Civil–military relations - Knowledge (XXG)

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relationship between civilian leadership and the military qua institution while Janowitz focused on the relationship of the military qua individuals to American society. Agency theory provided a link between the two enabling an explanation of how civil-military relations work on a day-to-day basis. Specifically, agency theory would predict that the result of a regime of intrusive monitoring by the civilian leadership combined with shirking on the part of the military would result in the highest levels of civil-military conflict. Feaver suggested that post-Cold War developments had so profoundly reduced the perceived costs of monitoring and reduced the perceived expectation of punishment that the gap between what civilians ask the military to do and what the military would prefer to do had increased to unprecedented levels.

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civilian and military worlds exist, there is significant debate about the proper interaction between the two. As discussed above, Huntington proposed that the ideal arrangement was one whereby civilian political leaders provided objective control to the military leadership and then stepped back to permit the experts in violence to do what was most effective. He further stated that the most dangerous arrangement was one whereby civilian leaders intruded extensively in the military world, creating a situation whereby the military leadership was not politically neutral and security of the nation was thus threatened both by an ineffective military and by provoking the military to avoid taking orders.

1125: 1264: 1393:, to explore how actors in a superior position influence those in a subordinate role. He used the concepts of "working" and "shirking" to explain the actions of the subordinate. In his construct, the principal is the civilian leadership that has the responsibility of establishing policy. The agent is the military that will work – carry out the designated task – or shirk – evading the principal's wishes and carrying out actions that further the military's own interests. Shirking at its worst may be disobedience, but Feaver includes such things as "foot-dragging" and leaks to the press. 1333:. The I/O hypothesis argued that the military was moving away from an institutional model towards one that was more occupational in nature. An institutional model presents the military as an organization highly divergent from civilian society while an occupational model presents the military more convergent with civilian structures. While Moskos did not propose that the military was ever "entirely separate or entirely coterminous with civilian society", the use of a scale helped better to highlight the changing interface between the armed forces and society. 1313:. Janowitz agreed with Huntington that separate military and civilian worlds existed, but differed from his predecessor regarding the ideal solution for preventing danger to liberal democracy. Since the military world as he saw it was fundamentally conservative, it would resist change and not adapt as rapidly as the more open and unstructured civilian society to changes in the world. Thus, according to Janowitz, the military would benefit from exactly what Huntington argued against – outside intervention. 1239:

militarization of American society. These writers were quite sure that a distinctly military culture was inherently dangerous to a non-militaristic liberal society. Others warned that the ascendancy of the military establishment would fundamentally change American foreign policy and would weaken the intellectual fabric of the country. However, most of the arguments were less apocalyptic and settled along two tracks. The two tracks are highlighted, respectively, by Samuel P. Huntington's

1289:. Each world consisted of a separate institution with its own operative rules and norms. The military's function was furthermore inherently different from that of the civilian world. Given a more conservative military world which was illiberal in many aspects, it was necessary to find a method of ensuring that the liberal civilian world would be able to maintain its dominance over the military world. Huntington's answer to this problem was "military professionalism." 132: 790: 208: 2187: 1414:

always been to determine under what conditions the military will intervene in the domestic politics of the nation. Most scholars agree with the theory of objective civilian control of the military (Huntington), which focuses on the separation of civil and military institutions. Such a view concentrates and relies heavily on the U.S. case, from an institutional perspective, and especially during the

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inspections, reports, reviews of military plans, and detailed control of the budget, and for Congress, committee oversight hearings and requiring routine reports. For the military agent, if the likelihood that shirking will be detected by the civilian principal is high or if the perceived costs of being punished are too high, the likelihood of shirking is low.

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forces have generally remained subservient. Where militaries emerged separately from authoritarian parties, they enjoyed the autonomy necessary to achieve and maintain military supremacy. The core lesson is simple: Unless an autocratic regime created the military, it will struggle to control the military."

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as described by Clausewitz, thereby contributing to failure. He ended his analysis with a "quintessential strategic lesson learned": that the Army must become "masters of the profession of arms," thus reinforcing an idea along the lines of Huntington's argument for strengthening military professionalism.

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The debate focused primarily on the nature of the relationship between the civilian and military worlds. There was widespread agreement that there were two distinct worlds and that they were fundamentally different from one another. The argument was over how best to ensure that the two could coexist

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was a failure on the part of the political leadership to understand the goal, which was victory. The Army, always successful on the battlefield, ultimately did not achieve victory because it was misused and misunderstood. Summers argued that the conduct of the war violated many classical principals

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After observing that most civil-military theory assumes that the civilian and military worlds must necessarily be separate, both physically and ideologically, Rebecca L. Schiff offered a new theory—Concordance—as an alternative. One of the key questions in Civil-Military Relations (CMR) theory has

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In 1945, the United States began a demobilization of the massive military force that had been built up during World War II. Strong public and bipartisan pressure succeeded in forcing the government to bring American soldiers home and to reduce the size of the armed forces quickly. Strikes and even

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to connect national policy to the actual fighting than was the case during Vietnam. He concluded that the Vietnam War had actually been lost in Washington, D.C., before any fighting occurred, due to a fundamental failure on the part of the civilian and military actors involved to argue the issues

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developed the institutional/occupational (I/O) hypothesis as a means to promote comparative historical studies of military organization and military change. This hypothesis evolved into the Postmodern Military Model, which helped predict the course of civil-military relations after the end of the

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According to Dan Slater, Lucan A. Way, Jean Lachapelle, and Adam E. Casey, variations in military supremacy in authoritarian states can be explained by the nature in which the military was established in the first place: "Where authoritarian mass parties created militaries from scratch, the armed

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rather than on anecdotal evidence, and better enabled analysis of day-to-day decisions and actions on the part of the civilian and military leadership. It operated at the intersection of Huntington's institutional approach and Janowitz's sociological point of view. Huntington concentrated on the

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The problem for the principal is how to ensure that the agent is doing what the principal wants done. Agency theory predicts that if the costs of monitoring the agent are low, the principal will use intrusive methods of control. Intrusive methods include, for the executive branch, such things as

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Arguably, however, and despite Huntington's urging otherwise, U.S. civilian leadership had been intrusive in its control over the military, not only during the Vietnam War, but also during much of the Cold War. During that time, the military elite had been extensively involved in the politics of

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opened deep arguments about civil-military relations that continue to exert powerful influences today. One centered on a contention within military circles that the United States lost the war because of unnecessary civilian meddling in military matters. It was argued that the civilian leadership

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led to new debate about to the proper role of the military in society, both in the United States and in the former Soviet Union. However, as before, much of the discussion revolved around whether the power of the state was in decline and whether an appropriate level of civilian control was being

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is an example where this balance is used to change the government. Ultimately, the military must accept that civilian authorities have the "right to be wrong". In other words, they may be responsible for carrying out a policy decision they disagree with. Civilian supremacy over the military is a

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Despite those controversies and the apparent lessons learned from the Vietnam War, some theorists recognized a significant problem with Huntington's theory insofar as it appears to question the notion of a separate, apolitical professional military. While there is little argument that separate

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Risa Brooks argues that the health of civil-military relations is best judged by whether there is a (i) preference divergence between military and political leaders, and (ii) whether there is a power imbalance. She argues that the healthiest arrangement of civil-military relations is when the

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Janowitz introduced a theory of convergence, arguing that the military, despite the extremely slow pace of change, was in fact changing even without external pressure. Convergence theory postulated either a civilianization of the military or a militarization of society However, despite this

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The size of the U.S. military in the latter half of the twentieth century, unprecedented in peacetime, caused concern in some circles, primarily as to the potential effect of maintaining such a large force in a democratic society. Some predicted disaster and were concerned with the growing

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Stabilisation approaches are likely to continue to present challenges to the aid community's ability to act according to humanitarian principles in conflict-affected, fragile and post conflict environments. Experiences in Afghanistan highlight significant tension, if not conflict, between

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adequately. McMaster, who urged a more direct debate between civilians and the military on defense policy and actions, and Summers, who argued for a clear separation between civilians and the military, both pointed out controversies over the proper roles of civilian and military leaders.

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preferences between military and political leaders is low, and political leaders have a dominant power advantage. She argues that the worst kind of civil-military relations is when there is high preference divergence, as well as a power balance between the military and political leaders.

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Despite the peculiarly American impetus for Huntington's and Janowitz's writing, their theoretical arguments have been used in the study of other national civil-military studies. For example, Ayesha Ray used the ideas of Huntington in her book about Indian civil-military relations. In

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complicated matter. The rightness or wrongness of a policy or decision can be ambiguous. Civilian decision makers may be impervious to corrective information. The relationship between civilian authorities and military leaders must be worked out in practice.

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which publishes articles on civil-military relations, force diversity, veterans, military families, privatization, officer training, recruitment and retention, public opinion, conflict management, unit cohesion, ethics, and peacemaking. The journal

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and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the size of the active-duty force had, by 1999, dropped to just under 1.4 million personnel. As of February 28, 2009, a total of 1,398,378 men and women remain on active duty in the U.S. armed forces.

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wrote that 'the belief that development and reconstruction activities are central to security'...'is a central component of western involvement' and that this has been 'highly contentious among aid agencies, perhaps nowhere more so than

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Campaniço Cavaleiro, S. V., Gomes, C., & Lopes, M. P. (2018). The Relation Between Family-Supportive Work Environment and Work–Family Conflict: Does Leader Support Act as a Moderator of This Relation in the Portuguese Navy?

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A paradox lies at the center of traditional civil-military relations theory. The military, an institution designed to protect the polity, must also be strong enough to threaten the society it serves. A military take-over or

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to continue the process despite growing concern about the Soviet Union and an increasing recognition that the United States was not going to be able to retreat into the isolationism of the pre-war years. Attempts in the

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Evans, W. R., Bliss, S. J., Rincon, C. M., Johnston, S. L., Bhakta, J. P., Webb-Murphy, J. A., ... & Balsam, K. F. (2018). Military Service Members’ Satisfaction with Outness: Implications for Mental Health.

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Aid agencies need to invest more in capacity and training for engaging in civil–military dialogue and, together with donors, seek to generate more objective evidence on the impact of stabilisation approaches.

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Kysar-Moon, A., & Mustillo, S. (2018). Race/Ethnicity and Traumatic Brain Injury: Are There Disparities in Positive Screenings and Diagnoses Among Service Members Returning From Afghanistan and Iraq?.

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Sookermany, A. M., Sand, T. S., & Ender, M. G. (2017). Authorship and affiliation in armed forces & society: Developmental trends across volumes 1–41. Armed Forces & Society, 43(3), 415–435.

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Thomas, J. L., Adrian, A. L., Wood, M. D., Crouch, C. L., Lee, J. D., & Adler, A. B. (2018). Mental Health and Stress Among Army Civilians, Spouses, and Soldiers in a Closing Military Community.

949:, military institutions, and other related subjects. International in scope, civil-military relations involves discussion and research from across the world. The theoretical discussion can include 1218:

By the summer of 1950, the armed forces of the United States had fewer than 1.5 million personnel on active duty, down from a high of 12 million in 1945. By the next year, however, in response to

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Civil–military dialogue was markedly more effective when it was rooted in International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and strategic argumentation, as with advocacy focused on reducing harm to civilians.

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Belkin, A., Ender, M. G., Frank, N., Furia, S. R., Lucas, G., Packard, G., ... & Segal, D. R. (2013). Readiness and DADT repeal: Has the new policy of open service undermined the military?.

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While concordance theory does not preclude a separation between the civilian and military worlds, it does not require such a state to exist. She argues that three societal institutions—(1) the

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period. Schiff provides an alternative theory, from both institutional and cultural perspectives, that explains the U.S. case as well as several non-U.S. civil-military relations case studies.

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Richard T. Cooney, Jr., Mady Wechsler Segal, David R. Segal and William W. Falk. 2003. "Racial Differences in the Impact of Military Service on the Socioeconomic Status of Women Veterans."

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While generally not considered a separate academic area of study in and of itself, it involves scholars and practitioners from many fields and specialties, although the primary focus is in

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defense budgets and management, and yet the United States had managed to emerge successfully from the Cold War. Despite that, none of Huntington's more dire predictions had proven true.

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in society, largely coming from the experiences of the first half of the twentieth century, engendered an examination into the impact of military organizations within society.

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convergence, Janowitz insisted that the military world would retain certain essential differences from the civilian and that it would remain recognizably military in nature.

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Pion-Berlin D., Dudley D. (2020) Civil-Military Relations: What Is the State of the Field. In: Sookermany A. (eds) Handbook of Military Sciences. p. 1. Springer, Cham

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that can threaten the well-being of its people." Studies of civil-military relations often rest on a normative assumption that it is preferable to have the ultimate

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Michael C. Desch. 1998. "Soldiers, States, and Structures: The End of the Cold War and Weakening U.S. Civilian Control." Armed Forces & Society. 24(3): 389–405.

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laid out an agency theory of civil-military relations, which he argued should replace Huntington's institutional theory. Taking a rationalist approach, he used a

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failed to understand how to use military force and improperly restrained the use of force in achieving victory. Among the first to analyze the war critically was

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since World War II, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s, brought about a growing interest in academic and journalistic circles in studying the nature of such

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Moskos, C. C., Williams, J. A., & Segal, D. R. (Eds.). (2000). The postmodern military: Armed forces after the cold war. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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for the first time in its history, led to concerns about whether such a large military structure could be effectively maintained by a liberal democracy.

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Herspring, Dale. 2005. The Pentagon and the Presidency: Civil-Military Relations from FDR to George W. Bush (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas)

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If agreement occurs among the three partners with respect to the four indicators, domestic military intervention is less likely to occur. In her book,

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Ashley Jackson and Simone Haysom; April 2013; The search for common ground, Civil–military relations in Afghanistan, 2002–13; HPG Policy Brief 51;

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Ender, M. G., Rohall, D. E., & Matthews, M. D. (2016). Cadet and civilian undergraduate attitudes toward transgender people: A research note.

1524: 1096:, was largely a result of forces attempting to stem the increasing influence of left-wing and communist led uprisings. The 2006 military coup in 866:

scales. More narrowly, it describes the relationship between the civil authority of a given society and its military authority. "The goal of any

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Parco, J. E., Levy, D. A., & Spears, S. R. (2015). Transgender military personnel in the post-DADT repeal era: A phenomenological study.

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and the journal are international in scope. They have a conference every other year in odd years. The 2017 conference was held in Reston VA.

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Schiff, R. L. (2012). Concordance theory, targeted partnership, and counterinsurgency strategy. Armed Forces & Society, 38(2), 318–339.

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to provide a trained reserve as a replacement for a large standing military force failed and, in 1947, the World War II draft law expired.

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Brian J. Reed and David R. Segal. 2000. "The Impact of Multiple Deployments on Soldiers' Peacekeeping Attitudes, Morale, and Retention."

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Richter, G. (2018). Antecedents and Consequences of Leadership Styles: Findings from Empirical Research in Multinational Headquarters.

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Grand Army of the Republic or Grand Army of the Republicans? Political Party and Ideological Preferences of American Enlisted Personnel

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Smith, D. G., & Rosenstein, J. E. (2017). Gender and the military profession: Early career influences, attitudes, and intentions.

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Bailey, A. K., Drury, M. B., & Randall, H. (2017). Student Veterans’ Academic Performance Before and After the Post–9/11 GI Bill.

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Dalgaard-Nielsen, Anja and Holm, Kirstine 2018. Supersoldiers or Rulebreakers? Unpacking the Mind-Set of Special Operations Forces

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described the differences between the two worlds as a contrast between the attitudes and values held by military personnel, mostly

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The Soldier and the State in India: Nuclear Weapons, Counterinsurgency, and the Transformation of Indian Civil-Military Relations.

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Peter D. Feaver. 1998. "Crisis as Shirking: An Agency Theory Explanation of the Souring of American Civil-Military Relations."

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Jere Cohen and Mady Wechsler Segal. 2009. "Veterans, the Vietnam Era, and Marital Dissolution: An Event History Analysis."

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and retain service members, and the fairness and efficacy of these systems, the integration of minorities, women, and the

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Heinecken, L. (2017). Conceptualizing the tensions evoked by gender integration in the military: The South African Case.

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countered some of Huntington's arguments and assumptions and offered a look into the civil-military relationships in the

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Peter D. Feaver. 1996b. "The Civil-Military Problematique: Huntington, Janowitz and the Question of Civilian Control."

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Verweijen, J. (2018). Soldiers without an army? Patronage networks and cohesion in the armed forces of the DR Congo.

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Mark Beeson. 2008. "Civil-Military Relations in Indonesia and the Philippines: Will the Thai Coup Prove Contagious?"

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Feaver argued that his theory was different from other theories or models in that it was purely deductive, based on

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The topics of research in Civil-Military Relations are varied as evidenced by recent scholarship in such topics as:

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Crosbie, T., & Kleykamp, M. (2018). Ethical Lapses and the Military Profession: Three Problems and a Solution.

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Pearl S. Buck, et al. 1949. "New Evidence of the Militarization of America." National Council Against Conscription.

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Dobbs, J. M., & Do, J. J. (2018). The Impact of Perceived Toxic Leadership on Cynicism in Officer Candidates.

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Salihu, N. (2019). Concordance civil–military relations in Ghana’s fourth republic. Armed Forces & Society.

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Dereliction of Duty: Lyndon Johnson, Robert McNamara, The Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies that Led to Vietnam

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Skomorovsky, A., & Bullock, A. (2017). The Impact of Deployment on Children From Canadian Military Families.

1273: 1145: 1038: 946: 854:, and leaders and the military. CMR incorporates a diverse, often normative field, which moves within and across 804: 409: 927: 524: 414: 2515:

Collins-Dogrul, J., & Ulrich, J. R. (2018). Fighting Stereotypes: Public Discourse About Women in Combat.

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stabilisation and internationally recognised guidelines and principles governing civil–military interaction.

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Dale Herspring. 2009. "Civil-Military Relations in the United States and Russia: An Alternative Approach."

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and history. It involves study and discussion of a diverse range of issues including but not limited to:

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Powell, J. (2014). Leader Survival Strategies and the Onset of Civil Conflict: A Coup-Proofing Paradox.

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Concordance theory has been applied to emerging democracies, which have more immediate threat of coups.

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William T.R. Fox. 1961. "Representativeness and Efficiency: Dual Problem of Civil-Military Relations"

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The other principal thread within the civil-military theoretical debate was that generated in 1960 by

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published the seminal books on the subject which effectively brought civil-military relations into

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Hansen, S. J. (2018). Unity under Allah? Cohesion mechanisms in Jihadist organizations in Africa.

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Charles C. Moskos. 1977. "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization."

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Hedlund, E. (2017). Team learning and leadership in multinational military staff exercises.

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Rebecca L. Schiff. 1995. "Civil-Military Relations Reconsidered: A Theory of Concordance."

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http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/7446-stablisation-civil-military-relations-afghanistan

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Charles C. Moskos. 1986. "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update."

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some rioting by military personnel at overseas bases in January 1946 pressured President

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Robert Mandel. 2004. "The Wartime Utility of Precision Versus Brute Force in Weaponry."

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King, Anthony. 2016 "Close Quarters Battle: Urban control and "Special Forcification"

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Morris Janowitz. 1982. "Consequences of Social Science Research on the U.S. Military."

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Study of the relationship between a country's armed forces and civil society/government

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must aim for a cooperative arrangement and some agreement on four primary indicators:

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David R. Segal and Morten G. Ender. 2008. "Sociology in Military Officer Education."

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The Military and Domestic Politics: A Concordance Theory of Civil-Military Relations

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as his theoretical basis. He argued that the principal reason for the loss of the

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and the varied roles of militaries in repressing protests or staging coups in the

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Supporting Our Troops? U. S. Civil-Military Relations in the Twenty-first Century

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Houseworth, C. A., & Grayson, K. (2018). Intermarriage and the US Military.

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K.E. Sorokin. 1993. "Conversion in Russia: The Need for a Balanced Strategy."

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The Soldier and the State; the Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations

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Soldiers and Civilians: The Civil-Military Gap and American National Security

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Mackubin Thomas Owens. 2003. "Civilian Rumsfeld: Overseeing the Military."

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Morris Janowitz. 1973. "The Social Demography of the All-Volunteer Force."

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The principal professional organization for civil-military scholars is the

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The history of civil-military relations can be traced to the writings of

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Encyclopedia of Public Administration and Public Policy, Third edition

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Slater, Dan; Way, Lucan A.; Lachapelle, Jean; Casey, Adam E. (2023).

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Shaping Strategy: The Civil-Military Politics of Strategic Assessment

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James Burk. 2002. "Theories of Democratic Civil-Military Relations."

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Käihkö, I. (2018). Broadening the perspective on military cohesion.

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Civilian Control of the Military: The Changing Security Environment

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Comparative Political Systems: Policy Performance and Social Change

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Inside Defense: Understanding the U.S. Military in the 21st Century

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A History of Militarism: A Romance and Realities of a Profession

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Armed Servants: Agency, Oversight, and Civil-Military Relations

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Armed Servants: Agency, Oversight, and Civil-Military Relations

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community into the military, the behavior and consequences of

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deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a

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M. Vincent Hayes (ed). 1973. "Is the Military Taking Over?"

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Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945–1950

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Donald S. Inbody. 2008. "Partisanship and the Military." in

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M. Vincent Hayes(ed). 1973. "Is the Military Taking Over?"

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Peter Karsten. 1971. "ROTC, MyLai and the Volunteer Army."

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The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics

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The Soldier Vote: War, Politics, and the Ballot in America

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The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait

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Major theoretical discussions in civil-military relations

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is to harness military professional power to serve vital

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Coups and Army Rule in Africa: Studies in Military Style

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Shields, Patricia, (2015) "Civil Military Relations" in

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Armed Forces & Society: An Interdisciplinary Journal

3019: 3017: 2052: 2050: 2044:. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 1745:

Shields, Patricia M. (2020), Sookermany, Anders (ed.),

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Gene Lyons. 1961. "The New Civil-Military Relations."

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In his seminal 1957 book on civil-military relations,

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Robert Mandel. 2007. Reassessing Victory in Warfare.

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History of civil-military relations in Southeast Asia

2829:"The Origins of Military Supremacy in Dictatorships" 1159:

Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society

1134:

Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society

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Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society

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http://www.nationalreview.com/owens/owens071703.asp

2953:

On Strategy: A Critical Analysis of the Vietnam War

2901:

Annals of the American Academy of Political Science

2609:

To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America

2185:Bartholomew H. Sparrow and Donald S. Inbody. 2005. 1740: 1738: 1580:"Integrating the Civil–Military Relations Subfield" 215:(center) with the former military defence minister 2691:Erwin Knoll and Judith Nies McFadden (eds). 1969. 2333: 2331: 1993: 1991: 1887:Peter D. Feaver and Richard H. Kohn, (Eds.) 2001. 1622:Taylor and Francis DOI: 10.1081/E-EPAP3-120052814 1365:observed that it was easier for officers in the 910:The principal problem they examine, however, is 2624:. Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press. 2356:42(2) pp. 276-300. DOI 10.1177/0095327X15588292 1747:"Dynamic Intersection of Military and Society" 850:, military organizations and other government 812: 139:The examples and perspective in this article 8: 2176:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1661:Shields, Patricia (November–December 2006). 1447:The method of recruiting military personnel. 1104:engendered continued interest in this area. 2502:: Special Issue on Women in the Military." 2203:Journal of Political and Military Sociology 886:decision-making to lie in the hands of the 219:(center left) and Dodon's defence minister 64:Learn how and when to remove these messages 819: 805: 226: 2498:Moore, Brenda L. (2017) "Introduction to 1758: 1595: 195:Learn how and when to remove this message 177:Learn how and when to remove this message 114:Learn how and when to remove this message 3092:https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X19841665 2774:New Priorities: a Magazine for Activists 2706:New Priorities: a Magazine for Activists 2001:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1570: 1550: 1525:National Defense Industrial Association 1465:Civil–military relations in Afghanistan 1381:In response to this apparent "puzzle," 237: 3027:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2598:. New York: Columbia University Press. 2014:. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 1444:The political decision-making process. 1285:, and those held by civilians, mostly 1183:Ethics, Professionalism and Leadership 874:interests, while guarding against the 1651:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1597:10.1146/annurev-polisci-060518-025407 1321:Institutional/occupational hypothesis 1120:Professional organization and journal 842:) describes the relationship between 211:Public meeting of Moldovan President 7: 2734:. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. 2086:. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. 1848:(eds). New York: Palgrave-Macmillan. 1044:The increased incidence of military 2099:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2721:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1985:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1584:Annual Review of Political Science 1456:The Military and Domestic Politics 86:tone or style may not reflect the 25: 2890:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. 2875:American Political Science Review 2112:. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe. 945:, military professionalism, war, 687:Biology and political orientation 45:This article has multiple issues. 3057:. New York, New York: Routledge. 2060:. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press. 1681:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00660.x 1539:Aerospace Industries Association 943:civilian control of the military 892:civilian control of the military 788: 130: 96:guide to writing better articles 75: 34: 1831:. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan. 1557:Attributed to multiple sources: 1174:Civil-Military Relations Russia 53:or discuss these issues on the 2792:. Princeton University Press. 1760:10.1007/978-3-030-02866-4_31-1 1637:10.1007/978-3-030-02866-4_37-1 1471:Overseas Development Institute 918:into society, methods used to 682:Theories of political behavior 308:Political history of the world 1: 2653:. New York: Ballantine Books. 2649:Irving Louis Horowitz. 1963. 1751:Handbook of Military Sciences 697:Critique of political economy 2970:. New York: Harper Perennia. 2955:. New York: Dell Publishing. 2371:DOI 10.1177/0095327X18755109 2040:Samuel P. Huntington. 1957. 1668:Public Administration Review 953:as well as more traditional 894:) rather than a military (a 278:Outline of political science 3138:Military–industrial complex 2745:Political Science Quarterly 2732:The Causes of World War III 2143:. Oxford University Press. 1997:Carl von Clausewitz. 1989. 1510:Military-industrial complex 1153:and is currently edited by 890:political leadership (i.e. 153:, discuss the issue on the 3159: 3143:Political science theories 3069:Armed Forces & Society 3007:Armed Forces & Society 2988:Armed Forces & Society 2939:Armed Forces & Society 2924:Armed Forces & Society 2677:The Military Establishment 2583:Armed Forces & Society 2570:Armed Forces & Society 2556:Armed Forces & Society 2543:Armed Forces & Society 2530:Armed Forces & Society 2517:Armed Forces & Society 2504:Armed Forces & Society 2500:Armed Forces & Society 2487:Armed Forces & Society 2473:Armed Forces & Society 2460:Armed Forces & Society 2447:Armed Forces & Society 2434:Armed Forces & Society 2421:Armed Forces & Society 2408:Armed Forces & Society 2395:Armed Forces & Society 2382:Armed Forces & Society 2368:Armed Forces & Society 2353:Armed Forces & Society 2339:Armed Forces & Society 2323:Armed Forces & Society 2309:Armed Forces & Society 2279:Armed Forces & Society 2263:Armed Forces & Society 2225:Armed Forces & Society 2124:Armed Forces & Society 2108:Charles F. Andrain. 1994. 2073:London: Sage Publications. 1969:Armed Forces & Society 1954:Armed Forces & Society 1939:Armed Forces & Society 1906:Armed Forces & Society 1875:Armed Forces & Society 1806:Armed Forces & Society 1791:Armed Forces & Society 1696:Armed Forces & Society 1450:The style of the military. 1437:Social composition of the 1146:Armed Forces & Society 968: 283:Index of politics articles 3053:Rebecca L. Schiff. 2008. 2695:. New York: Viking Press. 2594:Robert A. Pollard. 1985. 1274:The Soldier and the State 997:The ramifications of the 990:Concerns about a growing 947:civil-military operations 3123:Civil–military relations 2951:Harry G. Summers. 1984. 2845:10.1353/jod.2023.a900429 2786:Brooks, Risa A. (2008). 2693:American Militarism 1970 2664:The Passion of the Hawks 2607:John W. Chambers. 1987. 2294:Armed Forces and Society 2172:Michael C. Desch. 2001. 1925:10.1177/0095327X09332146 1857:Donald S. Inbody. 2009. 1818:Donald S. Inbody. 2015. 1728:Civil-Military Relations 1578:Brooks, Risa A. (2019). 1311:The Professional Soldier 1245:The Professional Soldier 1230:. After the fall of the 1136:(IUS). The IUS sponsors 832:Civil–military relations 223:(far right), August 2019 18:Civil-military relations 3023:Peter D. Feaver. 2003. 2888:The Military Specialist 2730:C. Wright Mills. 1958. 2717:C. Wright Mills. 1956. 2679:. Boston: Beacon Press. 2662:Tristram Coffin. 1964. 2620:George Q. Flynn. 2000. 2611:. New York: Free Press. 2137:Grewal, Sharan (2023). 2082:Samuel E. Finer. 1988. 2056:Morris Janowitz. 1960. 1891:. Cambridge: MIT Press. 1844:. Derek S. Reveron and 1647:Peter D. Feaver. 2003. 1515:Intelligence contractor 1112:brought to bear on the 692:Political organisations 455:International relations 293:Politics by subdivision 90:used on Knowledge (XXG) 3038:National Review Online 2666:. New York: MacMillan. 2637:. New York: MacMillan. 2140:Soldiers of Democracy? 1533:United States Congress 1389:framework, drawn from 1268: 1243:and Morris Janowitz's 1209:United States Congress 1189:Women in the Military 1151:Texas State University 1129: 224: 94:See Knowledge (XXG)'s 2964:H.R. McMaster. 1998. 2095:Samuel Decalo. 1976. 1469:Researchers from the 1266: 1241:Soldier and the State 1127: 1039:under-developed world 896:military dictatorship 772:Political campaigning 512:Public administration 345:Collective leadership 210: 2903:. 406(March): 86–93. 2833:Journal of Democracy 2675:John Swomley. 1964. 2633:Fred J. Cook. 1962. 2622:The Draft, 1940–1973 2010:Alfred Vagts. 1937. 1279:Samuel P. Huntington 1267:Samuel P. Huntington 1259:Institutional theory 1251:without endangering 1031:The Man on Horseback 1007:Samuel P. Huntington 622:Separation of powers 493:Political psychology 468:Comparative politics 446:political scientists 433:Academic disciplines 313:Political philosophy 159:create a new article 151:improve this article 2886:Harold Wool. 1968. 2798:10.2307/j.ctv346qvr 2572:, 0095327X17751111. 2519:, 0095327X17715650. 2489:, 0095327X17746608. 2449:, 0095327X18769456. 2410:, 0095327X17747204. 2341:, 0095327X17728493. 2325:, 0095327X17740086. 2297:, 0095327X18759541. 1846:Judith Hicks Stiehm 1725:Shields, Patricia. 1168:Health of the force 1155:Patricia M. Shields 981:Carl von Clausewitz 928:private contractors 795:Politics portal 644:Election commission 615:Government branches 498:Political sociology 350:Confessional system 288:Politics by country 3133:Military sociology 2384:, 0095327X17737283 2266:, 0095327X18771004 2208:2012-06-12 at the 2069:Ayesha Ray. 2013. 1914:2021-03-22 at the 1827:2015-10-01 at the 1409:Concordance theory 1301:Convergence theory 1269: 1130: 1017:, particularly in 846:organizations and 478:Political analysis 410:Semi-parliamentary 225: 3011:. 23(2): 149–178. 2992:. 24(3): 407–434. 2635:The Warfare State 2585:, 39(4), 587-601. 2558:, 42(2), 427-435. 2545:, 41(2), 221-242. 2532:, 43(2), 202-220. 2462:, 43(2), 260-279. 2423:, 43(3), 459-477. 2312:0095327X17740096. 2282:0095327X18761852. 2213:. 12(2): 163–179. 2127:. 34(3): 474–490. 1809:. 33(4): 461–495. 1794:. 30(2): 171–201. 1770:978-3-030-02866-4 1402:democratic theory 1253:liberal democracy 1186:Military Families 1171:Military Cohesion 1019:political science 935:political science 872:national security 829: 828: 777:Political parties 717:Electoral systems 441:Political science 415:Semi-presidential 327:Political systems 303:Political history 298:Political economy 205: 204: 197: 187: 186: 179: 161:, as appropriate. 124: 123: 116: 88:encyclopedic tone 68: 16:(Redirected from 3150: 3107: 3101: 3095: 3088: 3082: 3079: 3073: 3064: 3058: 3051: 3045: 3034: 3028: 3021: 3012: 2999: 2993: 2980: 2971: 2962: 2956: 2949: 2943: 2934: 2928: 2919: 2913: 2910: 2904: 2897: 2891: 2884: 2878: 2871: 2865: 2864: 2824: 2818: 2817: 2783: 2777: 2770: 2761: 2754: 2748: 2741: 2735: 2728: 2722: 2715: 2709: 2702: 2696: 2689: 2680: 2673: 2667: 2660: 2654: 2647: 2638: 2631: 2625: 2618: 2612: 2605: 2599: 2592: 2586: 2579: 2573: 2565: 2559: 2552: 2546: 2539: 2533: 2526: 2520: 2513: 2507: 2496: 2490: 2482: 2476: 2475:, 43(4), 654-673 2469: 2463: 2456: 2450: 2443: 2437: 2430: 2424: 2417: 2411: 2404: 2398: 2397:,44(4), 748-757. 2391: 2385: 2378: 2372: 2363: 2357: 2348: 2342: 2335: 2326: 2319: 2313: 2304: 2298: 2289: 2283: 2273: 2267: 2258: 2252: 2251: 2244: 2238: 2235: 2229: 2220: 2214: 2198: 2192: 2183: 2177: 2170: 2164: 2161: 2155: 2154: 2134: 2128: 2119: 2113: 2106: 2100: 2093: 2087: 2080: 2074: 2067: 2061: 2054: 2045: 2038: 2027: 2024: 2015: 2008: 2002: 1995: 1986: 1979: 1973: 1964: 1958: 1949: 1943: 1934: 1928: 1898: 1892: 1885: 1879: 1878:. 8(4): 507–524. 1870: 1864: 1855: 1849: 1838: 1832: 1816: 1810: 1801: 1795: 1786: 1780: 1779: 1778: 1777: 1762: 1742: 1733: 1732: 1722: 1716: 1706: 1700: 1691: 1685: 1684: 1658: 1652: 1645: 1639: 1629: 1623: 1616: 1610: 1609: 1599: 1575: 1558: 1555: 1520:War profiteering 1505:Defense industry 1427:political elites 951:non-state actors 882:for a country's 821: 814: 807: 793: 792: 583: 528: 483:Political theory 473:Election science 463: 449: 227: 200: 193: 182: 175: 171: 168: 162: 134: 133: 126: 119: 112: 108: 105: 99: 98:for suggestions. 79: 78: 71: 60: 38: 37: 30: 21: 3158: 3157: 3153: 3152: 3151: 3149: 3148: 3147: 3113: 3112: 3111: 3110: 3102: 3098: 3089: 3085: 3080: 3076: 3065: 3061: 3052: 3048: 3035: 3031: 3022: 3015: 3000: 2996: 2981: 2974: 2963: 2959: 2950: 2946: 2935: 2931: 2920: 2916: 2911: 2907: 2898: 2894: 2885: 2881: 2872: 2868: 2826: 2825: 2821: 2785: 2784: 2780: 2771: 2764: 2755: 2751: 2747:76(3): 354–366. 2742: 2738: 2729: 2725: 2719:The Power Elite 2716: 2712: 2703: 2699: 2690: 2683: 2674: 2670: 2661: 2657: 2648: 2641: 2632: 2628: 2619: 2615: 2606: 2602: 2593: 2589: 2580: 2576: 2566: 2562: 2553: 2549: 2540: 2536: 2527: 2523: 2514: 2510: 2506:43(2): 191-201. 2497: 2493: 2483: 2479: 2470: 2466: 2457: 2453: 2444: 2440: 2436:, 44(1), 72-91. 2431: 2427: 2418: 2414: 2405: 2401: 2392: 2388: 2379: 2375: 2364: 2360: 2349: 2345: 2336: 2329: 2320: 2316: 2305: 2301: 2290: 2286: 2274: 2270: 2259: 2255: 2246: 2245: 2241: 2236: 2232: 2221: 2217: 2210:Wayback Machine 2199: 2195: 2184: 2180: 2171: 2167: 2162: 2158: 2151: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2120: 2116: 2107: 2103: 2094: 2090: 2081: 2077: 2068: 2064: 2055: 2048: 2039: 2030: 2025: 2018: 2009: 2005: 1996: 1989: 1981:Sun Tzu. 1971. 1980: 1976: 1965: 1961: 1957:. 30(1): 53.85. 1950: 1946: 1942:. 27(1): 57–78. 1935: 1931: 1916:Wayback Machine 1899: 1895: 1886: 1882: 1871: 1867: 1856: 1852: 1839: 1835: 1829:Wayback Machine 1817: 1813: 1802: 1798: 1787: 1783: 1775: 1773: 1771: 1744: 1743: 1736: 1724: 1723: 1719: 1707: 1703: 1692: 1688: 1660: 1659: 1655: 1646: 1642: 1630: 1626: 1617: 1613: 1577: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1562: 1561: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1501: 1496: 1467: 1411: 1387:principal-agent 1383:Peter D. 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Finer 1011:Morris Janowitz 973: 967: 959:voting behavior 876:misuse of power 825: 787: 782: 781: 712: 711: 702: 701: 659: 658: 649: 648: 617: 616: 607: 606: 602:Public interest 587:Domestic policy 577: 570: 569: 558: 557: 522: 515: 514: 503: 502: 464: 457: 450: 443: 435: 434: 425: 424: 330: 329: 318: 317: 273: 272: 263: 232:Politics series 201: 190: 189: 188: 183: 172: 166: 163: 148: 135: 131: 120: 109: 103: 100: 93: 84:This article's 80: 76: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3156: 3154: 3146: 3145: 3140: 3135: 3130: 3128:Defense policy 3125: 3115: 3114: 3109: 3108: 3096: 3083: 3074: 3072:. 22(1): 7–24. 3059: 3046: 3029: 3013: 2994: 2972: 2957: 2944: 2929: 2927:. 4(1): 41–50. 2914: 2905: 2892: 2879: 2866: 2819: 2778: 2762: 2758:Foreign Policy 2749: 2736: 2723: 2710: 2697: 2681: 2668: 2655: 2639: 2626: 2613: 2600: 2587: 2574: 2560: 2547: 2534: 2521: 2508: 2491: 2477: 2464: 2451: 2438: 2425: 2412: 2399: 2386: 2373: 2358: 2343: 2327: 2314: 2299: 2284: 2268: 2253: 2239: 2230: 2215: 2193: 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McMaster 1360: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1348:Harry Summers 1344: 1337:Agency theory 1336: 1334: 1332: 1327: 1320: 1318: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1275: 1265: 1258: 1256: 1254: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1236: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1196: 1192:LGBTQ Issues. 1191: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1179: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1167: 1166: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1147: 1141: 1140: 1135: 1126: 1119: 1117: 1115: 1110: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1042: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1026: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1003:standing army 1000: 995: 993: 988: 986: 982: 978: 972: 964: 962: 960: 956: 955:nation-states 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 931: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 908: 905: 899: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 852:bureaucracies 849: 848:civil society 845: 841: 837: 833: 822: 817: 815: 810: 808: 803: 802: 800: 799: 796: 791: 786: 785: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 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520:Bureaucracy 385:Meritocracy 365:Directorial 221:Pavel Voicu 3117:Categories 1776:2023-10-13 1714:0700613552 1565:References 1352:Clausewitz 992:militarism 969:See also: 856:management 754:Governance 744:Government 739:Federalism 340:City-state 213:Igor Dodon 104:April 2019 50:improve it 2861:259331365 2853:1086-3214 2814:242040600 1606:1094-2939 1431:citizenry 1078:Argentina 1023:sociology 939:sociology 912:empirical 884:strategic 734:Unitarism 722:Elections 710:Subseries 639:Judiciary 634:Executive 537:Adhocracy 420:Theocracy 375:Feudalism 355:Democracy 155:talk page 56:talk page 2206:Archived 1912:Archived 1825:Archived 1527:, which 1499:Articles 1494:See also 1423:military 1416:Cold War 1367:Gulf War 1331:Cold War 1228:Cold War 1180:Veterans 1114:military 1109:Cold War 1098:Thailand 1086:Paraguay 1015:academia 999:Cold War 916:veterans 888:civilian 844:military 762:Ideology 580:doctrine 541:Service 405:Republic 390:Monarchy 370:Federacy 259:Category 239:Politics 167:May 2022 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