572:" thus providing the needed "reduction of three orders of magnitude" of the amount needed to result in the claimed effects, and arguing that "only when the bokor … causes others to believe the victim is dead and then revived" do his efforts become apparent, and that only a single "success … would be sufficient to support the cultural belief in the … phenomenon." As of 1990, his critics were unpersuaded, and no literature to support the original contentions has yet appeared as of 2015, although lively popular description, especially on the web, continues.
129:
25:
66:
541:
disappeared from the primary literature since the early 1990s. Kao and
Yasumoto concluded in the first of their papers in 1986 (and remained unswerving on the matter in their later work) that "the widely circulated claim in the lay press to the effect that tetrodotoxin is ... causal agent" in a "zombification process" is, in their view, "without factual foundation."
452:
Based on the presumption that tetrodotoxin and related toxins are not always fatal, but at near-lethal doses can leave a person in a state of near-death for several days with the person remaining conscious, tetrodotoxin has been alleged to turn human beings into zombies, and has been suggested as an
431:
until the master's death two years later. When the bokor died, and regular doses of the hallucinogen ceased, he eventually regained sanity and returned to his family after another 16 years. Narcisse was immediately recognized by the villagers and his family. When he told them the story of how he was
439:
This case puzzled many doctors because
Narcisse's death was documented and verified by the testimonies of two American doctors. The case of Narcisse was argued to be the first verifiable example of the transformation of an individual into a zombie. Narcisse's story intrigued Haitian psychiatrist
435:
It has been further argued that
Narcisse had broken one of the traditional behavioral codes by abandoning his children and was made into a "zombie" as a punishment. When questioned, Narcisse told investigators that the sorcerer involved had "taken his soul". The instigator of the poisoning was
401:, convincing her and several other villagers of his identity by using a childhood nickname and sharing intimate family information. He claimed that he had been conscious but paralyzed during his supposed death and burial, and had subsequently been removed from his grave and forced to work at a
540:
poisons, subsequent careful analysis has repeatedly called these accounts and early analytical studies into question on technical grounds; moreover, they have failed to identify the toxin in any such preparation, such that discussion of the matter of tetrodotoxin use in this way has all but
567:
Davis responded formally to the charges, arguing the variability of the preparations (as cause for Kao's inability to find the toxin in any) and possible ineptitude in dissolving the toxin by the otherwise admittedly expert Kao, and speculating on the presence of "other ingredients" in the
518:(sorcerer) would have given Narcisse a powder containing the tetrodotoxin through abraded skin. Narcisse would then have fallen into a comatose state, closely resembling death, which resulted in his live burial. His body would then have been recovered and he would have been given doses of
440:
Lamarque Douyon. Though dismissing supernatural explanations, Douyon believed there was some degree of truth to tales of zombies and he had been studying such accounts for decades. Suspecting zombies were somehow drugged and then revived, Douyon reached out to colleagues in
America.
394:, and was spitting up blood. Doctors could find no explanation for his symptoms, which gradually grew worse until he appeared to die three days later. He was pronounced dead, and held in cold storage for about a day before burial.
432:
dug up from his grave and enslaved, the villagers were surprised, but they accepted his story because they believed his experience resulted from the power of voodoo magic. He was seen as the man who was once a zombie.
369:
alongside critical review of earlier reports) have failed to support the presence of the key active compounds in the supposed zombie preparation, which was central to the phenomenon and mechanism reported by Davis.
485:
After various anthropological investigations of "zombie" stories in various cultures—including
Narcisse and a handful of others—reports appeared that Narcisse received a dose of a chemical mixture containing
524:
to create a compliant zombie-like state, and set to work on a plantation. After two years, the plantation owner died and
Narcisse would have simply walked away to freedom.
944:
436:
alleged to be
Clairvius's brother, with whom Clairvius had quarreled over land and inheritance. He only returned home once he heard of his brother's death.
416:
548:, when interviewed on the matter in 1988, stated, "I actually feel this is an issue of fraud in science". A supporter of Wade, Bo Holmstedt of the
411:
Per his account, after his apparent death and subsequent burial on May 2, 1962, his coffin was exhumed and he was given a paste possibly made from
954:
146:
38:
333:
The hypothesis for
Narcisse's account was that he had been administered a combination of psychoactive substances (often the paralyzing
783:
582:
263:
698:
230:
212:
110:
52:
911:
881:
193:
165:
512:, who did research related to the implication that tetrodotoxin was present, hypothesized how this might have been done. The
502:
that mimicked the appearance of death. He was then allowed to return to his home where he collapsed, "died", and was buried.
150:
172:
362:, who published two popular books based on his travels and ideas during and immediately following his graduate training.
545:
862:
663:
509:
472:
441:
351:
179:
139:
468:, which reported multiple accounts of purported tetrodotoxin poisoning in Haiti, by a bokor (voodoo sorcerer).
161:
569:
552:, more restrained, stated that it was "not deliberated fraud," rather that it was "withholding negative data"
44:
939:
633:
934:
929:
549:
479:
397:
In 1980, a man identifying himself as
Clairvius Narcisse approached Angelina Narcisse in the city of
366:
718:
76:
465:
359:
186:
748:
694:
520:
378:
Narcisse admitted himself to the
Schweitzer Hospital (operated by American medical staff) in
949:
903:
873:
532:
While in these popular accounts, and in Haiti, tetrodotoxin is thought to have been used in
444:
traveled to Haiti, where he obtained samples of powders purportedly used to create zombies.
428:
383:
848:
478:
However, subsequent research has discredited the tetrodotoxin-zombie hypothesis by using
427:
who recovered him then, as stated, reportedly forced him, alongside others, to work on a
86:
687:
398:
259:
82:
923:
533:
454:
327:
564:
which fails to support the desired conclusions) and therefore "simply bad science."
487:
379:
338:
482:-based tests of multiple preparations, and review of earlier reports (see below).
322:(January 2, 1922 – 1994) was a Haitian man who claimed to have been turned into a
594:
506:
420:
355:
128:
587:
491:
405:
334:
907:
877:
495:
801:
Kao, C.Y., and T. Yasumoto, 1986, "Tetrodotoxin and the Haitian zombie."
471:
The concept was subsequently popularized in the 1980s by ethnobotanist
391:
823:
Kao, C.Y., and T. Yasumoto, 1990, "Tetrodotoxin in 'zombie powder.'"
537:
412:
343:
323:
311:
749:"Dead Man Walking: Wade Davis and the Secret of the Zombie Poison"
514:
460:
This idea appeared in print as early as the 1938 non-fiction book
424:
402:
387:
79:, speculative material, or accounts of events that might not occur
499:
685:
Shuker, P.N. (1996). "Mesoamerica And South America: Zombies".
122:
59:
18:
772:
Modern Classics series, New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 2008.
598:, a 2019 French drama film, is also inspired by his story.
92:
847:(online), Volume 32.3, May/June 2008, pp. 60–62, see
895:
Booth, W. 1988, "News and Comment: Voodoo science,"
858:
856:
654:
652:
650:
347:), which rendered him helpless and seemingly dead.
306:
298:
290:
282:
270:
252:
245:
153:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
686:
843:Terence Hines, 2008, "Zombies and Tetrodotoxin,"
365:However, subsequent examinations (using tools of
666:on Zombies, Folk Poisons, and Haitian Culture."
350:The greatest proponent of this possibility was
627:
625:
623:
621:
619:
617:
615:
613:
611:
568:preparations to "enable transport across the
8:
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
586:, a 1988 American horror film directed by
580:Narcisse's story was loosely adapted into
242:
95:by removing unsourced speculative content.
231:Learn how and when to remove this message
213:Learn how and when to remove this message
111:Learn how and when to remove this message
891:
889:
839:
837:
742:
740:
712:
710:
819:
817:
815:
797:
795:
793:
607:
16:Haitian self-claimed zombie (1922–1994)
747:Patrick D. Hahn (September 4, 2007).
7:
680:
678:
676:
634:"The Secrets of Haiti's Living Dead"
151:adding citations to reliable sources
945:People from Artibonite (department)
902:(4850), 15 April 1988, pp. 274–77,
872:(4860), 24 June 1988, pp. 1715–16,
865:, 1988, "Letters: Zombification" ,
14:
330:, and forced to work as a slave.
34:This article has multiple issues.
127:
64:
23:
415:, which at certain doses has a
138:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
386:, on April 30, 1962. He had a
1:
955:Caribbean legendary creatures
725:. The Official Zombie Primer
546:State University of New York
274:1994 (aged 71–72)
75:possibly contains unsourced
784:The Serpent and the Rainbow
670:75.4 (1987): 412–14. Print.
583:The Serpent and the Rainbow
536:preparations, in so-called
498:(a toad toxin) to induce a
971:
717:Wood, Clair (2000-04-04).
87:reliable published sources
693:. Carlton Books Limited.
632:Gino Del Guercio (1986).
341:and the strong deliriant
913:, accessed 26 July 2105.
883:, accessed 26 July 2105.
850:, accessed 25 July 2015.
768:Hurston, Zora N., 2008,
643:. No. Jan-Feb 1986.
354:, a graduate student in
908:10.1126/science.3353722
878:10.1126/science.3381089
448:Hypothesis and research
81:. Information must be
419:effect and can cause
719:"Clairvius Narcisse"
550:Karolinska Institute
480:analytical chemistry
367:analytical chemistry
162:"Clairvius Narcisse"
147:improve this article
570:blood–brain barrier
845:Skeptical Inquirer
781:Wade Davis, 1985,
668:American Scientist
660:American Scientist
466:Zora Neale Hurston
360:Harvard University
320:Clairvius Narcisse
310:Allegedly being a
247:Clairvius Narcisse
521:Datura stramonium
317:
316:
302:The Living Zombie
241:
240:
233:
223:
222:
215:
197:
121:
120:
113:
57:
962:
914:
893:
884:
860:
851:
841:
832:
821:
810:
799:
788:
779:
773:
766:
760:
759:
757:
756:
751:. Biology Online
744:
735:
734:
732:
730:
714:
705:
704:
692:
682:
671:
656:
645:
644:
641:Harvard Magazine
638:
629:
563:
561:
429:sugar plantation
299:Other names
243:
236:
229:
218:
211:
207:
204:
198:
196:
155:
131:
123:
116:
109:
105:
102:
96:
68:
67:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
970:
969:
965:
964:
963:
961:
960:
959:
920:
919:
918:
917:
894:
887:
861:
854:
842:
835:
822:
813:
800:
791:
780:
776:
767:
763:
754:
752:
746:
745:
738:
728:
726:
716:
715:
708:
701:
689:The UneXplained
684:
683:
674:
657:
648:
636:
631:
630:
609:
604:
578:
559:
553:
530:
450:
376:
278:
275:
266:
257:
256:January 2, 1922
248:
237:
226:
225:
224:
219:
208:
202:
199:
156:
154:
144:
132:
117:
106:
100:
97:
90:
69:
65:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
968:
966:
958:
957:
952:
947:
942:
937:
932:
922:
921:
916:
915:
885:
852:
833:
811:
789:
774:
770:Tell My Horse,
761:
736:
706:
699:
672:
646:
606:
605:
603:
600:
577:
574:
529:
526:
457:preparations.
453:ingredient in
449:
446:
417:hallucinogenic
375:
372:
315:
314:
308:
307:Known for
304:
303:
300:
296:
295:
292:
288:
287:
284:
280:
279:
276:
272:
268:
267:
258:
254:
250:
249:
246:
239:
238:
221:
220:
135:
133:
126:
119:
118:
72:
70:
63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
967:
956:
953:
951:
948:
946:
943:
941:
940:Haitian Vodou
938:
936:
933:
931:
928:
927:
925:
912:
909:
905:
901:
898:
892:
890:
886:
882:
879:
875:
871:
868:
864:
859:
857:
853:
849:
846:
840:
838:
834:
830:
826:
820:
818:
816:
812:
808:
804:
798:
796:
794:
790:
786:
785:
778:
775:
771:
765:
762:
750:
743:
741:
737:
724:
720:
713:
711:
707:
702:
700:9781858681863
696:
691:
690:
681:
679:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
655:
653:
651:
647:
642:
635:
628:
626:
624:
622:
620:
618:
616:
614:
612:
608:
601:
599:
597:
596:
591:
589:
585:
584:
575:
573:
571:
565:
557:
551:
547:
542:
539:
535:
527:
525:
523:
522:
517:
516:
511:
508:
507:ethnobotanist
505:The Canadian
503:
501:
497:
493:
489:
483:
481:
476:
474:
469:
467:
463:
462:Tell My Horse
458:
456:
455:Haitian Vodou
447:
445:
443:
437:
433:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
409:
407:
404:
400:
395:
393:
389:
385:
381:
373:
371:
368:
363:
361:
357:
353:
348:
346:
345:
340:
336:
331:
329:
328:Haitian vodou
325:
321:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
283:Resting place
281:
273:
269:
265:
261:
255:
251:
244:
235:
232:
217:
214:
206:
195:
192:
188:
185:
181:
178:
174:
171:
167:
164: –
163:
159:
158:Find sources:
152:
148:
142:
141:
136:This article
134:
130:
125:
124:
115:
112:
104:
94:
88:
85:and based on
84:
80:
78:
73:This article
71:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
899:
896:
869:
866:
844:
828:
824:
806:
802:
782:
777:
769:
764:
753:. Retrieved
727:. Retrieved
722:
688:
667:
662:Interviews:
659:
640:
593:
592:
581:
579:
566:
555:
544:Kao, of the
543:
531:
519:
513:
504:
488:tetrodotoxin
484:
477:
470:
461:
459:
451:
438:
434:
410:
396:
380:Deschapelles
377:
364:
349:
342:
339:tetrodotoxin
332:
319:
318:
227:
209:
200:
190:
183:
176:
169:
157:
145:Please help
140:verification
137:
107:
98:
91:Please help
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
935:1994 deaths
930:1922 births
863:Davis, Wade
595:Zombi Child
494:toxin) and
421:memory loss
356:ethnobotany
291:Nationality
77:predictions
924:Categories
755:2014-05-31
729:6 December
664:Wade Davis
602:References
588:Wes Craven
528:Skepticism
510:Wade Davis
492:pufferfish
473:Wade Davis
442:Wade Davis
406:plantation
352:Wade Davis
335:pufferfish
173:newspapers
93:improve it
83:verifiable
39:improve it
831:: 29–132.
809:: 747–49.
496:bufotoxin
374:Biography
203:July 2015
101:July 2015
45:talk page
897:Science,
867:Science,
399:L'Estère
286:L'Estère
260:L'Estère
950:Zombies
825:Toxicon
803:Toxicon
723:Website
560:
392:fatigue
294:Haitian
187:scholar
910:, see
880:, see
697:
576:Cinema
538:zombie
534:voodoo
423:. The
413:Datura
344:Datura
337:venom
324:zombie
312:zombie
189:
182:
175:
168:
160:
637:(PDF)
515:bokor
425:bokor
403:sugar
388:fever
384:Haiti
326:by a
277:Haiti
264:Haiti
194:JSTOR
180:books
731:2012
695:ISBN
562:data
556:i.e.
500:coma
390:and
271:Died
253:Born
166:news
904:doi
900:240
874:doi
870:240
490:(a
464:by
358:at
149:by
926::
888:^
855:^
836:^
829:28
827:,
814:^
807:24
805:,
792:^
739:^
721:.
709:^
675:^
649:^
639:.
610:^
590:.
475:.
408:.
382:,
262:,
48:.
906::
876::
787:.
758:.
733:.
703:.
658:"
558:,
554:(
234:)
228:(
216:)
210:(
205:)
201:(
191:·
184:·
177:·
170:·
143:.
114:)
108:(
103:)
99:(
89:.
55:)
51:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
