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484:
409:
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385:
472:
373:
37:
283:
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25:
17:
298:
144:
Little is known concerning
Classic Veracruz religion and inferences have to be made from better-known Mesoamerican religions such as those of the Aztec, Mixtec, and Maya. Only some of the many deity figures known from these religions have been recognized with any certainty. Large ceramic figures show
231:
The ballgame rituals appear throughout
Classic Veracruz monumental art. The walls of largest ballcourt, the East Ballcourt at El Tajin are lined with carved murals showing human sacrifice in the context of the ballgame (see photo above). The culmination of these murals is a tableau showing the rain
120:
rank as well as craft specialization. Elite hereditary rulers held sway over these small- to medium-sized regional centers, none over 2000 km², maintaining their rule through political and religious control of far-flung trade networks and legitimizing it through typical
Mesoamerican rites such
318:
The art of
Classic Veracruz is rendered with extensive and convoluted banded scrolls that can be seen both on monumental architecture and on portable art, including ceramics and even carved bones. At least one researcher has suggested that the heads and other features formed by the scrolls are a
267:
were thin stone heads that were markers that were typically placed in the court to score the game, but could be worn on the yoke. Archaeologists generally suppose that the stone yokes are ritual versions of leather, cotton, and/or wood yokes, although no such perishable artifacts have yet been
551:
Coe, p. 115, who says "The tribal name 'Totonac' has often been inappropriately applied . . ." and Kubler, p. 137, who says "It is less misleading to refer to the region by chronological terms - Classic
Veracruz and post-Classic - than by ethno-historical names of doubtful
149:. Based on their closed eyes and wide open mouths, and also on the nearby shrine of a death god and on the surrounding burials, the latter have been identified as deified women who died in child birth, more or less corresponding to the much later Aztec
183:. However, hardly anything is known about the interrelations of the deities mentioned above, their role in the religious feasts, and the possible connection of these feasts to the calendar (like the monthly feasts of the Aztec and Maya).
334:
In addition to the scrollwork, the architecture is known for its remarkable ornamentation, such as that seen on the
Pyramid of Niches at El Tajin. This ornamentation produces dramatic contrasts of light and shadow, what art historian
471:
606:
Davies (p. 123) who reports that El Tajin's "inhabitants seem to have been obsessed by the game" and Coe (p. 118) who states that "the inhabitants of El Tajin were obsessed with the ballgame, human sacrifice, and
205:
196:
499:
228:. Every cultural center had at least one ballcourt, while up to 18 ballcourts have been found at El Tajin. It was during Late Classic here in north-central Veracruz that the ballgame reached its height.
483:
408:
136:, or slash-and-burn, agriculture, with maize an important component of the diet, supplemented with domestic dog, wild deer and other mammals, and fish and shellfish. Cotton was also an important crop.
116:
Burials, monumental sculpture, relief carvings, and the distribution of architecture within the regional centers all point to a stratification of
Classic Veracruz society, including the presence of an
2460:
175:. Many ceremonially clad ceramic figurines have been found that testify to the importance of public ritual, while the ceramic figurines of persons with smiling and laughing faces (the so-called
1048:
384:
282:
620:
cites 17, while Day, p. 75, reports 18. Other researchers report lower numbers of ballcourts. The differences may be accounted for continuing discovery of additional ballcourts.
2455:
978:
629:
See
Wilkerson (p. 48), who says "The ballgame ritual greatly intensitifes during this period, reaching a peak that may not have been equaled anywhere else in Mesoamerica.".
145:
a stooped, very old man representing the
Mesoamerican fire god. Equally large ceramic statues show female earth goddesses with snake girdles connected to the site of
372:
708:
See Bruhns, who describes the culture as having an "international flavor", or
Covarrubias, who mentions Teotihuacan influences, albeit minor influences, on p. 193.
2435:
1081:
121:
as bloodletting, human sacrifice, warfare, and use of exotic goods. Much or most of the population, however, lived in isolated homesteads, hamlets, or villages.
2420:
159:. Otherwise similar ceramic statues of earth goddesses, however, standing or seated, do not have dead faces and should therefore not be compared to the Aztec
930:
1397:
1020:
2425:
922:
440:
described Classic Veracruz ceramics as "powerful and expressive, endowed with a charm and sensibility unprecedented in other, more formal cultures".
1429:
167:
prominently depict a death god, a rain god and what may be a sun god and are important for their narrative quality perhaps related to the origin of
2518:
918:
1417:
840:
666:
2331:
1446:
105:
988:
354:, neither of these cultures are its direct antecedents. Instead, the seeds of this culture seems to have come at least in part from the
2390:
1441:
1319:
955:
Wilkerson, S. Jeffrey K. (1991) "Then They Were Sacrificed: The Ritual Ballgame of Northeastern Mesoamerica Through Time and Space", in
324:
917:(in Spanish). Beatriz de la Fuente (Mesoamerican research coordinator), MarĂa Olga Sáenz González (project coordinator). MĂ©xico, D.F.:
2445:
1424:
1063:
171:. Hachas commonly show the head of an aged god probably connected to earth and water. An earth monster was likely inherited from the
2384:
1453:
964:
938:
913:
Solis, Felipe (1994). "La Costa del Golfo: el arte del centro de Veracruz y del mundo huasteco". In MarĂa Luisa Sabau GarcĂa (ed.).
873:
858:
809:
787:
759:
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2205:
1894:
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36:
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were fitted to the front of a yoke and were elongated sculptures often of effigies of birds—like turkeys—or realistic scenes.
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535:
Various authors give various end-points, e.g. Noble (p. 645) gives 250 CE to 900 CE while others vaguely refer to the
461:
The Classic Veracruz culture produced some of the few wheeled Mesoamerican figurines and is also noted for the use of
436:, some initially by looters, has expanded our understanding and filled many museum shelves. Artist and art historian
233:
2271:
396:
2155:
1998:
1006:
2508:
1507:
879:
MedellĂn Zenil, Alfonso; Frederick A. Peterson (1954) "A Smiling Head Complex from Central Veracruz, Mexico" in
1978:
1582:
1384:
1073:
44:
from the Classic Veracruz site of Aparicio, showing a sacrificed ballplayer, 400-700 CE. Height: 125 cm (4 ft).
1727:
179:) seem to represent ritual performers; they may point to a cult similar to that of the much later Aztec deity
108:. However, there is little or no evidence that the Totonacs were the originators of the Classic era culture.
2279:
2054:
1224:
539:
64:
1697:
818:
Diehl, Richard, "Death Gods, Smiling Faces and Colossal Heads: Archaeology of the Mexican Gulf Lowlands".
243:
A defining characteristic of the Classic Veracruz culture is the presence of stone ballgame gear: yokes,
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2049:
1682:
1436:
1407:
1206:
1181:
1146:
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style figurines, perhaps the most easily recognizable, are usually hand-modeled, and often adorned with
424:
Until the early 1950s, the Classic Veracruz ceramics were few, little understood, and generally without
225:
1334:
477:
Large male/female duality figurine from Remojadas. Note the feminine breast and birds on the right side
73:
was the major center of Classic Veracruz culture; other notable settlements include Higueras, Zapotal,
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1972:
1936:
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1747:
1547:
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1156:
1151:
428:. Since then, the recovery of thousands of figurines and pottery pieces from sites such as
94:
998:
2288:
1967:
1926:
1911:
1874:
1838:
1732:
1627:
1542:
1517:
1478:
1463:
1284:
1121:
983:
90:
984:
A Nopiloa-style ballplayer figurine, 700 - 1000 CE. Note the yoke worn about the waist.
794:
Day, Jane Stevenson (2001). "Performing on the Court". In E. Michael Whittington (ed.).
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2004:
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2009:
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1757:
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1602:
1304:
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906:
824:
Kampen, M. E. (1978) "Classic Veracruz Grotesques and Sacrificial Iconography", in
156:
1742:
2254:
2244:
2115:
2059:
1863:
1794:
1647:
1617:
1324:
1216:
1096:
536:
454:(smiling faces) figurines, with triangular-shaped heads and outstretched arms.
447:
347:
340:
328:
29:
2292:
2130:
2110:
1737:
1552:
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505:
Head depicting a fleshy face on one side, and a skull on the other, 300-600 CE
425:
363:
320:
305:
180:
151:
146:
55:) refers to a cultural area in the north and central areas of the present-day
24:
16:
251:. Yokes are U-shaped stones worn about the waist of a ballplayer, while the
2313:
2309:
2284:
2034:
1369:
1259:
948:
443:
429:
82:
1818:
1488:
864:
Noble, John; Nystrom, Andrew Dean; Konn, Morgan; Grosberg, Michael (2004)
2300:
2150:
1712:
1692:
1687:
1577:
1557:
289:
164:
70:
60:
20:
The Classic Veracruz culture and other important Classic Era settlements.
458:
figurines are usually less ornate, without appliqués, and often molded.
323:
writing. This scrollwork may have grown out of similar styles found in
2296:
1833:
1762:
1717:
1458:
1354:
1329:
1314:
1234:
1229:
1186:
1161:
1131:
462:
133:
101:
979:
A Nopiloa-style figurine of a woman in ceremonial dress, 700 - 900 CE.
2239:
2229:
2125:
2100:
1612:
1607:
1532:
1468:
1349:
1299:
1289:
1264:
490:
237:
168:
85:, the latter two important ceramics centers. The culture spanned the
240:, the apparent desired end result of the ballgame ritual sacrifice.
63:, a culture that existed from roughly 100 to 1000 CE, or during the
1879:
1823:
1814:
1702:
1279:
915:
MĂ©xico en el mundo de las colecciones de arte: Mesoamerica, vol. 1
888:"Palma with Skeletal Head Figure (Mexico, Veracruz) (1978.412.16)"
618:"Palma with Skeletal Head Figure (Mexico, Veracruz) (1978.412.16)"
172:
129:
117:
41:
35:
23:
15:
304:
Stone commemorative yoke for the ballgame, carved with faces and
926:
542:, which itself spans different timeframes for different regions.
1002:
100:
The Classic Veracruz culture is sometimes associated with the
224:
The Classic Veracruz culture was seemingly obsessed with the
2461:
Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
132:
cultures before it, Classic Veracruz culture was based on
390:
Sculptures of a seated warrior and two dogs, 400-800 CE
104:, who were occupying this territory at the time of the
797:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
288:
One of a series of murals from the South Ballcourt at
2456:
Painting in the Americas before European colonization
414:
Incense burner shaped like a jaguar being, 600-900 CE
346:
While Classic Veracruz culture shows influences from
899:
Encyclopedia of Prehistory; Volume 5, Middle America
236:) to replenish a vat of the alcoholic, ritual drink
2327:
2250:
2225:
2196:
2171:
2146:
2121:
2096:
2065:
2040:
2015:
1984:
1947:
1922:
1885:
1854:
1829:
1800:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1776:
1383:
1215:
1072:
1036:
272:have been found from Teotihuacan to Guatemala, the
820:http://www.famsi.org/research/diehl/section02.html
276:seem peculiar to what is today northern Veracruz.
897:Pool, Christopher (2002) "Gulf Coast Classic" in
883:, Vol. 20, No. 2. (Oct., 1954), pp. 162–169.
828:, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Mar., 1978), pp. 116–126.
989:A broad collection of Classic Veracruz ceramics
2436:Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
2421:Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas
726:Medellin Zenil. See also Covarrubias, p. 191.
1014:
8:
931:Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes
661:. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 123.
851:The Art and Architecture of Ancient America
2404:
1021:
1007:
999:
800:. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp.
2426:Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas
1030:Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures
782:, Penguin Books, London, 1990 printing,
773:Indian Art of Mexico and Central America
378:Portrait head from Remojadas, 250-550 CE
528:
467:
368:
292:, showing the sacrifice of a ballplayer
278:
923:Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas
853:, 3rd Edition, Yale University Press,
232:god, who pierces his penis (an act of
835:, Prentice-Hall Art, Second Edition,
766:Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs
659:Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs
657:Coe, Michael D.; Koontz, Rex (2008).
7:
218:(axe) depicting a ball player's head
155:('female gods') also known from the
106:Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire
1454:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela
919:SecretarĂa de Relaciones Exteriores
2446:Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
1425:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia
14:
1437:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador
1408:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia
28:View of the ceremonial centre of
2478:
1430:Archaeological sites in Colombia
1403:Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil
498:
482:
470:
432:, Los Cerros, Dicha Tuerta, and
407:
395:
383:
371:
297:
281:
268:unearthed. While the yokes and
204:
195:
1413:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile
959:, University of Arizona Press,
831:Kampen-O'Riley, Michael (2006)
2519:Classic period in the Americas
780:The Ancient Kingdoms of Mexico
450:. Of particular note are the
1:
2357:Spanish Conquest of Guatemala
1418:Archaeological sites in Chile
760:Anthropology 470 Study Guide.
517:List of Mesoamerican pyramids
489:Ceramic brazier with head of
2451:Mesoamerican writing systems
1447:Archaeological sites in Peru
909:, eds., Springer Publishing.
886:Metropolitan Museum of Art,
775:, Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
163:. The ball court reliefs of
2347:Spanish Conquest of Yucatán
771:Covarrubias, Miguel (1957)
681:See Kampen-O'Riley, p. 299.
616:Metropolitan Museum of Art
2540:
2373:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
2276:Uaxaclajuun UbĘĽaah KĘĽawiil
768:Thames and Hudson, London.
53:Gulf Coast Classic culture
2474:
2416:
2407:
1771:
1598:Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia)
991:from the Logan Museum at
957:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
868:, Lonely Planet, 9th Ed,
319:Classic Veracruz form of
2485:Civilizations portal
1442:Cultural periods of Peru
764:Coe, Michael D. (2002);
402:Ceramic head, 600–900 CE
49:Classic Veracruz culture
2379:Hernán Pérez de Quesada
1225:Mesoamerican chronology
892:Timeline of Art History
1082:Archaeological periods
45:
33:
21:
2514:Mesoamerican cultures
2385:List of Conquistadors
2272:KĘĽinich JanaabĘĽ Pakal
1683:Quebrada de Humahuaca
1102:Caddoan Mississippian
778:Davies, Nigel (1982)
638:Kampen (1978) p. 116.
597:Pool, et al., p. 208.
561:Pool, et al., p. 207.
187:Mesoamerican ballgame
93:on the north and the
39:
27:
19:
2352:Francisco de Montejo
2280:Jasaw Chan KĘĽawiil I
1393:Andean civilizations
1320:Shaft tomb tradition
933:. pp. 183–241.
758:Bruhns, Karen Olsen
744:Covarrubias, p. 191.
735:Covarrubias, p. 191.
717:Wilkerson, p. 46-47.
32:in Veracruz, Mexico.
2524:Culture of Veracruz
2318:Manco Inca Yupanqui
1623:Manteño-Huancavilca
1092:Ancestral Puebloans
833:Art Beyond the West
259:sit upon the yoke.
2441:Columbian exchange
2431:Portal:Mesoamerica
1583:La Tolita (Tumaco)
1398:Indigenous peoples
1137:Hopewell tradition
1064:Indigenous peoples
903:Peter N. Peregrine
890:(October 2006) in
881:American Antiquity
465:for highlighting.
438:Miguel Covarrubias
360:Cerro de las Mesas
75:Cerro de las Mesas
46:
34:
22:
2496:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2466:Pre-Columbian art
2402:
2401:
2396:Francisco Pizarro
2362:Pedro de Alvarado
1678:Pucará de Tilcara
841:978-0-13-224010-9
668:978-0-500-28755-2
647:Wilkerson, p. 65.
358:centers, such as
356:Epi-Olmec culture
2531:
2509:Classic Veracruz
2483:
2482:
2481:
2405:
2391:Spanish Conquest
2368:Spanish Conquest
2343:Spanish Conquest
2332:Spanish Conquest
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112:Social structure
95:Papaloapan River
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1996:
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1906:Human Sacrifice
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1895:Human Sacrifice
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1839:Mayan Languages
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1049:Genetic history
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699:Kubler, p. 139.
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690:Kubler, p. 141.
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57:Mexican state
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2409:
2259:Moctezuma II
2216:Inca history
2141:Andean Music
2085:Architecture
2080:Architecture
2075:Architecture
2070:Architecture
2066:Architecture
2060:Gender Roles
1805:Tenochtitlan
1728:Timoto–Cuica
1723:Tierradentro
1508:Casma–Sechin
1359:
1240:Chalcatzingo
956:
914:
907:Melvin Ember
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537:Mesoamerican
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321:pictographic
317:
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234:bloodletting
230:
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176:
160:
157:Codex Borgia
150:
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115:
99:
91:Pánuco River
89:between the
69:
52:
48:
47:
2322:TĂşpac Amaru
2306:Manco Cápac
2255:Moctezuma I
2166:Agriculture
2161:Agriculture
2156:Agriculture
2147:Agriculture
2090:Road System
1979:Mathematics
1844:Muysc Cubun
1698:San AgustĂn
1648:Monte Verde
1325:Teotihuacan
1217:Mesoamerica
1112:Coles Creek
1097:Anishinaabe
1054:Archaeology
894:, New York.
552:relevance."
540:Classic era
348:Teotihuacan
341:chiaroscuro
329:Kaminaljuyu
65:Classic era
2503:Categories
2293:Tisquesusa
2267:Cuauhtémoc
2263:Cuitláhuac
1593:Lauricocha
1563:Gran Chaco
1553:Cupisnique
1538:Chinchorro
1513:Chachapoya
1503:Caral–Supe
1345:Tlaxcaltec
1335:Teuchitlán
1250:ChupĂcuaro
1177:Plum Bayou
1172:Plaquemine
1142:Marksville
1107:Chichimeca
752:References
452:Sonrientes
434:Tenenexpan
426:provenance
364:La Mojarra
306:cocoa bean
181:Xochipilli
177:sonrientes
161:cihuateteo
152:cihuateteo
147:El Zapotal
87:Gulf Coast
2314:Atahualpa
2310:Pachacuti
2285:Nemequene
2151:Chinampas
1973:Astronomy
1962:Astronomy
1942:Mythology
1937:Mythology
1932:Mythology
1927:Mythology
1923:Mythology
1753:Wankarani
1743:Tuncahuán
1633:Marajoara
1588:Las Vegas
1474:Atacameño
1370:Xochipala
1310:Purépecha
1270:Epi-Olmec
1260:Cuicuilco
1202:Troyville
1192:St. Johns
448:appliqués
444:Remojadas
430:Remojadas
126:Epi-Olmec
124:Like the
83:Remojadas
2410:See also
2328:Conquest
2301:Zoratama
1968:Calendar
1957:Calendar
1952:Calendar
1948:Calendar
1917:Religion
1912:Religion
1901:Religion
1890:Religion
1886:Religion
1875:Numerals
1869:Numerals
1830:Language
1810:Multiple
1748:Valdivia
1733:Tiwanaku
1693:Saladoid
1688:Quimbaya
1578:Kuhikugu
1558:Diaguita
1548:Chorrera
1365:Veraguas
1360:Veracruz
1340:Tlatilco
1152:Mogollon
1059:Cultures
1037:Americas
949:33194574
511:See also
420:Ceramics
350:and the
290:El Tajin
226:ballgame
214:A stone
165:El Tajin
140:Religion
102:Totonacs
71:El Tajin
61:Veracruz
30:El TajĂn
2297:Tundama
2226:Peoples
2211:History
2206:History
2201:History
2197:History
2191:Cuisine
2186:Cuisine
2181:Cuisine
2176:Cuisine
2172:Cuisine
2030:Warfare
2025:Warfare
2020:Warfare
2016:Warfare
2010:Society
2005:Economy
1994:Society
1989:Society
1985:Society
1855:Writing
1849:Quechua
1834:Nahuatl
1801:Capital
1738:Toyopán
1718:Tairona
1628:Mapuche
1543:Chiripa
1518:Chancay
1489:Cañaris
1464:Amotape
1459:El Abra
1375:Zapotec
1355:Totonac
1330:Tepanec
1315:Quelepa
1285:Mezcala
1275:Huastec
1245:Cholula
1235:Capacha
1230:Acolhua
1187:Sinagua
1162:Patayan
1132:Hohokam
1122:Fremont
849:(1990)
607:death".
463:bitumen
456:Nopiloa
134:swidden
79:Nopiloa
2240:Muisca
2235:Mayans
2230:Aztecs
1864:Script
1859:Script
1819:Bacatá
1790:Muisca
1673:Pucará
1668:Piaroa
1663:Paiján
1658:Omagua
1613:Lupaca
1608:Lokono
1573:Kalina
1568:Huetar
1528:ChavĂn
1523:Chango
1498:Nariño
1494:CapulĂ
1484:Calima
1479:Aymara
1469:Arawak
1350:Toltec
1300:Olmecs
1295:Nicoya
1290:Mixtec
1265:Diquis
1167:Picosa
1157:Oshara
1127:Glades
1117:Dorset
963:
947:
937:
929:, and
872:
866:Mexico
857:
839:
808:
786:
665:
491:Tlaloc
274:palmas
270:hachas
265:Hachas
261:Palmas
257:palmas
253:hachas
249:palmas
247:, and
245:hachas
238:pulque
173:Olmecs
169:pulque
81:, and
2245:Incas
2136:Music
2131:Music
2126:Music
2122:Music
2055:Women
2050:Women
2045:Women
2041:Women
1999:Trade
1880:Quipu
1824:Cusco
1815:Hunza
1780:Aztec
1713:TaĂno
1708:Sican
1703:Shuar
1653:Nazca
1643:Mollo
1638:Moche
1618:Luzia
1533:ChimĂş
1305:Pipil
1280:Izapa
1255:Coclé
1197:Thule
1087:Adena
802:65–77
588:Diehl
523:Notes
216:hacha
130:Olmec
118:elite
42:stela
2035:Army
1817:and
1795:Inca
1785:Maya
1763:ZenĂş
1758:Wari
1603:Lima
961:ISBN
945:OCLC
935:ISBN
927:UNAM
905:and
870:ISBN
855:ISBN
837:ISBN
806:ISBN
784:ISBN
663:ISBN
362:and
352:Maya
327:and
255:and
128:and
51:(or
2116:Art
2111:Art
2106:Art
2101:Art
2097:Art
826:Man
343:".
314:Art
59:of
2505::
2354:)
943:.
921:,
901:,
804:.
366:.
331:.
77:,
67:.
40:A
2398:)
2394:(
2387:)
2383:(
2381:)
2377:(
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2371:(
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2360:(
2350:(
2339:)
2335:(
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2088:(
2001:)
1997:(
1975:)
1971:(
1964:)
1960:(
1908:)
1904:(
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1893:(
1871:)
1867:(
1496:/
1022:e
1015:t
1008:v
995:.
967:.
951:.
925:-
876:.
861:.
843:.
814:.
790:.
671:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
