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Hung-chang had founded the
Imperial Telegraph Administration at Tientsin.156 As in the days when he fought the Taipings and the Niens, Liu Ming-ch'uan, the non-literati commander, was not only receptive to Western weapons, but was also eager to provide his troops with Western-style drill. Liu considered the Green Standard troops on Taiwan to be the worst in the Ch'ing empire. With a nominal quote of 14,000 men, their actual number was only 4,500in 1884-5. Liu started a retraining programme, selecting new officers from the skilled marksmen in the ranks. Neither was Liu satisfied with the yung-ying armies on Taiwan. He memorialized in 1885 that the Hunan and Anhwei armies had become 'strong crossbows, the strength of which has been spent'. He considered fresh training absolutely necessary, especially now that breechloading firearms had been introduced. 'Unless the sights of the firearms are set accurately, the aim cannot be gauged for either distance or height : to have a rifle would then be the same as having none.' 157 In late1885, there had been sixteen Hunan Army (Ch'u-yung) battalions on Taiwan, under Liu Ao, formerly one of Tso Tsung-t'ang's commanders, who served as the Taiwan taotai 1881-5. Liu Ming-ch'uan now took control of Liu Ao's hunanese force, as well as ten battalions of the Anhwei Army which he himself had brought to Taiwan. Replenishment of the Anhwei Army, chiefly from Liu Ming-ch'uan's native Ho-fei, gave him a total by 1888 of forty-three battalions of about 22,000 men. Two European instructors drilled his troops.158 Liu realized that he could not rely on the 800,000-tael annual revenue assistance for more than the stipulated five years. He saw a chance, however, of producing revenue by making the real owners of agricultural land pay more taxes. This reform called first of all for a cadastral survey, which was never carried out on a province-wide basis during the Ch'ing dynasty except in newly created Sinkiang and Taiwan. Having in mind the entrenched vested interests in rural China, Li Hung-chang had remarked categorically in 1870, after he came governor-general of Chihli, 'a cadastral survey for an entire province is certainly impossible to accomplish.',
412:
mutiny took place at Sui-te (about seventy-five miles north-east of Yenan), where he had left behind 4,500 troops to guard a supply depot. Several hundred troops, including those who later confessed to being members of the Elder
Brothers Society (Ko-lao hui), robbed the grain depot and took control of Sui-te city. Among the mutineers were as many as four company officers, also said to be Elder Brother members.66 The revolt was quickly suppressed after Liu himself hurried back to Sui-te in early April, but meanwhile, an apparently unrelated mutiny had broken out in I-chün in central Shensi, eight miles north of Sian, involving the murder of a t'ung-ling commander. Again the several hundred rebellious soldiers included members of the Elder Brothers Society. Four company officers and a battalion officer who joined them were also said to be members. The mutineers were captured, however, by Tso's loyal forces. Tso personally executed five of the ringleaders. He believed that the Elder Brothers Society had originated in Szechwan and Kweichow but had affected the Hunan Army through surrender Taipings who were natives of these two provinces, or through 'disbanded mercenaries' (san-yung) of other provinces who had come to Shensi for adventure. He hoped that such 'venomous and devilishly elusive creatures' were very few among his forces/67 However, the Elder Brothers Society was long to persist in Tso's armies, as an underground mutual aid group performing both legal and illegal deeds. Interrupted by the mutinies and their aftermath, operations against Chin-chi-pao were not resumed until mid-August. Liu Sung-shan, advancing from northern Shensi, reached the vicinity of Ling-chou in early September. Ma Hua-lung probably had no illusions about his own power as compared with Tso's. He wrote to Tso and negotiated for peace, but his overture was firmly rejected.68 In November, Ling-chou was occupied by Liu Sung-shan; Tso's forces in the south, having captured such cities as Ku-yuan, moved continuously northward,
301:
had more than 10,000 seasoned Muslim fighters at his disposal. The task of attacking Hsi-ning was undertaken by Liu Chin-t'ang in August. It took Liu three months to penetrate the difficult and well-defended terrain into Hsi-ning, but he prevailed at last. He annihilated the 10,000 Muslim partisans, but Pai Yen-hu escaped. Ma Kuei-yuan, the 'Muslim gentry leader' of Hsi-ning who protected the New
Teaching, was tracked down in the Tsinghai Salar territory.81. . . .All this time Tso had in fact been preparing for the crucial assault on Su-chou, where the New Teaching commander Ma Wen-lu (originally form Hsi-ning) numerous tungan leaders had gathered. To add to Hsu Chan-piao's forces, Tso sent to Su-chou 3,000 men from his own Hunan Army in December 1872, and at his request both Sung Ch'ing and chang Yueh of the Honan Army were ordered by the throne to join the campaign. Chin-shun, the recently appointed general-in-chief at Uliasutai, also participated. Tso had his hands full arranging finances and supplies, including the establishment of a modest arsenal at Lanchow where Lai Ch'ang, a Cantonese and a talented army officer with some knowledge of ardnance, began manufacturing extra shells for the German siege guns.82 Tso was obsessed with the organization of the war, yet both conscience and policy called for making arrangements for the livelihood of 'good Muslims', with a view to removing the root causes of communal conflict.
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throughout all the empire totalled more than 300,000 men, They included the remnants of the old Hunan Army (Hsiang-chün) founded by Tseng Kuo-fan, the resuscitated Hunan Army (usually called Ch'u-chün) under Tso Tsung-t'ang, and the Anhwei Army (Huai-chün) coordinated by Li Hung-chang. There were also smaller forces of a similar nature in Honan (Yü-chün), Shantung, (Tung-chün), Yunnan (Tien-chün) and
Szechwan (Ch'uan-chün). These forces were distinguished generally by their greater use of Western weapons and they were more costly to maintain. More fundamentally they capitalized for military purposes on the particularistic loyalties of the traditional society. Both the strength and the weakness of the yung-ying were to be found in the close personal bonds that were formed between the higher and lower officers and between officers and men. In this respect they differed from the traditional Ch'ing imperial armies - both the banner forces and the Green Standard Army.
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Sung-shan, one of Tseng's best generals. The throne had also assigned to Tso's command 10,000 men from the
Szechawn Army (Ch'uan-chün) under Huang Ting; 7,000 men of the Anhwei provincial army (Wan-chün) under Kuo Pao-ch'ang; and 6,500 men of the Honan Army (Yü-chün) under Chang Yueh. These forces all had experience in fighting the Taipings of the Niens, and they included a total of 7,500 cavalry, reinforcing the 5,000 mounts Tso himself procured.55 However, apart from employing Manchu officers from Kirin to instruct his cavalry. Tso seems to have paid little attention to the training of his forces. He appreciated the fact that Liu Sung-shan's troops were adept in tactical formations and in sharpshooting. But from his own experience in the Taiping Rebellion, Tso was convinced that the two essentials for victory were courageous men and ample rations.
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helped Tseng Kuo-ch'üan to recover Anking from the
Taipings and, on his own, captured Lu-chou in 1862. His yung-ying force proved to be equally effective against the Muslims. In March 1863, his battalions captured two market towns that formed the principal Tungan base in eastern Shensi. He broke the blockade around Sian in August and pursued the Muslims to western Shensi. By the time of his death in March 1864, in a battle against Szechwanese Taipings who invaded Shensi, he had broken the back of the Muslim Rebellion in that province. A great man Shensi Muslims had, however, escaped to Kansu, adding to the numerous Muslim forces which had already risen there.
187:'s command after he became governor of Taiwan. Another army which was stationed on Taiwan was the Anhui Army. They were given modern, breechloading guns, and trained in modern warfare. Western instructors were brought in. Liu had stated that the two armies were "strong crossbows, the strength of which has been spent". He said on the rifles that "Unless the sights of the firearms are set accurately, the aim cannot be gauged for either distance or height : to have a rifle would then be the same as having none".
106:. The main points of difference were in their regional affiliations, since these forces were often raised and led via kinship and local networks; and their contravention of the normal Chinese military policy where army generals were frequently rotated to prevent ambitious commanders building power bases. In the case of the Yong Ying, the need for unit cohesion meant that officers were appointed by commanders and remained in command of their units throughout entire campaigns.
20:
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the officers of the Hunan Army were scholars, The proportion dropped sharply for commissions given after this date. . . Holders of official titles and degrees accounted for only 12 per cent of the military command of the Huai Army, and at most a third of the core of the Huai clique, that is the trop commanders of the eleven army corps.
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Tso Tsung-t'ang moved into his governor-general's seat at
Lanchow in August 1872. . . But Tso concentraded first on Hsi-ning, 120 miles north-west of Lanchow, especially because in 1872 it was under the control of Shensi Muslim leaders, including Pai Yen-hu who had been Ma Hua-ling's partisan and now
448:
The Ch'ing began to win only with the arrival of To-lung-a (1817–64) as imperial commissioner. Originally a Manchu banner officer, To-lung-a had, through the patronage of Hu Lin-i, risen to be a commander of the Hunan Army (the force under him being identified as the Ch'u-yung).40 In 1861, To-lung-a
170:
man named Liu Yun. She became pregnant with his child in 1892. Han
Chinese men viewed the toyluq they paid in silver for their Uyghur brides as a bride price. Uyghur Muslim women married Han Chinese men in Xinjiang in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Han Chinese men, Hindu men, Armenian men,
638:
Taipei and Tainan and sea cables linking Taiwan, the
Pescadores and Foochow - all considered militarily indispensable. Under contract with the German firm of Telge and Company and the British firm of Jardine, Matheson and Company respectively, both lines were completed in 1887 - five years after Li
411:
The most serious crisis was internal, for in March and April 1869, at the same time as the victory at Tung-chih-yuan, two alarming mutinies occurred in the best forces under Tso's command. In late March, after Liu Sung-shan had cut through northern Shensi and approached the Kansu-Ninghsia border, a
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Tso's preparations for his offensive in Kansu were nearly complete. From Hunan, his veteran officers had recruited a new force totalling some 55,000 men. In addition, Tseng Kuo-fan had transferred to Shensi in 1867 the only unit of his Hunan Army that was not disbanded - about 10,000 men under Liu
337:
the cases of Hunan particularly illustrates this widespread militarization of the scholar class. . .Such was also the case of Liu Ming-ch'uan who rose form smuggling salt to leading an army in Anhwei, and finally to the governorship of the province of Taiwan (see chapter 4). . . Until 1856 most of
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By the end of the Nien War in 1868, a new kind of military force had emerged as the Ch'ing dynasty's chief bulwark of security. Often referred to by historians as regional armies, these forces were generally described at the time as yung-ying (lit. 'brave battalions'). In the 1860s, such forces
477:
In mid-1864, Lei Cheng-kuan, a Hunan Army officer who had come with To-lung-a to Shensi and now fought in Kansu, captured both Ku-yuan and P'ing-liang, with the result that government highways were re-opened between the Wei River and western and central
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Another commander of the Hunan Army during the revolt was the Manchu
Dolonga (To-lung-a), who had been transferred from a Manchu banner. His leadership over the Hunan forces defeated the Muslim rebels and totally destroyed their position in
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Zuo raised a 55,000 man army from Hunan before he began the final push to reconquer Gansu from the Dungan rebels, they participated along with other regional armies (the Sichuan, Anhui, and Henan armies also joined the battle).
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intermediaries to translate and broker the marriages. A Han Chinese man with the surname Li bought a young Uyghur men from two Uyghur men who kidnapped her in 1880. They were employed by the magistrate of
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139:. Lei Zhengguan (Lei Cheng-kuan) was a commander under Dolonga, who fought successfully against the rebels, enabling Gansu roads to be reopened after capturing crucial cities.
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secret society, who started several mutinies during the Dungan Revolt, delaying crucial offensives. Zuo put down the mutinies and executed those involved.
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620:. Vol. 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 262.
465:. Vol. 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 219.
430:. Vol. 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 218.
393:. Vol. 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 230.
356:. Vol. 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 226.
319:. Vol. 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 540.
282:. Vol. 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 234.
245:. Vol. 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 202.
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region where the Army was raised. The Army was financed through local nobles and gentry, as opposed to the central government.
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166:. A Turpan Uyghur girl named Ruo-zang-le who was 12 was sold for 30 taels in 1889 in Qitai to a young Han Chinese
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In Hunan, the scholar literi were "militarized", and more commoners enlisted as officers in the army.
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86:. Remnants of the Xiang Army that fought the Taiping were then known as the "Old Hunan Army".
83:
580:"Mission and Revolution in Central Asia The MCCS Mission Work in Eastern Turkestan 1892-1938"
541:"Mission and Revolution in Central Asia The MCCS Mission Work in Eastern Turkestan 1892-1938"
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Jewish men and Russian men were married by Uyghur Muslim women who could not find husbands.
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The Muslim Emperor of China: Everyday. Politics in Colonial Xinjiang, 1877-1933
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183:. They were commanded by Liu Ao, and numbered 16 battalions, and came under
95:
614:
John King Fairbank; Kwang-Ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett, eds. (1980).
461:
John King Fairbank; Kwang-Ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett, eds. (1980).
424:
John King Fairbank; Kwang-Ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett, eds. (1980).
387:
John King Fairbank; Kwang-Ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett, eds. (1980).
350:
John King Fairbank; Kwang-Ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett, eds. (1980).
313:
John King Fairbank; Kwang-Ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett, eds. (1980).
276:
John King Fairbank; Kwang-Ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett, eds. (1980).
1927:
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armies that emerged in late Qing dynasty China, separate from the Manchu
1912:
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40:
1636:
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bought Turki Musulman (Uyghur) girls as wives from their parents
658:
496:
Land of Strangers: The Civilizing Project in Qing Central Asia
113:, In December 1872 sending 3,000 of them to Suzhou in Gansu.
123:
The Hunan Army was extensively infiltrated by the anti-Qing
1806:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
59:
braves') was a standing regional army organized by
109:
General Zuo Zongtang commanded the Hunan Army in the
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Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
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528:(Doctoral dissertation). Harvard. pp. 187–189.
145:and other Han Chinese male soldiers and sojourners
2101:Military units and formations established in 1862
2091:Military units and formations of the Qing dynasty
70:The Chu Army was one of two armies known as the
1211:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
94:The Xiang Army was an example of the regional
1631:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
1602:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
670:
8:
50:
1900:
699:
677:
663:
655:
1291:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
179:Hunan Army troops were also stationed in
1140:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
492:"Chinese Men Purchasing Musulman Brides"
1747:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
220:
2081:19th-century military history of China
596:
585:
560:
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2045:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
1286:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
7:
2086:Military history of the Qing dynasty
1266:Ministry of Posts and Communications
2014:History of Qing (People's Republic)
149:after Zuo Zongtang's reconquest of
1731:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
1100:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
1093:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
973:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
797:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
14:
2020:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
1861:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
1736:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
888:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
74:. Another Hunan Army, called the
1831:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
1147:Articles of Favourable Treatment
903:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
878:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
764:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
1532:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
822:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
45:
23:Photo of Zuo Zongtang in 1875.
1:
1966:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
1741:Islam during the Qing dynasty
1597:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
1281:Provincial military commander
1271:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
1256:Imperial Household Department
1083:Preparative Constitutionalism
787:Sino-Russian border conflicts
498:. Columbia University Press.
63:. The name is taken from the
2096:1862 establishments in China
1725:Researches on Manchu Origins
1130:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
740:Transition from Ming to Qing
730:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
135:province, expelling them to
1625:Changzhou School of Thought
1135:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
1110:Railway Protection Movement
1088:1909 Parliamentary election
1073:British expedition to Tibet
983:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
943:Self-Strengthening Movement
918:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
2122:
2025:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
913:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
852:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
842:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
812:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
2076:Military history of Hunan
2035:Names of the Qing dynasty
1683:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
1013:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
1008:Gongche Shangshu movement
953:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
802:Chinese Rites controversy
490:Schluessel, Eric (2020).
90:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
36:
1956:Great Qing Treasure Note
1776:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
1486:Administrative divisions
1303:Administrative divisions
1231:Flag of the Qing dynasty
1552:Chengde Mountain Resort
1353:Three Eastern Provinces
1003:First Sino-Japanese War
978:Northern Chinese Famine
837:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
735:Qing invasion of Joseon
237:Denis Crispin Twitchett
1933:Great Qing Copper Coin
1821:Convention of Tientsin
1754:Annotated Bibliography
1702:Qing official headwear
745:Battle of Shanhai Pass
617:Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911
595:Cite journal requires
559:Cite journal requires
463:Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911
427:Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911
390:Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911
353:Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911
316:Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911
279:Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911
242:Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911
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16:Qing-era standing army
2106:Field armies of China
2007:Draft History of Qing
1866:Treaty of Shimonoseki
1647:performance criticism
1251:Imperial Commissioner
1241:Great Qing Legal Code
1040:Eight-Nation Alliance
1023:Third plague pandemic
933:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
857:White Lotus Rebellion
650:Draft History of Qing
22:
1938:Great Qing Gold Coin
1871:Treaty of Tarbagatai
1816:Convention of Peking
1696:Pentaglot Dictionary
1678:Literary inquisition
1388:Ever Victorious Army
1221:Deliberative Council
1125:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
1078:1905 Batang uprising
1018:Hundred Days' Reform
908:Small Swords Society
519:Schluessel, Eric T.
1991:Anti-Qing sentiment
1841:Treaty of the Bogue
1781:Treaty of Nerchinsk
1713:Complete Tang Poems
1393:Green Standard Army
1276:Provincial governor
1246:Imperial Clan Court
1226:Diplomatic missions
1201:Consultative Bureau
948:Tongzhi Restoration
827:Afaqi Khoja revolts
807:Ten Great Campaigns
715:Jurchen unification
104:Green Standard Army
1876:Treaty of Tientsin
1587:Western Qing tombs
1582:Eastern Qing tombs
1408:Peking Field Force
1152:Manchu Restoration
1045:Declaration of war
998:Jindandao incident
817:Lhasa riot of 1750
229:John King Fairbank
153:, and the Han and
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1886:Treaty of Whampoa
1881:Treaty of Wanghia
1856:Treaty of Nanking
1826:Li–Lobanov Treaty
1801:Chefoo Convention
1796:Burlingame Treaty
1667:Kangxi Dictionary
1572:Old Summer Palace
1403:Firearm Battalion
1206:Cup of Solid Gold
1160:
1159:
1105:Manchurian plague
1068:Late Qing reforms
1059:(1901–1912)
993:Sikkim expedition
923:Panthay Rebellion
893:Taiping Rebellion
869:(1801–1900)
847:Sino-Nepalese War
792:Dzungar–Qing Wars
778:(1683–1799)
706:(1616–1683)
84:Taiping Rebellion
78:, was created by
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2040:New Qing History
1923:Qianlong Tongbao
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1846:Treaty of Canton
1786:Unequal treaties
1592:Fuling Mausoleum
1191:Advisory Council
1120:Wuchang Uprising
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963:Tianjin Massacre
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2001:Chuang Guandong
1970:
1942:
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1851:Treaty of Kulja
1836:Treaty of Aigun
1769:
1761:
1660:History of Ming
1612:
1606:
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1464:Special regions
1459:
1398:Imperial Guards
1364:
1156:
1115:1911 Revolution
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1058:
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1028:Boxer Rebellion
988:Sino-French War
938:Amur Annexation
883:First Opium War
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780:
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752:Great Clearance
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958:Mudan incident
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2033:
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2030:Manchu people
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2026:
2023:
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2018:
2016:
2015:
2011:
2009:
2008:
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2002:
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1996:Canton System
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1961:Hubu Guanpiao
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1383:Eight Banners
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1056:20th century
1054:
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1024:
1021:
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866:19th century
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627:0-521-22029-7
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111:Dungan Revolt
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100:Eight Banners
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58:
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42:
34:
30:
21:
2050:Treaty ports
2012:
2005:
1979:Other topics
1752:
1745:
1723:
1711:
1694:
1689:Peiwen Yunfu
1687:
1665:
1658:
1629:
1437:
1378:Beiyang Army
1360:Zongli Yamen
1216:Da-Qing Bank
1033:Red Lanterns
686:Qing dynasty
637:
631:. Retrieved
616:
609:
588:cite journal
573:
552:cite journal
534:
521:
514:
495:
485:
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462:
456:
447:
441:. Retrieved
426:
419:
410:
404:. Retrieved
389:
382:
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367:. Retrieved
352:
345:
336:
330:. Retrieved
315:
308:
299:
293:. Retrieved
278:
271:
262:
256:. Retrieved
241:
223:
197:Zuo Zongtang
191:Main leaders
178:
141:
129:
122:
118:
115:
108:
93:
69:
61:Zuo Zongtang
44:
28:
26:
1986:Aisin Gioro
1948:Paper money
1707:Qing poetry
1428:Wuwei Corps
1423:Shuishiying
1184:Family tree
80:Zeng Guofan
57:Chu (state)
2070:Categories
1654:Four Wangs
1545:mausoleums
1498:Golden Urn
1471:Inner Asia
1448:Xiang Army
1418:Hushenying
1343:Liangguang
1323:Liangjiang
1261:Lifan Yuan
1166:Government
633:2012-01-18
443:2012-01-18
406:2012-01-18
369:2012-01-18
332:2012-01-18
295:2012-01-18
258:2012-01-18
215:References
143:Xiang Army
76:Xiang Army
72:Hunan Army
1476:Manchuria
1443:Huai Army
1433:Yong Ying
1318:Shaan-Gan
774:High Qing
720:Later Jin
96:Yong Ying
1928:Hongqian
1897:Currency
1767:Treaties
1673:Kaozheng
1620:Booi Aha
1562:Hetu Ala
1515:Timeline
1510:Xinjiang
1481:Mongolia
1438:Chu Army
1413:New Army
1370:Military
1308:Viceroys
209:Tuanlian
203:See also
151:Xinjiang
125:Gelaohui
46:Chǔ Yǒng
29:Chu Army
1913:Zhiqian
1905:Coinage
1642:Economy
1613:culture
1348:Yun-Gui
1338:Min-Zhe
1333:Sichuan
1328:Huguang
1174:Emperor
695:History
155:Uyghurs
133:Shaanxi
33:Chinese
1527:Taiwan
703:Early
688:topics
624:
502:
478:Kansu.
469:
434:
397:
360:
323:
286:
249:
181:Taiwan
175:Taiwan
168:Shanxi
164:Pichan
43::
41:pinyin
35::
1719:Queue
1637:Dibao
1493:Tibet
1313:Zhili
1196:Amban
582:: 11.
544:(PDF)
526:(PDF)
137:Gansu
65:Hunan
55:'
1455:Navy
1296:Ejen
1179:List
622:ISBN
601:help
565:help
546:: 6.
500:ISBN
467:ISBN
432:ISBN
395:ISBN
358:ISBN
321:ISBN
284:ISBN
247:ISBN
102:and
52:lit.
27:The
159:Hui
2072::
636:.
592::
590:}}
586:{{
556::
554:}}
550:{{
494:.
475:.
446:.
409:.
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335:.
298:.
261:.
235:;
231:;
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671:t
664:v
603:)
599:(
567:)
563:(
508:.
31:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
