electrons released by fission events are generally in the range of 1 to 2
558:
497:
419:
218:
172:
97:
1331:
426:(IGY). Before Explorer launched, the Soviets surprised everyone by launching
1322:
427:
64:
1103:
870:
371:
161:
93:
472:. At the time, it appeared that a test ban might come into place in the
403:
363:
311:
307:
51:
1002:
254:
As an illustration, Christofilos considered the explosion of a 1
1496:"How the World Learned About the Pentagon's Sky-High Nuclear Testing"
1112:
214:
81:
480:
326:
259:
230:
194:
126:
649:
Baldwin and Sullivan had had enough; they went to the top of the
550:. The final plans were approved by the President on 1 May 1958.
302:
16:
Entrapment of charged particles along geomagnetic lines of force
108:
910:
908:
906:
904:
479:
The launch of Sputnik also resulted in the formation of the
457:
By that time, planning for the 1958 nuclear testing series,
244:
768:
766:
839:
Booth, William (1987). "Fusion's $ 372-Million Mothball".
142:
University of California Radiation Laboratory at Livermore
1061:
1059:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1243:
US Presidents and the Militarization of Space, 1946–1967
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1136:
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783:
781:
42:, who suggested the effect had defensive potential in a
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386:. In 1949, he sent a letter describing the idea to the
1223:
1221:
1184:
1182:
1157:
1155:
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948:
136:
In 1951, as part of the first wave of research into
810:
808:
615:
American Association for the Advancement of Science
282:, of the material. For an object with an average
638:to release the data at the April meeting of the
1481:"Oldies and Oddities: Homebuilt Radiation Belt"
1083:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
516:on 14 July 1958 for a discussion of the plans.
895:
217:. In the case of the aurora, particles of the
30:, refers to the entrapment of electrons from
8:
1387:Von Braun: Dreamer of Space, Engineer of War
914:
883:
286:of 10, the resulting flux is about 100
203:The shape of the Earth's magnetic field, or
1434:Garvin, Richard; Bethe, Hans (March 1968).
772:
1366:Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip (1977).
1279:
1146:
1120:
1102:
341:, where they would not be seen by Soviet
939:
1361:from the original on December 13, 2021.
762:
729:
270:electrons to slow down, which, through
167:A solenoid normally generates a linear
1524:Exoatmospheric nuclear weapons testing
1295:Christofilos, Nicholas (August 1959).
1045:
1034:
452:President's Science Advisory Committee
382:, a key development in the history of
1227:
1212:
1200:
1188:
1173:
1161:
966:
954:
799:
787:
623:Presidents Science Advisory Committee
7:
1494:Wolverton, Mark (24 November 2018).
826:
814:
96:. These are primarily the result of
38:. It was first predicted in 1957 by
587:-winning military correspondent at
160:wound around it to form a modified
713:List of artificial radiation belts
450:, chairman of the recently formed
156:that holds the fusion fuel and an
14:
1465:10.1038/scientificamerican0368-21
481:Advanced Research Projects Agency
362:Christofilos began his career in
76:Electrons from nuclear explosions
1436:"Anti-Ballistic-Missile Systems"
1330:Post, Richard (10 August 1987).
1302:Journal of Geophysical Research
470:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
1369:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons
1333:Magnetic Mirror Fusion Systems
1248:Texas A&M University Press
1026:"Astron Thermonuclear Reactor"
698:Soviet Project K nuclear tests
424:International Geophysical Year
392:Brookhaven National Laboratory
1:
1341:Jones, C.B. (30 April 1982).
642:, but still did not tell the
1479:Wolverton, Mark (May 2008).
863:10.1126/science.238.4824.152
640:National Academy of Sciences
603:Walter Sullivan (journalist)
495:, who popularized the term
100:within the debris from the
1545:
896:Glasstone & Dolan 1977
523:
1384:Neufeld, Michael (2008).
611:American Physical Society
436:Van Allen radiation belts
422:satellite as part of the
376:Axis occupation of Greece
310:high speed, the apparent
144:("Livermore") researcher
23:, sometimes known as the
1486:Air & Space Magazine
1409:Jacobsen, Annie (2015).
1024:Christofilos, Nicholas.
708:Van Allen radiation belt
1323:10.1029/JZ064i008p00869
773:Garvin & Bethe 1968
553:To measure the effect,
290:/hour, compared to the
61:black out radar systems
1529:Anti-ballistic weapons
1352:Defense Nuclear Agency
1297:"The Argus Experiment"
1104:10.1073/pnas.45.8.1152
1044:Cite journal requires
661:, and managing editor
655:Arthur Hays Sulzberger
536:South Atlantic Anomaly
493:John Archibald Wheeler
347:anti-ballistic missile
251:
200:
133:
88:are a large number of
50:becoming trapped that
36:Earth's magnetic field
1519:Astroparticle physics
1377:Department of Defense
718:Nicholas Christofilos
653:hierarchy, publisher
489:blue-ribbon committee
384:particle accelerators
248:
198:
130:
40:Nicholas Christofilos
1412:The Pentagon's Brain
1350:(Technical report).
1344:Operation Argus 1958
1240:Kalic, Sean (2012).
506:President Eisenhower
459:Operation Hardtack I
414:Sputnik and Explorer
276:relative atomic mass
1457:1968SciAm.218c..21G
1444:Scientific American
1336:(Technical report).
1315:1959JGR....64..869C
1095:1959PNAS...45.1152V
1067:Van Allen, James A.
995:1973PhT....26a.109F
855:1987Sci...238..152B
579:Late in June 1958,
474:northern-hemisphere
448:James Rhyne Killian
374:company during the
343:early warning radar
319:magnetic conjugates
229:(0.16 to 0.32
191:Christofilos effect
80:Among the types of
21:Christofilos effect
1289:General references
1077:(15 August 1959).
693:Outer Space Treaty
688:Operation Fishbowl
595:University of Iowa
590:The New York Times
292:median lethal dose
252:
201:
134:
1075:Ludwig, George H.
1071:McIlwain, Carl E.
1003:10.1063/1.3127921
915:Christofilos 1959
884:Christofilos 1959
849:(4824): 152–155.
790:, pp. 12–13.
546:operation in the
206:geomagnetic field
92:, or high energy
86:nuclear explosion
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1089:(8): 1152–1171.
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669:Ongoing concerns
659:Orvil E. Dryfoos
299:reentry vehicles
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683:Operation Argus
679:
671:
663:Turner Catledge
621:, chair of the
599:James Van Allen
577:
568:
543:Operation Argus
528:
526:Operation Argus
522:
444:
442:Planning begins
416:
380:strong focusing
370:articles at an
360:
355:
264:right-hand rule
243:
193:
150:magnetic mirror
148:introduced the
146:Richard F. Post
125:
78:
73:
46:, with so many
32:nuclear weapons
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1363:
1338:
1327:
1309:(8): 869–875.
1290:
1287:
1285:
1284:
1280:Wolverton 2018
1263:
1257:978-1603446914
1256:
1250:. p. 56.
1232:
1217:
1205:
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1166:
1151:
1147:Wolverton 2008
1128:
1055:
1046:|journal=
1016:
989:(1): 109–115.
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944:
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917:, p. 870.
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886:, p. 869.
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703:Starfish Prime
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695:
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585:Pulitzer Prize
581:Hanson Baldwin
576:
575:Public release
573:
567:
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548:Atlantic Ocean
524:Main article:
521:
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366:while reading
359:
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325:, far west of
272:bremsstrahlung
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185:fusion reactor
169:magnetic field
154:vacuum chamber
124:
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113:thermal speeds
90:beta particles
84:released by a
77:
74:
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48:beta particles
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1451:(3): 21–31.
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63:and disable
24:
20:
18:
1470:13 December
597:lab run by
555:Explorer IV
514:Fort McNair
510:Q clearance
487:, formed a
400:stellarator
301:(RVs) from
173:field lines
44:nuclear war
1513:Categories
1228:Jones 1982
1213:Jones 1982
1201:Jones 1982
1189:Jones 1982
1174:Jones 1982
1162:Jones 1982
967:Jones 1982
955:Jones 1982
800:Jones 1982
788:Jones 1982
753:References
559:Explorer V
498:black hole
463:Shot Teak.
420:Explorer 1
402:, and the
358:Background
258:(4.2
219:solar wind
98:beta decay
65:satellites
57:moratorium
1011:121637112
827:Post 1987
815:Post 1987
758:Citations
428:Sputnik 1
308:warhead's
94:electrons
1356:Archived
871:17800453
677:See also
372:elevator
333:attack.
288:roentgen
250:damaged.
162:solenoid
52:warheads
1453:Bibcode
1311:Bibcode
1091:Bibcode
1085:(PDF).
991:Bibcode
851:Bibcode
842:Science
566:Outcome
520:Testing
404:z-pinch
368:journal
364:physics
353:History
323:Pacific
312:voltage
241:Example
102:fission
71:Concept
34:in the
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1122:222697
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408:Astron
331:Soviet
215:aurora
177:mirror
132:lines.
109:ionize
82:energy
28:effect
1439:(PDF)
1373:(PDF)
1359:(PDF)
1348:(PDF)
1113:90137
1109:JSTOR
1029:(PDF)
1007:S2CID
724:Notes
651:Times
644:Times
635:Times
327:Chile
303:ICBMs
278:, or
211:poles
26:Argus
1472:2014
1421:ISBN
1396:ISBN
1252:ISBN
1050:help
867:PMID
583:, a
557:and
19:The
1461:doi
1449:218
1319:doi
1117:PMC
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859:doi
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297:As
227:MeV
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260:PJ
256:Mt
231:pJ
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