716:
929:
1082:
631:
242:
75:
679:
656:'s development of the Circus, commencing around 50 BC, extended the seating tiers to run almost the entire circuit of the track, barring the starting gates and a processional entrance at the semi-circular end. The track measured approximately 621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 150 m (490 ft) in breadth. A canal between the track perimeter and its seating protected spectators and help drain the track. The inner third of the seating formed a trackside
1078:. In 1852, a gas works was built on the site by the Anglo-Italian Gas Society. It remained in situ until 1910 when it was relocated to the edge of Rome. Mid-19th century workings at the circus site uncovered the lower parts of a seating tier and outer portico. Since then, a series of excavations has exposed further sections of the seating, curved turn and central barrier but further exploration has been limited by the scale, depth and waterlogging of the site.
418:
787:
1058:
1097:
1113:
767:'s decision to rebuild the Circus entirely in stone, and provide a new pulvinar in the stands where Rome's emperor could be seen and honoured as part of the Roman community, alongside their gods. Under Trajan, the Circus Maximus found its definitive form, which was unchanged thereafter save for some monumental additions by later emperors, an extensive, planned rebuilding of the starting gate area under
61:
854:
45:
483:
67:
2104:
1127:
565:, or plebeians), either adjacent or on the opposite, Aventine side of the track. Otherwise, the Circus was probably still little more than a trackway through surrounding farmland. By this time, it may have been drained but the wooden stands and seats would have frequently rotted and been rebuilt. The turning posts (
1738:
Nero, inordinately fond of chariot-racing, may have considered the Circus rebuilding a priority but the overall cost of Rome's rebuilding must have proved an extraordinary drain on
Imperial and public funds. Wooden bleachers for the Roman masses were an expedient, cost-effective solution. If Nero had
1048:
describes the opening of
Cerealia (mid to late April) with a horse race at the Circus, followed by the nighttime release of foxes into the stadium, their tails ablaze with lighted torches. Some early connection is likely between Ceres as goddess of grain crops and Consus as a god of grain storage and
1492:
Etruscan tomb paintings of chariot races offer a possible seating model for this earliest phase; noble sponsors and other dignitaries sit in elevated stands, complete with awning. Commoners lounge or sit below, at ground level. At the early Circus
Maximus, the sloping ground afforded the possibility
524:
and the stream which divided the valley lengthwise. The stream was probably bridged at an early date, at the two points where the track had to cross it, and the earliest races would have been held within an agricultural landscape, "with nothing more than turning posts, banks where spectators could
380:. Some Circus events, however, seem to have been relatively small and intimate affairs. In 167 BC, "flute players, scenic artists and dancers" performed on a temporary stage, probably erected between the two central seating banks. Others were enlarged at enormous expense to fit the entire space. A
1626:
As far as is known, there was no significant expansion of seating between Caesar's improvements and Pliny's estimate of 250,000 seats. His estimate ignores the necessary interruptions of seating rows by access stairways and corridors. It might represent a per foot run seating estimate, or include
1065:
After the 6th century, the Circus fell into disuse and decay. The lower levels, ever prone to flooding, were gradually buried under waterlogged alluvial soil and accumulated debris, so that the original track is now buried six meters beneath the modern surface. In the 11th century, the Circus was
731:
made improvements there; they probably included an extramural anti-flooding embankment. Fires in the crowded, wooden perimeter workshops and bleachers were a far greater danger. A fire of 36 AD seems to have started in a basket-maker's workshop under the stands, on the
Aventine side; the emperor
622:
could be simultaneously released onto the track. The stalls were allocated by lottery, and the various racing teams were identified by their colors. Typically, there were seven laps per race. From at least 174 BC, they were counted off using large sculpted eggs. In 33 BC, an additional
694:
at enormous expense, and erected midway along the dividing barrier of the Circus. It was Rome's first obelisk, an exotically sacred object and a permanent reminder of
Augustus' victory over his Roman foes and their Egyptian allies in the recent civil wars. Thanks to him, Rome had secured both a
747:
By the late 1st century AD, the central dividing barrier comprised a series of water basins, or else a single watercourse open in some places and bridged over in others. It offered opportunities for artistic embellishment and decorative swagger, and included the temples and statues of various
759:
built a new, multi-storey palace on the
Palatine, connected somehow to the Circus; he likely watched the games in autocratic style, from high above and barely visible to those below. Repairs to fire damage during his reign may already have been under way before his assassination.
861:
In this quasi-legendary era, horse or chariot races would have been held at the Circus site. The track width may have been determined by the distance between Murcia's and Consus' shrines at the southeastern end, and its length by the distance between these two shrines and
405:
were held on 57 days of the year; an unknown number of these would have required full use of the Circus. On many other days, charioteers and jockeys would need to practise on its track. Otherwise, it would have made a convenient corral for the animals traded in the nearby
666:. The outer tiers, two thirds of the total, were meant for Roman plebs and non-citizens. They were timber-built, with wooden-framed service buildings, shops and entrance-ways beneath. The total number of seats is uncertain, but was probably in the order of 150,000;
744:'s reign, fire broke out at the semi-circular end of the Circus, swept through the stands and shops, and destroyed much of the city. Games and festivals continued at the Circus, which was rebuilt over several years to the same footprint and design.
605:
Permanent wooden starting stalls were built in 329 BC. They were gated, brightly painted, and staggered to equalise the distances from each start place to the central barrier. In theory, they might have accommodated up to 25 four-horse chariots
1070:. During the renaissance, the site was one of many used as a convenient quarry for good quality building stone. Many of the Circus's standing structures survived these changes; in 1587, two obelisks were removed from the central barrier by
1573:, pp. 137–138: opposing teams of Reds and Whites are prominent in late Republican literature, and Greens and Blues in the Imperial era. Some Roman authors held that team-racing in multiple colors dated back to the regal era.
974:); together, they represented the predictable, orderly movement of the cosmos and the circuit of time, which found analogy in the Circus track. Luna's temple, which was probably built long before Apollo's, burned down in the
1627:
those watching from the nearby heights, outside the building proper. In late
Imperial regionary catalogues, seating estimates for the Circus become even wilder; one gives an impossible 450,000 seats. Discussion is in
711:
as "one of the most beautiful and admirable structures in Rome", with "entrances and ascents for the spectators at every shop, so that the countless thousands of people may enter and depart without inconvenience."
332:
ranged in duration and scope from one-day or even half-day events to spectacular multi-venue celebrations held over several days, with religious ceremonies and public feasts, horse and chariot racing, athletics,
707:) raised high above the trackside seats. Sometimes, while games were in progress, Augustus watched from there, alongside the gods. Occasionally, his family would join him there. This is the Circus described by
452:
Even at the height of its development as a chariot-racing circuit, the circus remained the most suitable space in Rome for religious processions on a grand scale and was the most popular venue for large-scale
414:(mid-1st century BC) was probably "a dusty open space with shops and booths ... a colourful crowded disreputable area" frequented by "prostitutes, jugglers, fortune tellers and low-class performing artists".
4308:
801:
The southeastern turn of the track ran between two shrines which may have predated the Circus' formal development. One, at the outer southeast perimeter, was dedicated to the valley's eponymous goddess
986:, usually identified as her brother. After the loss of her temple, her cult may have been transferred to Sol's temple on the dividing barrier, or one beside it; both would have been open to the sky.
461:
laid on a spectacular Circus show in which beasts were hunted through a veritable forest of trees, on a specially built stage. With the advent of
Christianity as the official religion of the Empire,
610:) abreast but when team-racing was introduced, they were widened, and their number reduced. By the late Republican or early Imperial era, there were twelve stalls. Their divisions were fronted by
771:, and repairs and renewals to existing fabric. Of these, Pliny claims that Trajan's works gained a further 5,000 seats. Some repairs were unforeseen and extensive, such as those carried out in
814:
shrub, a sacred spring, the stream that divided the valley, and the lesser peak of the
Aventine Hill. The other was at the southeastern turning-post, where there was an underground shrine to
215:. It measured 621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 118 m (387 ft) in width and could accommodate over 150,000 spectators. In its fully developed form, it became the model for
1066:"replaced by dwellings rented out by the congregation of Saint-Guy." In the 12th century, a watercourse was dug there to drain the soil, and by the 16th century the area was used as a
4601:
997:
stood close together on the
Aventine, more or less opposite the Circus' starting gate, which remained under Hercules' protection. Further southeast along the Aventine was a temple to
569:), each made of three conical stone pillars, may have been the earliest permanent Circus structures; an open drainage canal between the posts would have served as a dividing barrier.
4298:
3396:
962:
towered over the arena, set in the central barrier, close to his temple and the finishing line. The Sun-god was the ultimate, victorious charioteer, driving his four-horse chariot (
602:
at the southeastern turn, an excellent viewpoint for the thrills and spills of chariot racing. In the 190s BC, stone track-side seating was built, exclusively for senators.
950:
Sun and Moon cults were probably represented at the Circus from its earliest phases. Their importance grew with the introduction of Roman cult to Apollo, and the development of
870:, supposedly older than Rome itself and sited behind the Circus' starting place. The position of Consus' shrine at the turn of the track recalls the placing of shrines to Roman
1028:
Several festivals, some of uncertain foundation and date, were held at the Circus in historical times. The Consualia, with its semi-mythical establishment by Romulus, and the
898:) between the turning posts, her shrine was either retained or rebuilt. In the Late Imperial period, both the southeastern turn and the circus itself were sometimes known as
410:, just outside the starting gate. Beneath the outer stands, next to the Circus' entrances, were workshops and shops. When no games were being held, the Circus at the time of
690:
at the site but both were major projects. Ever since its quarrying, long before Rome existed, the obelisk had been sacred to Egyptian Sun-gods. Augustus had it brought from
386:
held there in 169 BC, one of several in the 2nd century, employed "63 leopards and 40 bears and elephants", with spectators presumably kept safe by a substantial barrier.
4611:
748:
deities, fountains, and refuges for those assistants involved in more dangerous circus activities, such as beast-hunts and the recovery of casualties during races.
4258:
1700:
described the Circus and its seating c.30 BC–AD 8. Augustus also rebuilt Ceres' temple, above the starting gates; it was probably damaged in the fire of 31 BC.
3863:
838:
festival, as a way of gathering his Sabine neighbours at a celebration that included horse-races and drinking. During these distractions, Romulus's men then
2166:
786:
377:
686:
The fire damage of 31 was probably repaired by Augustus (Caesar's successor and Rome's first emperor). He modestly claimed credit only for an obelisk and
4143:
3386:
433:. Over the centuries of its development, the Circus Maximus became Rome's paramount specialist venue for chariot races. By the late 1st century AD, the
4163:
3934:
3266:
3511:
3226:
670:'s estimate of 250,000 seating places is unlikely. The wooden bleachers were damaged in a fire of 31 BC, either during or after construction.
4596:
890:, was incorporated into the fabric of the south-eastern turning post. When Murcia's stream was partly built over, to form a dividing barrier (the
715:
1601:
A processional entrance at the semi-circular end,. prior to the erection there of Titus' triumphal arch, is assumed by most modern sources. See
1553:
Racing teams might have been used as early as the Regal era (according to some later Roman traditions), or as late as the end of the Punic Wars.
928:
4243:
3823:
3391:
2061:
2006:
1421:
465:
gradually fell out of favour. The last known beast-hunt at the Circus Maximus took place in 523, and the last known races there were held by
1514:
In the earliest exercise of the right, a curule chair would have been brought to the spot; its permanent positioning there is unlikely. See
2664:
921:, as god of earthquakes and horses; the Romans believed dolphins to be the swiftest of all creatures. When the Romans adopted the Phrygian
4178:
4173:
3944:
3918:
1729:, pp. 100–101. Claudius' improvements at the Circus included stone-built or marble-clad starting stalls and rebuilt turning posts.
1479:
Tarquin might have employed the plebs in constructing a conduit or drain (cloaca) for Murcia's stream, discharging into the Tiber. See
4263:
3216:
2649:
703:
697:
583:
4481:
4213:
4083:
2654:
2419:
2175:
1649:
1155:
4198:
3301:
113:
4278:
4223:
3853:
3441:
2624:
2096:
1265:
of wealth and high standing. Despite the sometimes crippling personal cost of running for office and providing "extras" for the
1093:
The Circus site now functions as a large park area, open to the public and often used for concerts, meetings, and celebrations.
4283:
4183:
3838:
3612:
3597:
3366:
2159:
793:
31:
1882:, pp. 61–62. For Murcia's shifting topographical associations, see Otto Skutsch, "Enniana IV: Condendae urbis auspicia",
4303:
3381:
3098:
2086:
1644:. Volume II: The Accession of Nerva to the overthrow of the Severan dynasty, AD96-AD235 (pp.112, coin#3208). London: Spink.
4018:
3813:
3251:
4268:
3773:
3677:
3536:
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4238:
4208:
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3321:
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1018:
1017:) stood on the slopes above the southeast turn. On the Palatine hill, opposite to Ceres's temple, stood the temple to
630:
3778:
3286:
3256:
925:
as an ancestral deity, a statue of her on lion-back was erected within the circus, probably on the dividing barrier.
60:
4501:
3587:
3336:
3291:
3261:
2629:
2152:
1697:
1022:
917:. Likewise, the later use of dolphin-shaped lap counters reinforced associations between the races, swiftness, and
708:
691:
1497:
in his account of the first Consualia – replaced with wooden seating tiers by later sponsors and benefactors. See
445:, though long-distance foot races were still held at the Circus. Eventually, 135 days of the year were devoted to
241:
4606:
4293:
3898:
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3848:
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system of large bronze dolphin-shaped lap counters was added, positioned well above the central dividing barrier
546:
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4218:
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3531:
3506:
3411:
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3015:
2692:
2659:
2386:
1965:
847:
272:
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662:. Its front sections along the central straight were reserved for senators, and those immediately behind for
587:) but seats at the track's perimeter offered the best, most dramatic close-ups. In 494 BC (very early in the
49:
View of the Circus site from the south-east. The tower in the foreground is part of a medieval fortification.
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3647:
3602:
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3436:
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3231:
2708:
2409:
1810:
678:
595:
520:. In Rome's early days, the valley would have been rich agricultural land, prone to flooding from the river
334:
100:
4549:
4389:
4253:
4123:
4103:
4063:
3637:
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3113:
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1942:
1739:
grander plans for the Circus, they ended with his suicide under compulsion, after a coup d'etat in AD 68.
755:
at the semi-circular end of the Circus, to replace or augment a former processional entrance. The emperor
534:
458:
1032:, the major festival of Ceres, were probably older than the earliest historically attested "Roman Games"
4193:
4118:
3737:
3702:
3471:
3456:
3376:
3371:
3296:
3103:
3037:
2996:
2837:
2805:
2749:
1241:
539:
291:
4348:
4033:
3592:
1269:, a successful aedile could secure popular favor and a substantial share of the vote at election time.
557:), probably midway along the Palatine straight, with an awning against the sun and rain. His grandson,
4394:
4108:
4013:
4003:
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3727:
3662:
3501:
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2259:
968:) through the heavenly circuit from sunrise to sunset. His partner Luna drove her two-horse chariot (
935:
1813:
and his descendants in 494 BC would have been enhanced by its positioning close to this shrine. See
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University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, 1999, p.315, isbn 0-520-21024
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958:. In the Imperial era, the Sun-god was divine patron of the Circus and its games. His sacred
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2234:
1996:
1565:, p. 171; the gates probably used the same animal-sinew torsion springing as the Roman
982:, who seems to have been represented in the processions that started Circus games, and with
911:
907:
831:
488:
417:
178:
641:, and the Circus Maximus, with Augustus' obelisk midway along the central dividing barrier
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3939:
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3707:
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1359:
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1002:
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839:
667:
352:
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3341:
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549:, built raised, wooden perimeter seating at the Circus for Rome's highest echelons (the
441:
shows and smaller beast-hunts, and most track-athletes competed at the purpose-designed
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2794:
2744:
2703:
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2358:
2229:
2214:
2209:
2199:
2189:
1841:, p. 62; "later Roman authors often reported the Consualia were held in honour of
1254:
998:
970:
887:
682:
Sestertius of Trajan celebrating the restoration of the Circus Maximus (minted 103 AD).
619:
592:
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189:
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Temples to several deities overlooked the Circus; most are now lost. The temples to
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offered opportunities to assess an aedile's competence, generosity, and fitness for
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4516:
4496:
4462:
4449:
4424:
4113:
3924:
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2518:
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2328:
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581:
usually sat beside the images of attending gods, on a conspicuous, elevated stand (
212:
208:
1112:
2051:
763:
The risk of further fire-damage, coupled with Domitian's fate, may have prompted
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3582:
2944:
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2724:
2539:
2532:
2472:
1859:
1330:
1227:
1035:
983:
922:
727:
The site remained prone to flooding, probably through the starting gates, until
220:
1436:, p. 131. Humphrey describes the last known Circus event (549) as "games".
4073:
3983:
2851:
2525:
2490:
2120:
1858:(a spine) for the central barrier, based on a single, very late Roman source (
1449:
1258:
1108:
879:
867:
853:
843:
823:
772:
634:
554:
349:(meaning sport or game in Latin) at the Circus began with a flamboyant parade
338:
246:
44:
775:'s reign, after the collapse of a seating section killed some 13,000 people.
128:
115:
17:
4323:
4098:
4068:
2883:
2618:
2224:
1866:, a Greek word meaning a channel, strait, or canal, and thus a barrier. See
1769:
1262:
1010:
978:
and was probably not replaced. Her cult was closely identified with that of
835:
768:
638:
482:
438:
434:
397:
invented by politicians who competed for divine and popular support. By the
342:
258:
1914:
Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens
1505:
and a possible canal as central dividing barrier, see summary on pp. 292–3.
614:
that served as stops for spring-loaded gates, so that twelve light-weight,
282:
were sponsored by leading Romans or the Roman state for the benefit of the
2103:
66:
4506:
3798:
2823:
2698:
1566:
1029:
1014:
964:
951:
875:
863:
756:
733:
728:
615:
607:
504:
The Circus Maximus was sited on the level ground of the Valley of Murcia
411:
361:, which marked the purpose of the games and introduced the participants.
902:. The symbols used to count race-laps also held religious significance;
3783:
959:
827:
550:
382:
192:
3808:
1717:
of AD 12 were temporarily transferred from the Circus, after a flood.
1661:
1290:
932:
815:
811:
764:
466:
369:
2144:
1240:
Described by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 7.72.1–13, supplemented by
1061:
Ruins overlooking the Circus Maximus, seen from the Aventine (1983)
4203:
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1080:
1056:
927:
752:
714:
677:
658:
629:
611:
562:
521:
481:
416:
311:
299:
240:
174:
938:(2nd century AD) depicting chariot races, with the three-pointed
1937:
1494:
1045:
741:
736:
compensated various small businesses there for their losses. In
529:
283:
267:
236:
196:
2148:
1273:
was among those who solidified his support through his lavish
818:, a minor god of grain-stores, connected to the grain-goddess
2081:
1432:, 3. 37. 4. For the last known beast-hunt at the Circus, see
1021:
and, more or less opposite Luna's temple, one to the sun-god
429:
and the need for more specialised venues, as obligations of
1404:
Bowersock, Glen Warren; Brown, Peter; Grabar, Oleg (1999).
1289:, p. 71, A later iron cage-work barrier is evident at
796:
The Circus Maximus site and the Palatine Hill in background
425:
Rome's emperors met the growing popular demand for regular
1897:
In Search of God the Mother: The Cult of Anatolian Cybele,
1493:
of turf seating tiers at an early date – as imagined by
372:
organized the games. The most costly and complex of the
294:. Most were held annually or at annual intervals on the
1448:, p. 11. Humphrey describes this as "like a Greek
1912:, Vol. 36, (2001), p. 75. See also Doro Levi, "Aion",
1908:
Jean Sorabella, "A Roman Sarcophagus and Its Patron",
723:, 1911. The staggered starting gates are to the left.
345:
fights. Some included public executions. The greater
1660:
It was quarried and first dedicated in the reign of
257:(right); the oval structure to the far right is the
4568:
4540:
4480:
4410:
4403:
4322:
4132:
4082:
3968:
3907:
3761:
3575:
3555:
3205:
3164:
3069:
3046:
3008:
2926:
2861:
2779:
2717:
2610:
2574:
2549:
2482:
2429:
2418:
2384:
2182:
2001:. University of California Press. pp. 4, 166.
1998:
Renaissance Rome 1500–1559: A Portrait of a Society
1677:"Mysteries of the Nile – A World of Obelisks: Rome"
701:
was built on monumental scale, a shrine or temple (
421:
View of the Circus site from the south-east in 2019
159:
154:
144:
107:
95:
1408:Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World
1405:
1358:Extraordinarily long races of up to 128 miles, if
1197:at the Circus, a substantial downward revision of
942:at each end of the dividing barrier shown at top (
850:had as its setting the Circus and the Consualia.
751:In AD 81 the Senate built a triple arch honoring
561:, added the first seating for citizen-commoners (
954:and solar monism as a theological basis for the
842:the Sabine daughters as brides. Thus the famous
27:Ancient Roman stadium, a landmark of Rome, Italy
1981:Françoise Choay, (Trans. Lauren M. O'Connell),
1470:The Aventine was a predominantly plebeian area.
719:Groundplan of the Circus Maximus, according to
695:lasting peace and a new Egyptian Province. The
219:throughout the Roman Empire. The site is now a
207:hills, it was the first and largest stadium in
4602:Ancient Roman buildings and structures in Rome
2160:
2095:High-resolution 360° Panoramas and Images of
1972:, University of Texas Press, 1996, pp. 36–37.
1089:victory celebration at the site of the Circus
598:and his descendants were granted rights to a
306:. In Roman tradition, the earliest triumphal
8:
2078:Virtual 3D reconstruction of the Roman Forum
1201:'s estimate of 250,000. For discussion, see
910:, were patrons of horses, horsemen, and the
37:
4259:Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria
1577:p. 175 for allocation of stalls by lottery.
1527:Livy has the plebs seated "promiscuously" (
1329:, "Looking for Camerius. The Topography of
4407:
4144:Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum
2426:
2167:
2153:
2145:
1985:, Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 20.
1886:, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Nov., 1961), pp. 252–67.
36:
2053:Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing
830:discovered this shrine shortly after the
525:sit, and some shrines and sacred spots".
496:, was once part of the dividing barrier (
4612:Burned buildings and structures in Italy
4309:Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum
3227:Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls
2113:
2034:
1925:
1879:
1867:
1838:
1826:
1814:
1793:
1781:
1752:
1740:
1726:
1693:
1671:
1669:
1628:
1614:
1602:
1589:
1585:
1583:
1562:
1532:
1515:
1498:
1480:
1445:
1433:
1387:
1375:
1363:
1346:
1322:
1313:, Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 246.
1286:
1214:
1202:
1181:
1001:, the moon goddess. Aventine temples to
852:
302:, such as the games in celebration of a
265:The Circus was Rome's largest venue for
245:Model of Rome in the 4th century AD, by
1305:
1303:
1171:
1074:, and one of these was re-sited at the
457:; in the late 3rd century, the emperor
389:As Rome's provinces expanded, existing
4244:Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia
3232:Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican
2023:The Invention of the Historic Monument
1983:The Invention of the Historic Monument
1193:This is a modern recalculation of the
1177:
1175:
1044:in 366 BC. In the early Imperial era,
437:had been built for most of the city's
74:
3512:Sacro Cuore di Gesù a Castro Pretorio
1772:on the opposite side of the Palatine.
7:
3919:Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of Italy
3267:S. Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana
1764:This is not to be confused with the
1412:. Harvard University Press. p.
1335:Papers of the British School at Rome
298:. Others might be given to fulfil a
3935:Column of the Immaculate Conception
3864:in Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere
1884:The Classical Quarterly, New Series
1501:, pp. 65–66, 68–69, for early
806:, an obscure deity associated with
199:, Italy. In the valley between the
4264:Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome
3217:Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran
2056:. University of California Press.
1704:pp. 268–272 for Augustus' obelisk.
25:
4214:Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica
4179:Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna
2655:Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
2091:, part of the Encyclopædia Romana
1337:, 1980, pp. 11–13 with footnotes.
1156:List of closed stadia by capacity
4279:Museum of the Liberation of Rome
4224:Museo delle anime del Purgatorio
4174:Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica
4164:Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna
2625:Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
2102:
1928:, pp. 61–64, 92–94, 270–273
1461:Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, I. 35, 56
1311:A Dictionary of the Roman Empire
1125:
1111:
1040:held at the Circus in honour of
826:. According to Roman tradition,
785:
195:and mass entertainment venue in
73:
65:
59:
43:
4284:National Museum of Oriental Art
4184:Giorgio de Chirico House Museum
3613:Palazzo Barberini ai Giubbonari
3598:Domus Internationalis Paulus VI
1862:), but most Roman sources used
32:Circus Maximus (disambiguation)
4597:Ancient Roman circuses in Rome
4304:Porta San Paolo Railway Museum
3099:Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas
1916:, Vol. 13, 4, 1944, pp. 287ff.
1228:"Ludus - the Latin Dictionary"
249:. The Circus lies between the
1:
1805:The prestige attached to the
1544:Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 8.20.1
1529:antea in promiscuo spectabant
1253:Aedileship was a rung on the
882:. In later developments, the
4269:Museum of Roman Civilization
4199:Keats–Shelley Memorial House
3678:Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne
3222:Basilica of Saint Mary Major
1642:Roman Coins and Their Values
1161:Hippodrome of Constantinople
271:, public games connected to
4361:Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus
4239:Museo di Roma in Trastevere
4209:Museo Archeologico Ostiense
3945:Hospital of the Holy Spirit
3517:S. Sebastiano fuori le mura
3124:Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker
3094:Catacombs of San Sebastiano
1910:Metropolitan Museum Journal
473:Topography and construction
4628:
4502:Castello Orsini-Odescalchi
3588:Casa dei Cavalieri di Rodi
3362:S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini
3357:S. Giovanni a Porta Latina
2630:Temple of Apollo Palatinus
2097:Circus Maximus | Art Atlas
2050:Humphrey, John H. (1986).
1698:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
709:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
577:The games' sponsor (Latin
230:
87:Shown within Augustan Rome
29:
4458:
4294:Palazzo delle Esposizioni
3723:Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli
3623:Palazzo della Cancelleria
3021:Column of Marcus Aurelius
2801:Basilica of Junius Bassus
2645:Temple of Hercules Victor
2635:Temple of Apollo Sosianus
2462:Arch of Septimius Severus
1796:, pp. 80, 102, 126–9
1100:Circus Maximus site, 2023
547:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
393:were embellished and new
54:
42:
4492:Appian Way Regional Park
4299:Pigorini National Museum
4219:Museo Civico di Zoologia
3854:della Piazza dei Quiriti
3566:List of churches in Rome
3507:Sacro Cuore di Cristo Re
3332:S. Croce in Via Flaminia
3307:S. Cecilia in Trastevere
3292:Ss. Bonifacio ed Alessio
3272:S. Apollinare alle Terme
3252:S. Anastasia al Palatino
3237:S. Lorenzo fuori le mura
3016:Column of Antoninus Pius
2693:Largo di Torre Argentina
2665:Temple of Minerva Medica
2660:Temple of Jupiter Tonans
1966:Spaeth, Barbette Stanley
1854:Most modern sources use
886:, as one of the Circus'
848:Rape of the Sabine women
627:for maximum visibility.
4380:Portonaccio sarcophagus
4367:Ecstasy of Saint Teresa
4344:Colossus of Constantine
4339:Augustus of Prima Porta
4314:Venanzo Crocetti Museum
4274:Museum of the Ara Pacis
4249:Museo Nazionale Etrusco
4169:Galleria Doria Pamphilj
4059:Via della Conciliazione
4019:Piazza della Repubblica
3648:Palazzo Fusconi-Pighini
3603:Palazzo Aragona Gonzaga
3442:S. Maria della Vittoria
3337:S. Croce in Gerusalemme
3287:S. Bartolomeo all'Isola
3242:S. Agnese fuori le mura
2709:Porta Maggiore Basilica
2410:Obelisk of Montecitorio
1995:Partner, Peter (1976).
1970:The Roman goddess Ceres
1811:Manius Valerius Maximus
1640:Sear, David R. (2002).
1362:is to be believed; see
596:Manius Valerius Maximus
500:) at the Circus Maximus
101:Regio XI Circus Maximus
4550:Festa della Repubblica
4390:Sistine Chapel ceiling
4254:Museo Nazionale Romano
4124:Parco degli Acquedotti
4104:Villa Borghese gardens
4064:Via dei Fori Imperiali
3638:Palazzo della Consulta
3522:S. Silvestro in Capite
3427:S. Maria in Trastevere
3422:S. Maria sopra Minerva
3397:S. Maria in Montesanto
3257:S. Andrea delle Fratte
3129:Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus
3114:Mausoleum of Maxentius
3084:Catacombs of Domitilla
2992:Villa of the Quintilii
1390:, p. 128, citing
1101:
1090:
1062:
1053:Modern status and uses
1049:patron of the Circus.
947:
858:
779:Religious significance
724:
683:
650:
501:
422:
262:
177:for "largest circus";
4542:Events and traditions
4349:La Bocca della Verità
4194:Jewish Museum of Rome
3688:Palazzo del Quirinale
3532:S. Sofia a Via Boccea
3392:S. Maria degli Angeli
3382:S. Maria Ausiliatrice
3262:S. Andrea della Valle
3104:Mausoleum of Augustus
3038:Five-Columns Monument
2986:Insula dell'Ara Coeli
2838:Portico Dii Consentes
2806:Basilica of Maxentius
2111:at Wikimedia Commons
1955:Wiseman, 1995, p.137.
1895:Roller, Lynn Emrich,
1325:, p. 72, citing
1242:Quintus Fabius Pictor
1099:
1084:
1060:
931:
874:'s Greek equivalent,
857:Circus Maximus., 1978
856:
718:
681:
633:
485:
431:their office and cult
420:
322:for his victory over
244:
129:41.88583°N 12.48583°E
4395:Velletri Sarcophagus
4355:Laocoön and His Sons
4109:Villa Doria Pamphili
4014:Piazza della Minerva
3839:di Piazza d'Aracoeli
3728:Palazzo del Viminale
3673:Palazzo di Giustizia
3502:Sacro Cuore di Maria
3487:Ss. Quattro Coronati
3472:S. Pietro in Vincoli
3457:S. Nicola in Carcere
3452:Ss. Nereo e Achilleo
3437:S. Maria in Via Lata
3412:S. Maria in Aracoeli
3402:S. Maria in Cosmedin
3377:S. Lorenzo in Lucina
3372:S. Lorenzo in Damaso
3367:Ss. Giovanni e Paolo
3312:Ss. Celso e Giuliano
3297:S. Camillo de Lellis
2913:Theatre of Marcellus
2685:House of the Vestals
1428:; citing Procopius,
359:triumphal procession
30:For other uses, see
3915:Altare della Patria
3576:Castles and palaces
3447:S. Martino ai Monti
3417:S. Maria del Popolo
3407:S. Maria in Domnica
3352:S. Francesca Romana
3322:Ss. Cosma e Damiano
3144:Tombs of Via Latina
3139:Tomb of the Scipios
3134:Tomb of the Haterii
3109:Mausoleum of Helena
2908:Stadium of Domitian
2898:Gardens of Maecenas
2874:Circus of Maxentius
2811:Basilica of Neptune
2788:Basilica Argentaria
2592:Baths of Diocletian
2565:Cloaca Circi Maximi
2437:Arch of Constantine
2405:Obelisk of Minerveo
2137:Circus of Maxentius
1605:, pp. 69, 97ff
1141:Circus of Maxentius
976:Great Fire of 64 AD
956:Roman Imperial cult
721:Samuel Ball Platner
559:Tarquinius Superbus
443:Stadium of Domitian
310:at the Circus were
125: /
39:
4560:Rome Film Festival
4522:Villa Aldobrandini
4149:Capitoline Museums
3994:Clivus Capitolinus
3653:Palazzo Giustinani
3593:Castel Sant'Angelo
3537:S. Stefano Rotondo
3119:Pyramid of Cestius
2968:Palace of Domitian
2903:Gardens of Sallust
2750:Forum of Vespasian
2670:Temple of Portunus
2587:Baths of Caracalla
2082:www.italyrome.info
1843:Neptunus Equestris
1755:, pp. 293–294
1696:, pp. 72–73.
1592:, pp. 261–265
1531:) up to then: see
1102:
1091:
1063:
948:
944:Walters Art Museum
859:
834:. He invented the
725:
684:
651:
620:two-horse chariots
502:
423:
318:to Jupiter in the
263:
134:41.88583; 12.48583
4584:
4583:
4555:Rome Quadriennale
4482:Metropolitan City
4476:
4475:
4159:Galleria Borghese
4034:Piazza San Pietro
4009:Piazza del Popolo
4004:Piazza d'Aracoeli
3977:and public spaces
3859:di Piazza Nicosia
3849:di Piazza Farnese
3844:di Piazza Colonna
3718:Palazzo Valentini
3608:Palazzo Barberini
3302:S. Carlo al Corso
3201:
3200:
3192:Ponte Sant'Angelo
3149:Tomb of Priscilla
3089:Catacombs of Rome
2963:House of Augustus
2952:Domus Transitoria
2918:Theatre of Pompey
2845:Porticus Octaviae
2735:Forum of Augustus
2640:Temple of Hadrian
2452:Arch of Gallienus
2442:Arch of Dolabella
2400:Flaminian Obelisk
2176:Landmarks of Rome
2143:
2142:
2133:Succeeded by
2127:Landmarks of Rome
2107:Media related to
2063:978-0-520-04921-5
2008:978-0-520-03945-2
1768:, built over the
1617:, pp. 75, 84
1423:978-0-674-51173-6
1394:, Probus, 19.2–4.
1309:Bunson, Matthew,
1151:Forma Urbis Romae
1076:Piazza del Popolo
904:Castor and Pollux
512:, between Rome's
494:Piazza del Popolo
489:Obelisco Flaminio
316:Tarquin the Proud
167:
166:
16:(Redirected from
4619:
4607:Rome R. XII Ripa
4408:
4333:Apollo Belvedere
4229:Museo delle Mura
4049:Via dei Coronari
4039:Piazza di Spagna
3733:Palazzo Wedekind
3693:Palazzo Pamphilj
3618:Palazzo Borghese
3527:S. Sisto Vecchio
3055:Porticus Aemilia
3027:Column of Phocas
3009:Column monuments
2770:Forum Holitorium
2675:Temple of Saturn
2582:Baths of Agrippa
2498:Aqua Alexandrina
2430:Triumphal arches
2427:
2299:Castra Praetoria
2169:
2162:
2155:
2146:
2117:Preceded by
2114:
2106:
2067:
2038:
2032:
2026:
2019:
2013:
2012:
1992:
1986:
1979:
1973:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1947:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1917:
1906:
1900:
1893:
1887:
1877:
1871:
1852:
1846:
1836:
1830:
1824:
1818:
1803:
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1791:
1785:
1779:
1773:
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1750:
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1724:
1718:
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1705:
1691:
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1471:
1468:
1462:
1459:
1453:
1443:
1437:
1427:
1411:
1401:
1395:
1392:Historia Augusta
1385:
1379:
1378:, pp. 71–72
1373:
1367:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1338:
1320:
1314:
1307:
1298:
1284:
1278:
1251:
1245:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1224:
1218:
1217:, pp. 66–67
1212:
1206:
1191:
1185:
1179:
1135:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1121:
1116:
1115:
912:equestrian order
908:born from an egg
832:founding of Rome
789:
357:, much like the
140:
139:
137:
136:
135:
130:
126:
123:
122:
121:
118:
77:
76:
69:
63:
47:
40:
21:
4627:
4626:
4622:
4621:
4620:
4618:
4617:
4616:
4587:
4586:
4585:
4580:
4564:
4536:
4512:Hadrian's Villa
4484:of Rome Capital
4483:
4472:
4468:Monte Testaccio
4454:
4399:
4318:
4289:Palazzo Colonna
4135:
4128:
4086:
4078:
3989:Campo de' Fiori
3976:
3964:
3908:Other landmarks
3903:
3879:Quattro Fontane
3757:
3743:Villa Farnesina
3738:Palazzo Zuccari
3708:Palazzo Ruspoli
3643:Palazzo Farnese
3633:Palazzo Colonna
3571:
3551:
3432:S. Maria in Via
3208:
3197:
3160:
3155:Vigna Randanini
3065:
3061:Trajan's Market
3042:
3033:Trajan's Column
3004:
2938:Domus Augustana
2922:
2857:
2775:
2740:Forum of Caesar
2713:
2680:Temple of Vesta
2650:Temple of Janus
2606:
2602:Baths of Trajan
2570:
2545:
2512:Aqua Anio Novus
2505:Aqua Anio Vetus
2478:
2421:
2414:
2395:Lateran Obelisk
2380:
2183:Walls and gates
2178:
2173:
2134:
2130:Circus Maximus
2129:
2118:
2074:
2064:
2049:
2046:
2041:
2033:
2029:
2020:
2016:
2009:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1980:
1976:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1943:Ab urbe condita
1936:
1932:
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1920:
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1600:
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1588:
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1557:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1539:
1526:
1522:
1513:
1509:
1491:
1487:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1460:
1456:
1444:
1440:
1430:The Gothic Wars
1424:
1403:
1402:
1398:
1386:
1382:
1374:
1370:
1360:Pliny the Elder
1357:
1353:
1345:
1341:
1321:
1317:
1308:
1301:
1285:
1281:
1257:, available to
1252:
1248:
1239:
1235:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1213:
1209:
1199:Pliny the Elder
1192:
1188:
1180:
1173:
1169:
1131:
1126:
1124:
1117:
1110:
1107:
1055:
1003:Venus Obsequens
884:altar of Consus
799:
798:
797:
795:
790:
781:
676:
668:Pliny the Elder
575:
535:History of Rome
480:
475:
353:pompa circensis
286:populus Romanus
273:Roman religious
239:
229:
227:Events and uses
163:Old Kingdom era
133:
131:
127:
124:
119:
116:
114:
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111:
91:
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4416:
4414:
4405:
4401:
4400:
4398:
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2072:External links
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2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2165:
2163:
2158:
2156:
2151:
2150:
2147:
2139:
2138:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2105:
2098:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2087:James Grout:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2059:
2055:
2054:
2048:
2047:
2043:
2037:, p. 57.
2036:
2035:Humphrey 1986
2031:
2028:
2024:
2018:
2015:
2010:
2004:
2000:
1999:
1991:
1988:
1984:
1978:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1961:
1958:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1931:
1927:
1926:Humphrey 1986
1922:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1880:Humphrey 1986
1876:
1873:
1870:, p. 175
1869:
1868:Humphrey 1986
1865:
1861:
1857:
1851:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1839:Humphrey 1986
1835:
1832:
1828:
1827:Humphrey 1986
1823:
1820:
1816:
1815:Humphrey 1986
1812:
1808:
1802:
1799:
1795:
1794:Humphrey 1986
1790:
1787:
1783:
1782:Humphrey 1986
1778:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1766:Arch of Titus
1761:
1758:
1754:
1753:Humphrey 1986
1749:
1746:
1743:, p. 101
1742:
1741:Humphrey 1986
1735:
1732:
1728:
1727:Humphrey 1986
1723:
1720:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1694:Humphrey 1986
1690:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1663:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1650:1-902040-45-7
1647:
1643:
1637:
1634:
1631:, p. 126
1630:
1629:Humphrey 1986
1623:
1620:
1616:
1615:Humphrey 1986
1611:
1608:
1604:
1603:Humphrey 1986
1598:
1595:
1591:
1590:Humphrey 1986
1586:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1563:Humphrey 1986
1559:
1556:
1550:
1547:
1541:
1538:
1534:
1533:Humphrey 1986
1530:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1516:Humphrey 1986
1511:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1499:Humphrey 1986
1496:
1489:
1486:
1482:
1481:Humphrey 1986
1476:
1473:
1467:
1464:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1446:Humphrey 1986
1442:
1439:
1435:
1434:Humphrey 1986
1431:
1425:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1409:
1400:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1388:Humphrey 1986
1384:
1381:
1377:
1376:Humphrey 1986
1372:
1369:
1365:
1364:Humphrey 1986
1361:
1355:
1352:
1348:
1347:Humphrey 1986
1343:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1327:T. P. Wiseman
1324:
1323:Humphrey 1986
1319:
1316:
1312:
1306:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1287:Humphrey 1986
1283:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1271:Julius Caesar
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1250:
1247:
1243:
1237:
1234:
1229:
1223:
1220:
1216:
1215:Humphrey 1986
1211:
1208:
1205:, p. 126
1204:
1203:Humphrey 1986
1200:
1196:
1195:seat capacity
1190:
1187:
1183:
1182:Humphrey 1986
1178:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1134:
1133:Sports portal
1123:
1120:
1119:Horses portal
1114:
1109:
1104:
1098:
1094:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1072:Pope Sixtus V
1069:
1068:market garden
1059:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1037:
1031:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
987:
985:
981:
977:
973:
972:
967:
966:
961:
957:
953:
945:
941:
937:
934:
930:
926:
924:
920:
916:
913:
909:
905:
901:
900:Vallis Murcia
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
855:
851:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
794:
788:
778:
776:
774:
770:
766:
761:
758:
754:
749:
745:
743:
739:
735:
730:
722:
717:
713:
710:
706:
705:
700:
699:
693:
689:
680:
673:
671:
669:
665:
661:
660:
655:
654:Julius Caesar
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
626:
621:
617:
613:
609:
603:
601:
597:
594:
590:
586:
585:
580:
572:
570:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
541:
537:
536:
531:
526:
523:
519:
515:
511:
509:
508:Vallis Murcia
499:
495:
492:, now in the
491:
490:
484:
477:
472:
470:
468:
464:
460:
456:
450:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
419:
415:
413:
409:
408:Forum Boarium
404:
400:
399:late Republic
396:
392:
387:
385:
384:
379:
378:higher office
375:
371:
367:
362:
360:
356:
354:
348:
344:
340:
336:
331:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
300:religious vow
297:
293:
289:
287:
281:
277:
274:
270:
269:
260:
256:
252:
248:
243:
238:
234:
226:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
191:
188:
187:ancient Roman
184:
183:Circo Massimo
180:
176:
172:
162:
158:
153:
150:
147:
143:
138:
110:
106:
103:
102:
98:
94:
68:
62:
53:
46:
41:
33:
19:
18:Circo Massimo
4576:Vatican City
4527:Villa d'Este
4517:Ostia Antica
4497:Capo di Bove
4463:Tiber Island
4372:
4365:
4353:
4331:
4114:Villa Medici
3955:Sisto Bridge
3925:Campo Verano
3829:del Pantheon
3774:Acqua Felice
3753:Villa Madama
3748:Villa Giulia
3698:Palazzo Poli
3564:
3462:S. Pancrazio
3347:S. Eustachio
3327:S. Crisogono
3277:Ss. Apostoli
3190:
3186:Ponte Milvio
3178:
3173:Pons Cestius
3171:
3153:
3076:
3053:
2998:
2984:
2972:
2950:
2943:
2936:
2928:
2927:Palaces and
2890:Ludus Magnus
2888:
2868:
2850:
2843:
2836:
2829:
2822:
2815:
2793:
2786:
2768:
2761:
2691:
2617:
2575:Public baths
2563:
2556:
2538:
2531:
2524:
2519:Aqua Claudia
2517:
2510:
2503:
2496:
2489:
2471:
2324:Caelimontana
2319:Servian Wall
2309:Terreus Wall
2282:Cavalleggeri
2277:Leonine Wall
2255:San Giovanni
2135:
2126:
2119:
2101:
2088:
2052:
2030:
2022:
2017:
1997:
1990:
1982:
1977:
1969:
1960:
1951:
1941:
1933:
1921:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1896:
1891:
1883:
1875:
1863:
1855:
1850:
1834:
1829:, p. 62
1822:
1817:, p. 61
1807:curule chair
1801:
1789:
1784:, p. 74
1777:
1760:
1748:
1734:
1722:
1714:
1709:
1701:
1689:
1680:
1656:
1641:
1636:
1622:
1610:
1597:
1574:
1570:
1558:
1549:
1540:
1535:, p. 70
1528:
1523:
1518:, p. 61
1510:
1502:
1488:
1483:, p. 67
1475:
1466:
1457:
1441:
1429:
1407:
1399:
1391:
1383:
1371:
1366:, p. 71
1354:
1349:, p. 72
1342:
1334:
1318:
1310:
1294:
1282:
1274:
1266:
1249:
1236:
1222:
1210:
1189:
1184:, p. 57
1146:Amphitheatre
1092:
1064:
1033:
1027:
1013:(or perhaps
988:
969:
963:
949:
939:
923:Great Mother
914:
899:
895:
891:
860:
800:
762:
750:
746:
726:
702:
696:
687:
685:
674:Imperial era
663:
657:
652:
646:
642:
624:
604:
600:curule chair
582:
578:
576:
566:
543:king of Rome
538:, the first
533:
527:
505:
503:
497:
487:
462:
454:
451:
446:
426:
424:
402:
394:
390:
388:
381:
373:
363:
350:
346:
329:
328:
307:
285:
279:
266:
264:
209:ancient Rome
182:
170:
168:
99:
4412:Seven Hills
4134:Museums and
3940:Conti Tower
3794:Il Facchino
3779:Acqua Paola
3477:S. Prassede
3317:S. Clemente
3247:S. Agostino
2999:sette bassi
2945:Domus Aurea
2831:Curia Julia
2725:Roman Forum
2540:Aqua Tepula
2533:Aqua Marcia
2473:Arcus Novus
2314:Romuli Wall
2044:Works cited
1860:Cassiodorus
1681:NOVA Online
1331:Catullus 55
1244:'s history.
1036:Ludi Romani
1019:Magna Mater
984:Sol Indiges
906:, who were
880:hippodromes
878:, in Greek
822:and to the
364:During the
339:beast-hunts
253:(left) and
221:public park
132: /
108:Coordinates
4591:Categories
4430:Capitoline
4074:Via Veneto
3984:Appian Way
3884:Tartarughe
3342:S. Eugenio
3282:S. Balbina
2852:Tabularium
2526:Aqua Julia
2491:Aqua Appia
2349:Fontinalis
2265:Settimiana
2121:Tabularium
1450:hippodrome
1277:as aedile.
1259:patricians
1167:References
868:Ara Maxima
844:Roman myth
824:underworld
773:Diocletian
692:Heliopolis
637:depicting
635:Sestertius
616:four-horse
555:patricians
455:venationes
247:Paul Bigot
231:See also:
4435:Esquiline
4404:Landscape
4099:Villa Ada
4069:Via Sacra
3814:Navicella
3789:Barcaccia
3762:Fountains
3547:S. Vitale
3542:S. Teresa
3497:S. Sabina
3209:basilicas
2884:Colosseum
2619:Ara Pacis
2611:Religious
2483:Aqueducts
2422:landmarks
2374:Trigemina
2354:Gallienus
2344:Esquilina
2339:Dolabella
2270:Tiburtina
2250:San Paolo
2220:Nomentana
2195:Ardeatina
1770:Via Sacra
1297:of 55 BC.
1295:venatione
1263:plebeians
915:(equites)
836:Consualia
769:Caracalla
740:, during
639:Caracalla
625:(euripus)
608:Quadrigas
478:Regal era
439:gladiator
435:Colosseum
343:gladiator
276:festivals
259:Colosseum
120:12°29′9″E
117:41°53′9″N
4507:Frascati
4445:Quirinal
4440:Palatine
4420:Aventine
4094:Bioparco
4087:and zoos
3799:Marforio
3467:Pantheon
3387:S. Marco
3047:Commerce
2824:Comitium
2704:Pantheon
2699:Lupercal
2387:obelisks
2385:Ancient
2359:Viminale
2230:Pinciana
2215:Metronia
2210:Maggiore
2200:Asinaria
1809:granted
1567:ballista
1105:See also
1085:Italian
1030:Cerealia
1015:Summanus
965:quadriga
936:intaglio
876:Poseidon
864:Hercules
840:abducted
757:Domitian
734:Tiberius
729:Claudius
698:pulvinar
688:pulvinar
643:(euripus
593:dictator
584:pulvinar
540:Etruscan
514:Aventine
469:in 549.
412:Catullus
255:Palatine
251:Aventine
217:circuses
205:Palatine
201:Aventine
185:) is an
96:Location
4569:Enclave
4450:Viminal
4425:Caelian
3974:streets
3970:Squares
3899:Tritone
3894:Tritons
3824:Nettuno
3819:Neptune
3784:Babuino
3492:S. Saba
3165:Bridges
2334:Collina
2287:Pertusa
2240:Portese
2025:, p. 37
2021:Choay,
1946:, 1.56.
1864:euripus
1042:Jupiter
1007:Mercury
960:obelisk
919:Neptune
896:euripus
872:Neptune
846:of the
828:Romulus
664:equites
579:editor)
551:equites
383:venatio
370:aediles
324:Pometia
304:triumph
193:stadium
179:Italian
160:Founded
155:History
3834:Pianto
3809:Nasone
2929:villae
2550:Sewers
2364:Naevia
2329:Capena
2235:Popolo
2205:Latina
2060:
2005:
1662:Seti I
1648:
1420:
1291:Pompey
1023:Apollo
933:Jasper
816:Consus
812:myrtle
810:, the
804:Murcia
765:Trajan
591:) the
467:Totila
459:Probus
368:, the
213:Empire
149:Circus
4374:Pietà
4204:MAXXI
3070:Tombs
2780:Civic
1856:spina
1702:Ibid,
1575:Ibid,
1503:metae
995:Flora
991:Ceres
980:Diana
952:Stoic
940:metae
892:spina
820:Ceres
808:Venus
753:Titus
738:AD 64
704:aedes
659:cavea
647:spina
612:herms
567:metae
563:plebs
522:Tiber
498:spina
335:plays
312:vowed
175:Latin
3804:Moro
2718:Fora
2058:ISBN
2003:ISBN
1964:See
1938:Livy
1713:The
1646:ISBN
1571:Ibid
1495:Ovid
1418:ISBN
1275:ludi
1267:ludi
1261:and
1046:Ovid
1009:and
999:Luna
993:and
971:biga
742:Nero
553:and
530:Livy
516:and
486:The
463:ludi
447:ludi
427:ludi
403:ludi
395:ludi
391:ludi
374:ludi
347:ludi
341:and
330:Ludi
308:ludi
292:gods
290:and
280:Ludi
268:ludi
237:Ludi
235:and
203:and
197:Rome
169:The
145:Type
4324:Art
3769:Api
3583:Arx
2225:Pia
1414:674
1333:,"
1293:'s
1011:Dis
894:or
645:or
618:or
532:'s
528:In
314:by
4593::
3972:,
2080:–
1968:,
1940:,
1845:."
1679:.
1668:^
1582:^
1569:;
1416:.
1302:^
1174:^
1025:.
1005:,
866:'
545:,
449:.
401:,
326:.
278:.
223:.
181::
3921:)
3917:(
3029:"
3025:"
2168:e
2161:t
2154:v
2066:.
2011:.
1683:.
1452:"
1426:.
1230:.
1038:)
1034:(
946:)
649:)
606:(
510:)
506:(
355:)
351:(
288:)
261:.
173:(
34:.
20:)
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