4466:): "Pei, Mario A. "A New Methodology for Romance Classification." Word, v, 2 (Aug. 1949), 135–146. Demonstrates a comparative statistical method for determining the extent of change from the Latin for the free and checked accented vowels of French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Rumanian, Old Provençal, and Logudorese Sardinian. By assigning 3½ change points per vowel (with 2 points for diphthongization, 1 point for modification in vowel quantity, ½ point for changes due to nasalization, palatalization or umlaut, and −½ point for failure to effect a normal change), there is a maximum of 77 change points for free and checked stressed vowel sounds (11×2×3½=77). According to this system (illustrated by seven charts at the end of the article), the percentage of change is greatest in French (44%) and least in Italian (12%) and Sardinian (8%). Prof. Pei suggests that this statistical method be extended not only to all other phonological, but also to all morphological and syntactical, phenomena.".
4483:: "In the late forties and in the fifties some new proposals for classification of the Romance languages appeared. A statistical method attempting to evaluate the evidence quantitatively was developed in order to provide not only a classification, but at the same time a measure of the divergence among the languages. The earliest attempt was made in 1949 by Mario Pei (1901–1978), who measured the divergence of seven modern Romance languages from Classical Latin, taking as his criterion the evolution of stressed vowels. Pei's results do not show the degree of contemporary divergence among the languages from each other but only the divergence of each one from Classical Latin. The closest language turned out to be Sardinian with 8% then followed Italian — 12%; Spanish — 20%; Romanian — 23,5%; Provençal — 25%; Portuguese — 31%; French — 44%."
3853:"Not only is the tree model inadequate to express the relationships between diatopically related varieties, but it may seriously distort the diachronic and synchronic study of language. Some would argue that this model works well within Indo-European linguistics, where the varieties under consideration (all written and therefore partially or fully standardized) are usually well separated in space and time and where the intervening varieties have all vanished without trace, removing any possibility of viewing the Indo-European family as a continuum. However, where the object of study is a series of now-existing varieties or a range of closely related varieties from the past, the tree model is open to a number of grave objections." (
961:, which cuts straight across northern Italy and forms a major geographic barrier to further language spread. This would explain why some of the "northwest" features (almost all of which can be characterized as innovations) end at differing points in northern Italy, and why some of the languages in geographically remote parts of Spain (in the south, and high in the Pyrenees) are lacking some of these features. It also explains why the languages in France (especially standard French) seem to have innovated earlier and more extensively than other Western Romance languages.
1008:, to postulate a basic two-way east–west division, with the "Eastern" languages including Romanian and central and southern Italian, although this view is troubled by the contrast of numerous Romanian phonological developments with those found in Italy below the La Spezia-Rimini line. Among these features, in Romanian geminates reduced historically to single units, and /kt/ developed into /pt/, whereas in central and southern Italy geminates are preserved and /kt/ underwent assimilation to /tt/.
271:
135:
24:
362:
as the change appeared in
Antiquity in the East (Italo-Romance, Dalmatian and Eastern Romance), while in the West plural nouns ending in -s were preserved past this stage but could be lost by more recent changes (such as aspiration of word-final -s in some varieties of Spanish and its phonetic loss in French). Another criterion taken into account is the distinction between
361:
Historical criteria look at the
Romance languages' former development. For example, a widely employed model divided the Romance-speaking world between West and East based on whether plural nouns end in -s or in a vowel. Researchers have highlighted this is mainly valid from a historical point of view
1125:
vocabularies. While most of those differences are clearly due to independent development after the breakup of the Roman Empire (including invasions and cultural exchanges), one must also consider the influence of prior languages in territories of Latin Europe that fell under Roman rule, and possible
1016:
Linguists like Jean-Pierre
Chambon claim that the various regional languages did not evolve in isolation from their neighbours; on the contrary, they see many changes propagating from the more central regions (Italy and France) towards the periphery (Iberian Peninsula and Romania). These authors see
382:
with
Northern Italy and Catalan region representing marginal areas of distribution. For example, Catalan, up to the thirteenth century, used the Romance writing modes common in the Occitan area. This created a contrast with the languages near the periphery (which include Spanish, Portuguese, Italian
340:
On the other hand, the tree structure may be meaningfully applied to any subfamilies of
Romance whose members did diverge from a common ancestor by binary splits. That may be the case, for example, of the dialects of Spanish and Portuguese spoken in different countries, or the regional variants of
319:—into a large number of politically independent states and feudal domains whose populations were largely bound to the land. These units then interacted, merged and split in various ways over the next fifteen centuries, possibly influenced by languages external to the family (as in the so-called
1686:
Romanian constructs the names of the numbers 11–19 by a regular Slavic-influenced pattern that could be translated as "one-over-ten", "two-over-ten", etc. All the other
Romance languages use a pattern like "one-ten", "two-ten", etc. for 11–15, and the pattern "ten-and-seven, "ten-and-eight",
1124:
The differences among
Romance languages occur at all levels, including the sound systems, the orthography, the nominal, verbal, and adjectival inflections, the auxiliary verbs and the semantics of verbal tenses, the function words, the rules for subordinate clauses, and, especially, in their
428:
By applying the comparative method, some linguists have concluded that
Sardinian became linguistically developed separately from the remainder of the Romance languages at an extremely early date. Among the many distinguishing features of Sardinian are its articles (derived from Latin
3753:
330:
and
Romance-speaking peoples can hardly be described by a binary branching pattern; therefore, one may argue that any attempt to fit the Romance languages into a tree structure is inherently flawed. In this regard, the genealogical structure of languages forms a typical
999:
Many of the "southeast" features also apply to the
Eastern Romance languages (particularly, Romanian), despite the geographic discontinuity. Examples are lack of lenition, maintenance of intertonic vowels, use of vowel-changing plurals, and palatalization of /k/ to
2503:'have' and 'be': Occitan, French, Sardinian, Italian, Northern-Italian languages (Piedmontese, Lombard, Ligurian, Venetian, Friulan), Romansh, Central Italian languages (Tuscan, Umbrian, Corsican) some Catalan dialects (although such usage is recessing in those).
902:
Recent scholarship argues for a more nuanced view. All of the "southeast" characteristics apply to all languages southeast of the line, and all of the "northwest" characteristics apply to all languages in France and (most of) Spain yet the
530:) in the west. One of the characteristic features of Romanian is its retention of three of Latin's seven noun cases. The third major split was more evenly divided, between the Italian branch, which comprises many languages spoken in the
302:
lasted, its educational policies and the natural mobility of its soldiers and administrative officials probably ensured some degree of linguistic homogeneity throughout its territory. Even if there were differences between the
2539:
with 'be'. In Southern Italian languages the principles governing auxiliaries can be quite complex, including even differences in persons of the subject. A similar distinction exists in the Germanic languages, which share a
1093:
Part of the difficulties met in classifying Romance languages is due to the seemingly messy distribution of linguistic innovations across members of the Romance family. While this is a problem for followers of the dominant
948:
The likely cause for this partition is that the focal point of innovation was located in central France and was related directly to the level of Carolingian influence, from which a series of innovations spread out as
3866:"A linkage consists of separate modern languages which are all related and linked together by intersecting layers of innovations; it is a language family whose internal genealogy cannot be represented by any tree." (
395:
for the conservativeness of their speech, remarking that they imitate Latin "like monkeys imitate men". According to Gerhard Rohlfs France replaced Italy as a centre of diffusion of innovations around the sixth
3948:
Sardos etiam, qui non Latii sunt sed Latiis associandi videntur, eiciamus, quoniam soli sine proprio vulgari esse videntur, gramaticam tanquam simie homines imitantes: nam domus nova et dominus meus locuntur.
907:
are somewhere in between. These languages do have the "northwest" characteristics of lenition and loss of gemination however other seemingly clear boundaries are often obscured by local variations:
3958:
542:
However, this is not the only view. Another common classification begins by splitting the Romance languages into two main branches, East and West. The East group includes Romanian, the languages of
378:(discussed further below) form the core "innovative" languages, with standard French often considered the most innovative of all. The phenomenon is attributed to language development in the
2544:; German, Dutch, Danish and Icelandic use 'have' and 'be', while English, Norwegian and Swedish use 'have' only (although in modern English, 'be' remains in certain relic phrases:
295:
assumption that the degree of linguistic change is roughly proportional to elapsed time, the sequence of splits can be deduced by measuring the differences between the members.
2511:, that is, intransitive verbs that often show motion not directly initiated by the subject or changes of state, such as 'fall', 'come', 'become'. All other verbs (intransitive
479:'the dog'), and there are a few innovations unseen elsewhere, such as a change of /au/ to /a/. This view is challenged in part by the existence of definite articles continuing
41:
461:). Sardinian has plurals in /s/ but post-vocalic lenition of voiceless consonants is normally limited to the status of an allophonic rule, which ignores word boundaries (e.g.
1206:(derived from the plural of the Latin accusative case), while others form the plural by changing the final vowel (by influence of Latin nominative plural endings, such as
3759:
History and Historiography of Linguistics: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on the History of the Language Sciences (ICHoLS IV), Trier, 24–28 August 1987
3676:
Chambon, Jean-Pierre. 2011. Note sur la diachronie du vocalisme accentué en istriote/istroroman et sur la place de ce groupe de parlers au sein de la branche romane.
944:
Lenition of post-vocalic /p t k/ is widespread as an allophonic phonetic realization in Italy below the La Spezia-Rimini line, including Corsica and most of Sardinia.
858:
of geminate stops (producing new intervocalic single voiceless stops, after the old ones were lenited), which again happens to the northwest but not to the southeast.
2578:
forms identical to the 3rd person reflexive in a usage interpreted as 'we' subject, triggering 'be' as auxiliary in compound constructions, with the subject pronoun
6634:
262:
is a complex and sometimes controversial topic which may not have one single answer. Several classifications have been proposed, based on different criteria.
3714:
4500:). This is a secondary development, only found in the feminine; Catalan clearly belongs to the first set of languages, those in which plurals are formed by
1856:
use two special words derived from "one left over" and "two left over" for 11 and 12, then the pattern "three-ten", "four-ten", ... , "nine-ten" for 13–19.
4745:
3955:
968:
in southern Spain, at the far end of the "northwest" group, may have had the "southeast" characteristics of lack of lenition and palatalization of /k/ to
4111:
992:(although this is possibly an independent, secondary development, since /k/ between vowels, i.e. when subject to lenition, developed to /dz/ rather than
415:
languages in Romania, Greece, and elsewhere in the Balkans; "West" includes the languages of Portugal, Spain, France, northern Italy and Switzerland.
1041:(1949), the degrees of phonological modification of vowels of the Romance languages with respect to the ancestral Latin were found to be as follows
4698:
Pountain, Christopher J. 1985. Copulas, verbs of possession and auxiliaries in Old Spanish: The evidence for structurally interdependent changes.
861:
Deletion of intertonic vowels (between the stressed syllable and either the first or last syllable), again in the northwest but not the southeast.
88:
274:
Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria, not on socio-functional ones. FP: Franco-Provençal, IR: Istro-Romanian.
60:
307:
spoken in different regions, it is doubtful whether there were any sharp boundaries between the various dialects. On the other hand, after the
5196:
4683:
4657:
4314:
4272:
4230:
4186:
4149:
4105:
4023:
3901:
3830:
3703:
2531:'I have (lit. am) fallen'. Note, however, the difference between French and Italian in the choice of auxiliary for the verb 'be' itself: Fr.
4461:
3730:
67:
411:(whose speech forms the basis of standard Italian). In this scheme, "East" includes the languages of central and southern Italy, and the
4870:
3965:)] It is unclear whether this indicates that Sardinian still had a two-case system at the time; modern Sardinian lacks grammatical case.
3592:
Its conjugation model is based according to the classical model dating to the Middle Ages, rather than the modern conjugations used in
399:
Typological criteria measure the structural features of Romance languages, mainly in synchrony. For example, the identification of the
4370:
3667:
1121:
What follows is a sample of some significant linguistic traits (innovations since Vulgar Latin) that run across the Romance linkage.
74:
5985:
4464:
3983:
3801:
3767:
957:
would then represent the farthest point to the southeast that these innovations reached, corresponding to the northern chain of the
107:
3688:
6667:
6045:
4592:
3684:
3648:
56:
5333:
4938:
4738:
1876:"to be" are used differently in the various Romance languages, to express possession, to construct perfect tenses, and to make
1136:, has a number of grammatical features which are unique within Romance, but are shared with other non-Romance languages of the
1164:. These include, for example, the structure of the vestigial case system, the placement of articles as suffixes of the nouns (
6133:
6034:
3775:
45:
287:
used by linguists to build family language trees is based on the assumption that the member languages evolved from a single
2414:"I have a book" (i.e. perhaps not so tomorrow), but this construction is no longer used in modern Galician and Portuguese.
5941:
5619:
3652:
6068:
5471:
2582:'we' optional. If the verb employed is one that otherwise selects 'have' as auxiliary, the past participle is unmarked:
584:
6509:
5947:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4916:
4845:
4426:
308:
568:). Languages in this group are said to be more conservative, i.e. they retained more features of the original Latin.
6662:
6230:
5802:
5237:
4795:
4731:
1687:"ten-and-nine" for 17–19. For 16, however, they split into two groups: some use "six-ten", some use "ten-and-six":
298:
However, the history of Romance languages, as we know it, makes the first assumption rather problematic. While the
5729:
1197:
954:
832:
564:
400:
34:
5817:
5338:
5179:
5146:
4894:
4823:
4805:
4788:
4783:
4773:
841:
592:
412:
226:
221:
193:
81:
4678:. Oxford studies in diachronic and historical linguistics. Oxford ; New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
6522:
6426:
5299:
5026:
4974:
1951:
1230:
5890:
4095:
2602:
Verbal morphology for Latin cantō, cantāre – "to sing" – and the inherited words in several Romance languages
933:
in northeast Italy and some of the Rhaeto-Romance languages have the "southeast" characteristic of developing
387:
is generally acknowledged as the most conservative Romance languages, at least from a phonetic point of view.
5435:
5316:
5289:
5165:
5111:
4818:
4778:
604:
527:
375:
230:
183:
6608:
6004:
5824:
5242:
5188:
4840:
4501:
2590:'we (have) worked'. If the verb is one that otherwise selects 'be', the past participle is marked plural:
1361:
1296:
1285:
1274:
1234:
1215:
1207:
1203:
1115:
1001:
993:
989:
969:
938:
934:
923:
919:
904:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
872:
868:
822:
817:
806:
801:
796:
785:
780:
769:
764:
759:
754:
743:
738:
733:
722:
717:
706:
701:
696:
685:
680:
675:
670:
654:
649:
644:
639:
580:
446:
442:
438:
316:
5908:
5321:
4395:
2461:"You're holding the book". The meaning of "hold" is also retained to some extent in Spanish and Catalan.
6640:
6585:
6391:
6386:
6039:
6017:
5836:
5659:
5128:
5084:
5031:
1226:
1099:
1018:
333:
6304:
5272:
4254:
3811:
Wright, Roger (2013). "Periodization". In Maiden, Martin; Smith, John Charles; Ledgeway, Adam (eds.).
1221:
Special case of French: Falls into the first group historically (and orthographically), but the final
6590:
6374:
6364:
5980:
5953:
5879:
5787:
5739:
5538:
5466:
5418:
5412:
5375:
5358:
4855:
4423:, Vol.1–8, Bern: Zofingen, 1928–1940; Karte 1045: QUELLA VACCA, Karte 342: UNA NOTTE (Online access:
4004:
Andreose, Alvise; Renzi, Lorenzo (2013). Maiden, Martin; Smith, John Charles; Ledgeway, Adam (eds.).
2638:
1181:
1005:
320:
609:
A three-way division is made primarily based on the outcome of Vulgar Latin (Proto-Romance) vowels:
6338:
6075:
5967:
5935:
5929:
5771:
5550:
5510:
5476:
5380:
5304:
5247:
5068:
4350:
3597:
2633:
2415:
1391:
1153:
1075:
156:
5446:
4306:
4222:
4178:
3893:
3722:
Let's talk about trees: Tackling Problems in Representing Phylogenic Relationships among Languages
576:
6580:
6309:
6165:
6123:
6089:
6083:
5973:
5916:
5873:
5856:
5594:
5587:
5481:
5423:
5228:
5211:
5152:
5008:
4996:
4875:
4813:
4040:
2618:
2615:
2438:
1963:
1877:
1853:
1500:
1145:
1133:
1045:
977:
965:
958:
551:
416:
384:
379:
346:
284:
216:
6358:
5486:
4850:
407:
in Romance languages and which runs across north-central Italy just to the north of the city of
4294:
4210:
4166:
3881:
918:
in north-central Italy and the Rhaeto-Romance languages have the "southeast" characteristic of
419:
does not fit at all into this sort of division. Further expansions on this are discussed below.
270:
6537:
6516:
6436:
6396:
6379:
6255:
6183:
6177:
6101:
5993:
5903:
5844:
5756:
5714:
5515:
5461:
5348:
5326:
5267:
5252:
5223:
5206:
5116:
5079:
5048:
5036:
4955:
4943:
4860:
4835:
4829:
4754:
4679:
4653:
4535:
4376:
4366:
4310:
4268:
4226:
4182:
4145:
4101:
4019:
3897:
3826:
3797:
3771:
3736:
3699:
3663:
2665:
2660:
2508:
1958:
1141:
1103:
1063:
930:
531:
258:
161:
4293:
Beninca, Paola; Parry, Mair; Pescarini, Diego (2016). Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin (eds.).
3590:
Also are all possible allophones of in this position, as well as deletion of the consonant.
1229:
contexts), meaning that singular and plural nouns are usually homophonous in isolation. Many
1106:
generally: this has been an argument for approaching this family with the tools based on the
6490:
6480:
6465:
6453:
6369:
6318:
6282:
6260:
6247:
6241:
6215:
6170:
6159:
6063:
6028:
6012:
5861:
5849:
5782:
5746:
5734:
5702:
5627:
5599:
5572:
5402:
5397:
5385:
5365:
5353:
5294:
5201:
5158:
5099:
5094:
5089:
5053:
4984:
4968:
4865:
4358:
4302:
4260:
4218:
4174:
4137:
4011:
3889:
3818:
3715:"Freeing the Comparative Method from the tree model: A framework for Historical Glottometry"
3601:
2668:
2655:
2647:
2641:
2628:
2623:
1161:
1069:
1057:
1051:
915:
588:
492:
488:
392:
342:
327:
292:
188:
166:
151:
146:
134:
291:
by a sequence of binary splits, separated by many centuries. With that hypothesis, and the
6574:
6560:
6441:
6343:
6333:
6277:
6128:
6116:
6056:
6051:
5866:
5795:
5777:
5724:
5654:
5611:
5523:
5504:
5456:
5343:
5309:
5262:
5257:
4979:
4911:
4883:
4596:
4430:
4052:
3962:
2673:
2512:
1193:
1081:
985:
981:
523:
178:
141:
5577:
4141:
3975:
3754:"Chapter V. Renaissance: On the History of Classifications in the Romance Language Group"
357:
The two main avenues to attempt classifications are historical and typological criteria:
3653:"Cartografia di innovazioni rispetto al latino attraverso un atlante sonoro dell'Europa"
6625:
6532:
6527:
6448:
6328:
6290:
6022:
5671:
5582:
5528:
5498:
5390:
5074:
5002:
4948:
2489:
1157:
1149:
864:
Use of plurals in /s/ in the northwest vs. plurals using vowel change in the southeast.
288:
4585:
1638:
in Friulian. Some argue that most roots derive from different parts of a Latin phrase
495:. Sardinian also shares develarisation of earlier /kw/ and /ɡw/ with Romanian: Sard.
246:
6656:
6567:
6470:
6458:
6190:
5898:
5555:
5493:
4989:
4723:
4134:
Palatal sound change in the Romance languages: Diachronic and synchronic perspectives
3724:, Senri Ethnological Studies, 98, Ōsaka: National Museum of Ethnology, pp. 59–89
1126:
572:
4209:
Mensching, Guido; Remberg, Eva-Maria (2016). Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin (eds.).
4165:
Mensching, Guido; Remberg, Eva-Maria (2016). Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin (eds.).
4094:
Jones, Michael Allan (1990). "Sardinian". In Harris, Martin; Vincent, Nigel (eds.).
1642:("no thing born"), an emphatic idiom for "nothing". Meanwhile, Italian and Venetian
1325:
6349:
6209:
5604:
1111:
950:
304:
299:
6265:
3757:
1218:: Portuguese, Galician, Spanish, Catalan, Occitan, Sardinian, Friulian, Romansh.
5751:
6411:
6404:
6141:
5707:
5676:
1617:
1494:
1487:
1318:
23:
1581:
1423:
1415:
1407:
1366:
1280:
1175:
911:
The Gallo‒Italic languages have vowel-changing plurals rather than /s/ plurals.
852:
of intervocalic stops, which happens to the northwest but not to the southeast.
5689:
5681:
5282:
5041:
2541:
1609:
1589:
1549:
1472:
1291:
1107:
1095:
1026:
1022:
855:
4610:
4264:
4015:
3822:
3610:
to the verb. Full forms may be used in addition, thus 'you (pl.) eat' can be
1633:
1431:
1332:
6485:
6323:
5665:
4960:
4713:
4628:
4513:
4380:
3627:
3593:
1557:
1464:
1302:
1038:
559:
240:
6111:
5649:
4424:
4005:
3812:
1625:
1533:
1526:
1447:
1269:
1167:
4362:
1565:
1541:
1439:
1364:
is exclusively used in negative statements in the Mallorcan dialect, and "
1356:
1340:
349:", which are distinct languages that evolved directly from Vulgar Latin).
6475:
6270:
6106:
5922:
5370:
5218:
3956:
English translation provided by Dante Online, De Vulgari Eloquentia, I-xi
3623:
3486:
3210:
2882:
1348:
973:
849:
840:
separating the central and southern Italian languages from the so-called
837:
547:
408:
404:
3766:], –17th Century. Amsterdam, the Netherlands / Philadelphia, PA:
3265:
3155:
2937:
2828:
1310:
844:
to the north and west. Some noteworthy differences between the two are:
6094:
5959:
5719:
5697:
5637:
5632:
5121:
5106:
4349:
Craddock, Jerry R. (2002). "Mozarabic Language". In Gerli, E. Michael;
3538:
3376:
3046:
1137:
543:
403:
line, which is generally accepted as the main isogloss for consonantal
4567:
3432:
3320:
3101:
2991:
2496:) of all verbs; others use 'be' for some verbs and 'have' for others.
1233:
have a distinct plural formed by both changing the vowel and allowing
1184:, may be due to contacts between those languages in post-Roman times.
6296:
5642:
5565:
5545:
5277:
3607:
2473:
2434:
for existential statements, with different degrees of determination.
555:
4650:
Las lenguas románicas estándar: historia de su formación y de su uso
4549:
3732:
Italica: Bulletin of the American Association of Teachers of Italian
3606:
Conjugated verbs in Bolognese require an unstressed subject pronoun
1400:
1382:
4652:. Llibrería llingüística. Uvieú: Academia de la Llingua Asturiana.
980:
dialects) also lack lenition, and northern French dialects such as
315:
speakers was separated—almost instantaneously, by the standards of
5560:
5533:
3435:
3379:
3323:
3268:
3213:
3158:
2652:
2610:
1822:
388:
312:
269:
3104:
3049:
2994:
2940:
2885:
2831:
2555:"Be" is also used for reflexive forms of the verbs, as in French
2507:
In the latter type, the verbs which use 'be' as an auxiliary are
1089:
Some major linguistic features differing among Romance languages
4727:
3689:"Trees, Waves and Linkages: Models of Language Diversification"
3880:
Bossong, Georg (2016). Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin (eds.).
2515:
and all transitive verbs) use 'have'. For example, in French,
17:
4536:
Negazione e concordanza negativa in italiano e in piemontese
1180:= "the sky"), and several more. This phenomenon, called the
3647:
Boula de Mareüil, Philippe; Romano, Antonio; Evrard, Marc;
2500:'have' only: Standard Catalan, Spanish, Romanian, Sicilian.
1739:
since the 18th century, such as the numbers from 11 to 16,
4702:(Liverpool); Liverpool Vol. 62, N° 4, (Oct 1, 1985): 337.
4676:
From Latin to romance: morphosyntactic typology and change
4492:
Catalan plurals sometimes also involve a change in vowel (
2445:
have kept it with its original sense "hold", e.g. Italian
2398:
Ancient Galician-Portuguese used to employ the auxiliary
4007:
The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages: Volume 2
3814:
The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages: Volume 2
4100:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 314–350.
4064:
4062:
4711:
Existential statements in Neapolitan make use of verb
2426:"There is water in the glass". Sardinian employs both
1832:
Classical Latin uses the "one-ten" pattern for 11–17 (
1242:
Vowel change: Italian, Neapolitan, Sicilian, Romanian.
1132:
Romanian, together with other related languages, like
1852:). For the sake of comparison, note that many of the
3756:. In Niederehe, Hans-Josef; Koerner, E.F.K. (eds.).
2488:
Some languages use their equivalent of 'have' as an
1021:
rather than a tree-like family, and insist that the
6601:
6552:
6501:
6425:
6229:
6202:
6151:
6003:
5889:
5835:
5816:
5445:
5434:
5187:
5178:
5139:
5019:
4904:
4893:
4804:
4766:
1735:is borrowed from Lombard and replaced the original
1650:would seem to be more logically derived from Latin
1461:Although the Classical Latin word for "nothing" is
996:, as would be expected for a primary development).
830:Italo-Western is in turn split along the so-called
522:According to this view, the next split was between
239:
210:
177:
127:
122:
48:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
383:and Romanian) which are deemed as "conservative".
4421:Sprach- und Sachatlas Italiens und der Südschweiz
4253:Kabatek, Johannes; Pusch, Claus D. (2011-07-27),
3660:Il patrimonio linguistico storico della Liguria 2
1598:
3696:The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics
1508:
1380:
3678:Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris
867:Development of palatalized /k/ before /e,i/ to
450:
4442:
3762:. Vol. 1: Antiquitity , [,
1662:, which also explains the French cognate word
1596:
1510:
1378:
1251:Some Romance languages use a version of Latin
1202:Some Romance languages form plurals by adding
1098:, this is in fact a characteristic typical of
4739:
3720:, in Kikusawa, Ritsuko; Reid, Laurie (eds.),
3634:? 'are you (pl.) eating?/do you (pl.) eat?'.
1506:
8:
4530:
4528:
3694:, in Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn (eds.),
3662:(in Italian). InSedicesimo. pp. 51–62.
2406:"I have a name" (i.e. for all my life), and
1911:: Romanian, Italian, Gallo-Italic languages.
1524:, "thing born"; Galician also has the word "
1520:in Spanish, Portuguese, and Galician (from
6635:languages with more than 5 million speakers
4295:"The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages"
4211:"The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages"
4167:"The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages"
3882:"The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages"
1941:Grammatical uses of *Tenere, *Habere, *Esse
1004:. This has led some researchers, following
595:group which became Spanish and Portuguese.
456:
6218:(mixed Romani–Ibero- and Occitano-Romance)
5832:
5442:
5184:
4901:
4746:
4732:
4724:
3713:Kalyan, Siva; François, Alexandre (2018),
1844:), but then switches to "two-off-twenty" (
526:in the east, and the other languages (the
4307:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199677108.001.0001
4223:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199677108.001.0001
4179:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199677108.001.0001
3894:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199677108.001.0001
3622:is ungrammatical. Interrogatives require
2492:to form the compound forms (e. g. French
2422:verb even in the existential sense, e.g.
1029:for representing the history of Romance.
266:Attempts at classifying Romance languages
108:Learn how and when to remove this message
2600:
1939:
836:in northern Italy, which is a bundle of
611:
4068:
3923:
3846:
3735:. Vol. 27–29. Menasha, Wisconsin:
3698:, London: Routledge, pp. 161–189,
2535:'I have been' with 'have', but Italian
1469:, the common word for "nothing" became
449:and other unique conservations such as
4336:
4084:, Stanford University Press, Stanford.
4048:
4038:
3935:
1917:: Occitan, French, Romansh, Sardinian.
1904:, we have the following distribution:
599:Italo-Western vs. Eastern vs. Southern
554:south of a line through the cities of
119:
4259:, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 69–96,
1499:
209:
57:"Classification of Romance languages"
7:
4554:in Diccionario de la lengua española
4396:"The Chronology of Romance Lenition"
46:adding citations to reliable sources
1574:, "thing", or else from nominative
1376:-derived: Galician and Portuguese (
1225:is no longer pronounced (except in
6639:Languages between parentheses are
4142:10.1093/oso/9780198807384.001.0001
3752:Koutna, Olga (December 31, 1990).
2550:Joy to the world: the Lord is come
1666:. The Piedmontese negative adverb
890:(sometimes progressing further to
613:Outcome of Classical Latin vowels
374:Romance languages. Generally, the
14:
6519:(unknown further classification)
3768:John Benjamins Publishing Company
4504:, based on the Latin accusative.
4355:Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia
4082:A guide to the world's languages
534:, and the Gallo-Iberian branch.
487:'the sea') in some varieties of
437:) and lack of palatalization of
133:
22:
4114:from the original on 2023-09-18
3986:from the original on 2022-07-08
3794:Variation and Change in Spanish
3737:George Banta Publishing Company
3604:, which may differ accordingly.
1477:in Italian (from neuter plural
1033:Degree of separation from Latin
972:. Certain languages around the
33:needs additional citations for
6643:of the language on their left.
6513:(Western Romance-based pidgin)
3796:. Cambridge University Press.
2402:for permanent states, such as
1923:: Spanish, Catalan, Aragonese.
1210:) from some masculine nouns.
988:have palatalization of /k/ to
279:Difficulties of classification
1:
4419:Jaberg, Karl and Jud, Jakob,
1864:The verbs derived from Latin
1606:in Venetian and Piedmontese,
1485:; Italian also has the word "
964:On top of this, the medieval
4700:Bulletin of Hispanic Studies
4443:Kalyan & François (2018)
3867:
2372:
2348:
571:The West group split into a
6510:Mediterranean Lingua Franca
4648:Metzeltin, Michael (2004).
4476:
4136:. Oxford University Press.
3980:Online Etymology Dictionary
3658:. In Autelli, Erica (ed.).
2563:'I washed myself', Italian
1806:), the Marchigiano dialect
491:, best known as typical of
6686:
6212:(mixed Portuguese–Spanish)
5238:Gallo-Italic of Basilicata
5032:Central−Southern Calabrian
4454:
3854:
3626:, which may not replicate
3589:
1782:"Ten and six": Portuguese
1678:is borrowed from Italian.
1370:" is the word mostly used.
1191:
1025:is better suited than the
602:
6617:
5767:
2410:for non-permanent states
1813:"Six over ten": Romanian
1670:also comes directly from
842:Western Romance languages
805:
800:
784:
768:
758:
721:
705:
700:
674:
653:
648:
643:
637:
179:Linguistic classification
5520:North American dialects
5027:Extreme Southern Italian
4265:10.1515/9783110220261.69
4132:Zampaulo, André (2019).
4016:10.1017/CHO9781139019996
3823:10.1017/CHO9781139019996
2437:Languages that have not
1880:("there is"). If we use
1848:) and "one-off-twenty" (
1129:in Vulgar Latin itself.
1017:the Romance family as a
575:group, which became the
511:'language' (cf. Italian
391:famously denigrated the
345:(but not the so-called "
6668:Language classification
4939:Central−Northern Latian
4674:Ledgeway, Adam (2012).
4615:in Vocabolario Treccani
4518:in Vocabolario Treccani
4394:Barahona, Omar (2015).
4256:4 The Romance languages
2472:(literally: it gives),
1802:(Romance construction:
1632:
1624:
1616:
1608:
1599:
1597:
1436:, "too much") Occitan (
1430:
1422:
1347:
1331:
1324:
1317:
1309:
1301:
1037:In a study by linguist
894:) in the northwest but
605:Gallo-Romance languages
528:Italo-Western languages
376:Gallo-Romance languages
5243:Gallo-Italic of Sicily
4712:
2464:Romansh uses, besides
1878:existential statements
1695:, Catalan and Occitan
1588:
1580:
1564:
1556:
1548:
1540:
1532:
1525:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1493:
1486:
1481:, "no thing", or from
1471:
1463:
1446:
1438:
1414:
1406:
1381:
1379:
1365:
1355:
1339:
1290:
1279:
1268:
1255:, others a version of
1174:
1166:
1116:Historical glottometry
905:Gallo-Italic languages
457:
451:
317:historical linguistics
275:
257:classification of the
158: Portuguese
5730:Poitevin–Saintongeais
4400:universiteitleiden.nl
4363:10.4324/9781315161594
4357:. London: Routledge.
4097:The Romance Languages
3792:Penny, Ralph (2000).
2598:'we (have) arrived'.
2459:Tu tu tegnis il libri
2295:(yo) he (dialectally)
1943:in Romance languages
1198:La Spezia–Rimini Line
955:La Spezia–Rimini Line
871:in the northwest vs.
833:La Spezia–Rimini Line
565:La Spezia–Rimini Line
424:The standard proposal
401:La Spezia–Rimini Line
273:
5539:St. Marys Bay French
5063:Neapolitan–Calabrese
4351:Armistead, Samuel G.
3817:. pp. 107–124.
1188:Formation of plurals
1182:Balkan language area
1006:Walther von Wartburg
976:(e.g. some highland
926:for palatalized /k/.
882:, which develops to
579:(including French),
321:Balkan language area
311:, the population of
163: Romanian
42:improve this article
5891:Galician–Portuguese
4917:Central Marchigiano
3685:François, Alexandre
3649:Alexandre, François
3598:Valencian Community
2603:
2571:'I washed myself'.
1944:
1860:To have and to hold
1719:, Franco-Provençal
1691:"Sixteen": Italian
1457:Words for "nothing"
1392:Galician-Portuguese
1012:The wave hypothesis
614:
293:glottochronological
168: Catalan
153: Spanish
148: Italian
6305:Catalan Ribagorçan
6152:Pyrenean–Mozarabic
5424:Judaeo-Piedmontese
5334:Bustocco–Legnanese
5129:Northern Calabrian
4595:2015-04-02 at the
4429:2016-12-11 at the
4339:, p. 117-121.
4080:Ruhlen M. (1987).
3961:2021-02-27 at the
3938:, p. 118-120.
2601:
2523:'I have seen' vs.
2509:unaccusative verbs
2071:Lombard (Western)
1940:
1854:Germanic languages
1104:dialect continuums
966:Mozarabic language
959:Apennine Mountains
612:
552:languages of Italy
380:Carolingian Empire
285:comparative method
276:
143: French
6663:Romance languages
6650:
6649:
6626:extinct languages
6548:
6547:
6225:
6224:
6184:Navarro-Aragonese
6069:Peruvian Ribereño
5994:Judaeo-Portuguese
5909:Galician–Asturian
5812:
5811:
5803:Old Gallo-Romance
5757:Wisconsin Walloon
5174:
5173:
5147:Dalmatian Romance
4755:Romance languages
4685:978-0-19-958437-6
4659:978-84-8168-356-1
4590:in diccionari.cat
4316:978-0-19-967710-8
4274:978-3-11-022026-1
4232:978-0-19-967710-8
4188:978-0-19-967710-8
4151:978-0-19-880738-4
4107:978-0-19-520829-0
4025:978-1-139-01999-6
3903:978-0-19-967710-8
3832:978-1-139-01999-6
3705:978-0-41552-789-7
3638:
3637:
2559:'I washed ', but
2451:tu tiens le livre
2412:Eu tenho um livro
2396:
2395:
2155:(ijo) aggio fatto
2105:(mi) i l'hai fàit
1658:or, more likely,
1570:in Occitan (from
1266:-derived: French
931:Venetian language
898:in the southeast.
875:in the southeast.
828:
827:
532:Italian Peninsula
493:Balearic dialects
309:Empire's collapse
259:Romance languages
253:
252:
172:
118:
117:
110:
92:
6675:
6171:Judaeo-Aragonese
6160:Andalusi Romance
6013:Amazonic Spanish
5850:Western Asturian
5833:
5772:Franco-Provençal
5443:
5339:Comasco–Lecchese
5197:Emilian–Romagnol
5185:
4985:Regional Italian
4975:Italo-Australian
4902:
4824:Megleno-Romanian
4748:
4741:
4734:
4725:
4718:
4709:
4703:
4696:
4690:
4689:
4670:
4664:
4663:
4644:
4638:
4637:
4626:
4620:
4619:
4608:
4602:
4601:
4583:
4577:
4576:
4565:
4559:
4558:
4547:
4541:
4540:
4532:
4523:
4522:
4511:
4505:
4503:
4490:
4484:
4473:
4467:
4451:
4445:
4440:
4434:
4417:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4406:
4391:
4385:
4384:
4346:
4340:
4334:
4328:
4327:
4325:
4323:
4290:
4284:
4283:
4282:
4281:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4239:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4195:
4162:
4156:
4155:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4119:
4091:
4085:
4078:
4072:
4066:
4057:
4056:
4050:
4046:
4044:
4036:
4034:
4032:
4001:
3995:
3994:
3992:
3991:
3972:
3966:
3945:
3939:
3933:
3927:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3912:
3910:
3877:
3871:
3864:
3858:
3851:
3836:
3807:
3788:
3786:
3784:
3748:
3746:
3744:
3725:
3719:
3708:
3693:
3673:
3657:
3602:Balearic Islands
3540:
3488:
3437:
3434:
3381:
3378:
3325:
3322:
3270:
3267:
3215:
3212:
3160:
3157:
3106:
3103:
3051:
3048:
2996:
2993:
2942:
2939:
2887:
2884:
2833:
2830:
2607:Form ("to sing")
2604:
2588:abbiamo lavorato
2567:'I washed ' vs.
2513:unergative verbs
2484:To have or to be
2424:Tem água no copo
1945:
1640:nullam rem natam
1622:in Lombard, and
1604:
1602:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1503:
1501:[ˈnuɖːa]
1394:had both words:
1388:
1386:
1363:
1298:
1287:
1276:
1247:Words for "more"
1236:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1003:
995:
991:
971:
940:
936:
925:
921:
916:Lombard language
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
874:
870:
824:
819:
808:
803:
798:
787:
782:
771:
766:
761:
756:
745:
740:
735:
724:
719:
708:
703:
698:
687:
682:
677:
672:
656:
651:
646:
641:
615:
585:Franco-Provençal
538:Another proposal
482:
460:
454:
448:
444:
440:
347:Italian dialects
343:standard Italian
328:history of Latin
326:In summary, the
249:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
137:
120:
113:
106:
102:
99:
93:
91:
50:
26:
18:
6685:
6684:
6678:
6677:
6676:
6674:
6673:
6672:
6653:
6652:
6651:
6646:
6613:
6597:
6575:Pannonian Latin
6561:African Romance
6544:
6497:
6428:
6421:
6359:Judeo-Provençal
6232:
6221:
6198:
6147:
6057:Chilean Chilote
5999:
5885:
5826:
5822:
5819:
5808:
5796:Moselle Romance
5763:
5612:Missouri French
5573:Franco-Ontarian
5448:
5437:
5430:
5170:
5135:
5112:Southern Latian
5015:
4980:Maltese Italian
4912:Central Italian
4896:
4889:
4884:Common Romanian
4800:
4784:Italo-Dalmatian
4762:
4752:
4722:
4721:
4710:
4706:
4697:
4693:
4686:
4673:
4671:
4667:
4660:
4647:
4645:
4641:
4635:
4627:
4623:
4617:
4609:
4605:
4599:
4597:Wayback Machine
4584:
4580:
4574:
4566:
4562:
4556:
4548:
4544:
4538:
4533:
4526:
4520:
4512:
4508:
4491:
4487:
4474:
4470:
4452:
4448:
4441:
4437:
4431:Wayback Machine
4418:
4414:
4404:
4402:
4393:
4392:
4388:
4373:
4348:
4347:
4343:
4335:
4331:
4321:
4319:
4317:
4301:. p. 188.
4299:Oxford Academic
4292:
4291:
4287:
4279:
4277:
4275:
4252:
4251:
4247:
4237:
4235:
4233:
4217:. p. 272.
4215:Oxford Academic
4208:
4207:
4203:
4193:
4191:
4189:
4173:. p. 270.
4171:Oxford Academic
4164:
4163:
4159:
4152:
4131:
4130:
4126:
4117:
4115:
4108:
4093:
4092:
4088:
4079:
4075:
4067:
4060:
4047:
4037:
4030:
4028:
4026:
4010:. p. 332.
4003:
4002:
3998:
3989:
3987:
3974:
3973:
3969:
3963:Wayback Machine
3946:
3942:
3934:
3930:
3922:
3918:
3908:
3906:
3904:
3886:Oxford Academic
3879:
3878:
3874:
3865:
3861:
3852:
3848:
3843:
3833:
3810:
3804:
3791:
3782:
3780:
3778:
3770:. p. 294.
3751:
3742:
3740:
3729:
3717:
3712:
3706:
3691:
3683:
3680:106.1: 293-303.
3670:
3655:
3646:
3643:
3605:
3591:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3354:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2730:Past participle
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2561:je me suis lavé
2546:Christ is risen
2486:
2439:grammaticalised
2374:
2350:
2294:
2197:
2186:(deu) apu fattu
2184:
2182:(deo) apo fattu
2175:
2085:al gh'è, a gh'è
2060:ghe xe, ghi n'é
1953:
1942:
1872:"to hold", and
1862:
1684:
1459:
1249:
1200:
1194:Romance plurals
1192:Main articles:
1190:
1091:
1035:
1014:
878:Development of
618:Classical Latin
607:
601:
593:Iberian Romance
540:
524:Common Romanian
503:'water'; Sard.
480:
426:
413:Eastern Romance
355:
281:
268:
245:
227:Western Romance
222:Eastern Romance
194:Latino-Faliscan
173:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
142:
129:
114:
103:
97:
94:
51:
49:
39:
27:
12:
11:
5:
6683:
6682:
6679:
6671:
6670:
6665:
6655:
6654:
6648:
6647:
6645:
6644:
6637:
6628:
6618:
6615:
6614:
6612:
6611:
6605:
6603:
6599:
6598:
6596:
6595:
6594:
6593:
6588:
6578:
6571:
6564:
6556:
6554:
6550:
6549:
6546:
6545:
6543:
6542:
6541:
6540:
6535:
6530:
6525:
6514:
6505:
6503:
6499:
6498:
6496:
6495:
6494:
6493:
6488:
6483:
6478:
6473:
6463:
6462:
6461:
6456:
6446:
6445:
6444:
6433:
6431:
6423:
6422:
6420:
6419:
6418:
6417:
6416:
6415:
6401:
6400:
6399:
6394:
6384:
6383:
6382:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6355:
6354:
6353:
6346:
6341:
6336:
6326:
6316:
6315:
6314:
6313:
6312:
6307:
6299:
6294:
6291:Judaeo-Catalan
6287:
6286:
6285:
6280:
6275:
6274:
6273:
6268:
6258:
6250:
6237:
6235:
6227:
6226:
6223:
6222:
6220:
6219:
6213:
6206:
6204:
6200:
6199:
6197:
6196:
6195:
6194:
6180:
6175:
6174:
6173:
6163:
6155:
6153:
6149:
6148:
6146:
6145:
6138:
6137:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6120:
6119:
6114:
6109:
6104:
6099:
6098:
6097:
6080:
6079:
6078:
6073:
6072:
6071:
6061:
6060:
6059:
6046:Latin American
6042:
6037:
6025:
6023:Judaeo-Spanish
6020:
6015:
6009:
6007:
6001:
6000:
5998:
5997:
5990:
5989:
5988:
5983:
5978:
5977:
5976:
5964:
5963:
5962:
5950:
5945:
5938:
5926:
5919:
5914:
5913:
5912:
5901:
5895:
5893:
5887:
5886:
5884:
5883:
5876:
5871:
5870:
5869:
5859:
5854:
5853:
5852:
5841:
5839:
5830:
5814:
5813:
5810:
5809:
5807:
5806:
5799:
5792:
5791:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5768:
5765:
5764:
5762:
5761:
5760:
5759:
5754:
5744:
5743:
5742:
5737:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5711:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5694:
5693:
5686:
5685:
5684:
5674:
5669:
5652:
5647:
5646:
5645:
5640:
5635:
5625:
5624:
5623:
5616:
5615:
5614:
5609:
5608:
5607:
5597:
5592:
5591:
5590:
5585:
5580:
5575:
5570:
5569:
5568:
5563:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5542:
5541:
5536:
5518:
5513:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5490:
5489:
5484:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5459:
5453:
5451:
5440:
5432:
5431:
5429:
5428:
5427:
5426:
5416:
5409:
5408:
5407:
5406:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5394:
5393:
5388:
5383:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5362:
5361:
5356:
5351:
5346:
5336:
5331:
5330:
5329:
5314:
5313:
5312:
5307:
5292:
5287:
5286:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5234:
5233:
5232:
5231:
5226:
5216:
5215:
5214:
5209:
5193:
5191:
5182:
5176:
5175:
5172:
5171:
5169:
5168:
5166:Judaeo-Italian
5163:
5162:
5161:
5156:
5143:
5141:
5137:
5136:
5134:
5133:
5132:
5131:
5126:
5125:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5103:
5102:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5060:
5059:
5058:
5057:
5056:
5046:
5045:
5044:
5034:
5023:
5021:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5013:
5012:
5011:
4999:
4994:
4993:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4965:
4964:
4963:
4953:
4952:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4935:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4908:
4906:
4899:
4891:
4890:
4888:
4887:
4880:
4879:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4826:
4821:
4819:Istro-Romanian
4816:
4810:
4808:
4802:
4801:
4799:
4798:
4793:
4792:
4791:
4786:
4776:
4770:
4768:
4767:Major branches
4764:
4763:
4759:classification
4753:
4751:
4750:
4743:
4736:
4728:
4720:
4719:
4704:
4691:
4684:
4672:See p.341 of:
4665:
4658:
4639:
4621:
4603:
4578:
4560:
4542:
4534:R. Zanuttini,
4524:
4506:
4485:
4468:
4446:
4435:
4412:
4386:
4372:978-0415939188
4371:
4341:
4329:
4315:
4285:
4273:
4245:
4231:
4201:
4187:
4157:
4150:
4124:
4106:
4086:
4073:
4058:
4049:|website=
4024:
3996:
3976:"Dante's Peek"
3967:
3940:
3928:
3916:
3902:
3888:. p. 71.
3872:
3859:
3845:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3838:
3837:
3831:
3808:
3802:
3789:
3776:
3749:
3727:
3710:
3704:
3681:
3674:
3669:978-8899866792
3668:
3642:
3639:
3636:
3635:
3616:vuèter a magnè
3587:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3542:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3490:
3483:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3438:
3429:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3406:
3402:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3382:
3373:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3350:
3346:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3326:
3317:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3271:
3262:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3216:
3207:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3185:
3181:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3161:
3152:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3107:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3052:
3043:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3021:
3017:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2997:
2988:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2943:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2912:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2888:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2834:
2825:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2731:
2727:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2705:
2701:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2681:
2677:
2676:
2671:
2663:
2658:
2650:
2644:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2613:
2608:
2596:siamo arrivati
2569:mi sono lavato
2505:
2504:
2501:
2490:auxiliary verb
2485:
2482:
2447:tieni il libro
2418:also uses the
2404:Eu hei um nome
2394:
2393:
2384:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2347:
2342:
2338:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2290:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2223:(jau) hai fatg
2220:
2215:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2188:
2179:
2170:
2166:
2165:
2160:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1969:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1949:
1935:
1934:
1924:
1918:
1912:
1861:
1858:
1830:
1829:
1811:
1780:
1727:, Piedmontese
1683:
1680:
1672:ne(c) (g)entem
1660:ne(c) (g)entem
1654:("no being"),
1562:in Aragonese,
1504:in Sardinian,
1458:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1371:
1299:, Piedmontese
1248:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1240:
1239:
1238:
1189:
1186:
1158:Serbo-Croatian
1090:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1034:
1031:
1013:
1010:
946:
945:
942:
927:
912:
900:
899:
876:
865:
862:
859:
853:
826:
825:
820:
814:
810:
809:
804:
799:
793:
789:
788:
783:
777:
773:
772:
767:
762:
757:
751:
747:
746:
741:
736:
730:
726:
725:
720:
714:
710:
709:
704:
699:
693:
689:
688:
683:
678:
673:
667:
663:
662:
658:
657:
652:
647:
642:
636:
632:
631:
628:
625:
622:
619:
600:
597:
539:
536:
455:‘house’ (<
425:
422:
421:
420:
397:
354:
351:
289:proto-language
280:
277:
267:
264:
251:
250:
243:
237:
236:
235:
234:
224:
219:
212:
208:
207:
206:
205:
204:
203:
202:
201:
181:
175:
174:
138:
131:
125:
124:
116:
115:
30:
28:
21:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6681:
6680:
6669:
6666:
6664:
6661:
6660:
6658:
6642:
6638:
6636:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6623:
6620:
6619:
6616:
6610:
6609:Proto-Romance
6607:
6606:
6604:
6602:Reconstructed
6600:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6583:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6576:
6572:
6570:
6569:
6568:British Latin
6565:
6563:
6562:
6558:
6557:
6555:
6551:
6539:
6536:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6526:
6524:
6521:
6520:
6518:
6515:
6512:
6511:
6507:
6506:
6504:
6500:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6477:
6474:
6472:
6469:
6468:
6467:
6464:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6451:
6450:
6447:
6443:
6440:
6439:
6438:
6435:
6434:
6432:
6430:
6424:
6414:
6413:
6409:
6408:
6407:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6389:
6388:
6387:Vivaro-Alpine
6385:
6381:
6378:
6377:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6351:
6347:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6332:
6331:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6321:
6320:
6317:
6311:
6308:
6306:
6303:
6302:
6300:
6298:
6295:
6293:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6263:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6253:
6251:
6249:
6246:
6245:
6244:
6243:
6239:
6238:
6236:
6234:
6228:
6217:
6214:
6211:
6208:
6207:
6205:
6201:
6193:
6192:
6191:Old Navarrese
6188:
6187:
6186:
6185:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6172:
6169:
6168:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6161:
6157:
6156:
6154:
6150:
6144:
6143:
6139:
6135:
6132:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6118:
6115:
6113:
6110:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6096:
6093:
6092:
6091:
6088:
6087:
6086:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6074:
6070:
6067:
6066:
6065:
6062:
6058:
6055:
6054:
6053:
6050:
6049:
6048:
6047:
6043:
6041:
6040:Equatoguinean
6038:
6036:
6033:
6032:
6031:
6030:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6010:
6008:
6006:
6002:
5996:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5984:
5982:
5979:
5975:
5972:
5971:
5970:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5958:
5957:
5956:
5955:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5943:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5933:
5932:
5931:
5927:
5925:
5924:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5910:
5907:
5906:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5896:
5894:
5892:
5888:
5882:
5881:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5868:
5865:
5864:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5851:
5848:
5847:
5846:
5843:
5842:
5840:
5838:
5834:
5831:
5828:
5821:
5815:
5805:
5804:
5800:
5798:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5769:
5766:
5758:
5755:
5753:
5750:
5749:
5748:
5745:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5732:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5692:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5680:
5679:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5667:
5663:
5662:
5661:
5658:
5657:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5630:
5629:
5626:
5622:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5610:
5606:
5603:
5602:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5558:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5531:
5530:
5527:
5526:
5525:
5522:
5521:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5508:
5507:
5506:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5494:Frainc-Comtou
5492:
5488:
5485:
5483:
5480:
5479:
5478:
5475:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5454:
5452:
5450:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5433:
5425:
5422:
5421:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5414:
5410:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5378:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5360:
5357:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5328:
5325:
5324:
5323:
5320:
5319:
5318:
5315:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5302:
5301:
5298:
5297:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5290:Judeo-Italian
5288:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5255:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5221:
5220:
5217:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5204:
5203:
5200:
5199:
5198:
5195:
5194:
5192:
5190:
5186:
5183:
5181:
5177:
5167:
5164:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5154:
5150:
5149:
5148:
5145:
5144:
5142:
5138:
5130:
5127:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5101:
5098:
5097:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5085:Castelmezzano
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5072:
5071:
5070:
5066:
5065:
5064:
5061:
5055:
5052:
5051:
5050:
5047:
5043:
5040:
5039:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5029:
5028:
5025:
5024:
5022:
5018:
5010:
5007:
5006:
5005:
5004:
5000:
4998:
4995:
4991:
4990:Swiss Italian
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4972:
4971:
4970:
4966:
4962:
4959:
4958:
4957:
4954:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4919:
4918:
4915:
4914:
4913:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4892:
4886:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4871:Transylvanian
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4833:
4832:
4831:
4830:Daco-Romanian
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4811:
4809:
4807:
4803:
4797:
4794:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4781:
4780:
4779:Italo-Western
4777:
4775:
4772:
4771:
4769:
4765:
4760:
4756:
4749:
4744:
4742:
4737:
4735:
4730:
4729:
4726:
4716:
4715:
4708:
4705:
4701:
4695:
4692:
4687:
4681:
4677:
4669:
4666:
4661:
4655:
4651:
4646:See p.42 of:
4643:
4640:
4634:
4632:
4625:
4622:
4616:
4614:
4607:
4604:
4598:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4582:
4579:
4573:
4571:
4564:
4561:
4555:
4553:
4546:
4543:
4537:
4531:
4529:
4525:
4519:
4517:
4510:
4507:
4499:
4495:
4489:
4486:
4482:
4480:
4472:
4469:
4465:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4450:
4447:
4444:
4439:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4425:
4422:
4416:
4413:
4401:
4397:
4390:
4387:
4382:
4378:
4374:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4345:
4342:
4338:
4333:
4330:
4318:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4289:
4286:
4276:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4257:
4249:
4246:
4234:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4205:
4202:
4190:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4161:
4158:
4153:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4128:
4125:
4113:
4109:
4103:
4099:
4098:
4090:
4087:
4083:
4077:
4074:
4071:, p. 67.
4070:
4065:
4063:
4059:
4054:
4042:
4027:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4008:
4000:
3997:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3971:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3944:
3941:
3937:
3932:
3929:
3926:, p. 71.
3925:
3920:
3917:
3905:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3876:
3873:
3869:
3868:François 2014
3863:
3860:
3856:
3850:
3847:
3840:
3834:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3815:
3809:
3805:
3803:0-521-78045-4
3799:
3795:
3790:
3779:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3738:
3734:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3716:
3711:
3707:
3701:
3697:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3665:
3661:
3654:
3650:
3645:
3644:
3640:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3588:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3543:
3537:
3536:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3439:
3431:
3430:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3407:
3403:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3383:
3375:
3374:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3351:
3347:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3327:
3319:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3292:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3272:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3241:
3237:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3217:
3209:
3208:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3186:
3182:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3162:
3154:
3153:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3108:
3100:
3099:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3077:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3053:
3045:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3022:
3018:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2998:
2990:
2989:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2944:
2936:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2913:
2909:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2881:
2880:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2835:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2729:
2728:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2706:
2702:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2682:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2592:si è arrivati
2589:
2585:
2584:si è lavorato
2581:
2577:
2572:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2542:language area
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2525:Je suis tombé
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2494:passé composé
2491:
2483:
2481:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2392:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2376:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2325:(yo) he hecho
2323:
2321:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2300:(yo) he feito
2298:
2296:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2130:(eu) am făcut
2128:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2035:a 'nd è, al è
2033:
2031:
2030:(jo) o ai fat
2028:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2005:(io) ho fatto
2003:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1938:
1937:For example:
1933:: Portuguese.
1932:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1827:
1824:
1821:derives from
1820:
1816:
1812:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1717:sedas / sedes
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1689:
1688:
1682:The number 16
1681:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1636:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1593:
1592:
1591:
1586:in Romanian,
1585:
1584:
1583:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1502:
1498:
1497:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1456:
1451:
1450:
1449:
1444:), Romanian (
1443:
1442:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1420:), Venetian (
1419:
1418:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1353:. In Catalan
1352:
1351:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1323:, Neapolitan
1322:
1321:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1295:
1294:
1293:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1246:
1241:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1199:
1195:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1178:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1169:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1128:
1127:heterogeneity
1122:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1088:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1040:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1011:
1009:
1007:
997:
987:
983:
979:
975:
967:
962:
960:
956:
952:
951:areal changes
943:
932:
928:
917:
913:
910:
909:
908:
906:
877:
866:
863:
860:
857:
854:
851:
847:
846:
845:
843:
839:
835:
834:
821:
815:
812:
811:
794:
791:
790:
778:
775:
774:
763:
752:
749:
748:
742:
737:
731:
728:
727:
715:
712:
711:
694:
691:
690:
684:
679:
668:
665:
664:
660:
659:
634:
633:
629:
627:Italo-Western
626:
623:
621:Proto-Romance
620:
617:
616:
610:
606:
598:
596:
594:
590:
586:
582:
581:Gallo-Italian
578:
577:Oïl languages
574:
573:Gallo-Romance
569:
567:
566:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
537:
535:
533:
529:
525:
520:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
478:
475:
471:
468:
464:
459:
453:
436:
432:
423:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
360:
359:
358:
352:
350:
348:
344:
338:
336:
335:
329:
324:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
301:
296:
294:
290:
286:
278:
272:
265:
263:
261:
260:
255:The internal
248:
244:
242:
238:
232:
231:Italo-Western
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
214:
213:
200:
197:
196:
195:
192:
191:
190:
187:
186:
185:
184:Indo-European
182:
180:
176:
171:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
136:
132:
126:
121:
112:
109:
101:
90:
87:
83:
80:
76:
73:
69:
66:
62:
59: –
58:
54:
53:Find sources:
47:
43:
37:
36:
31:This article
29:
25:
20:
19:
16:
6630:
6621:
6573:
6566:
6559:
6508:
6410:
6403:
6365:Languedocien
6357:
6350:Judeo-Gascon
6348:
6289:
6240:
6210:Barranquenho
6189:
6182:
6158:
6140:
6082:
6044:
6027:
6018:Extremaduran
5992:
5966:
5952:
5940:
5928:
5921:
5878:
5837:Asturleonese
5801:
5794:
5752:West Walloon
5740:Saintongeais
5688:
5664:
5660:Anglo-Norman
5618:
5551:Newfoundland
5511:Jersey Legal
5503:
5411:
5376:Southwestern
5359:Vallassinese
5248:Gallo-Picene
5189:Gallo-Italic
5151:
5067:
5062:
5001:
4967:
4882:
4828:
4758:
4707:
4699:
4694:
4675:
4668:
4649:
4642:
4630:
4624:
4618:(in Italian)
4612:
4606:
4600:(in Catalan)
4587:
4581:
4569:
4563:
4557:(in Spanish)
4551:
4545:
4539:(in Italian)
4521:(in Italian)
4515:
4509:
4497:
4493:
4488:
4478:
4471:
4455:
4449:
4438:
4420:
4415:
4403:. Retrieved
4399:
4389:
4354:
4344:
4332:
4320:. Retrieved
4298:
4288:
4278:, retrieved
4255:
4248:
4236:. Retrieved
4214:
4204:
4192:. Retrieved
4170:
4160:
4133:
4127:
4116:. Retrieved
4096:
4089:
4081:
4076:
4069:Bossong 2016
4029:. Retrieved
4006:
3999:
3988:. Retrieved
3979:
3970:
3952:dominus meus
3951:
3947:
3943:
3931:
3924:Bossong 2016
3919:
3907:. Retrieved
3885:
3875:
3862:
3849:
3813:
3793:
3783:November 18,
3781:. Retrieved
3763:
3758:
3743:November 18,
3741:. Retrieved
3731:
3721:
3695:
3677:
3659:
3631:
3619:
3618:, but bare *
3615:
3611:
3468:canten/canta
3137:canten/canta
2639:Languedocien
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2574:Tuscan uses
2573:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2506:
2493:
2487:
2477:
2476:from German
2469:
2465:
2463:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2397:
2390:
2386:
2381:
2377:
2368:
2358:
2353:
2344:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2292:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2176:
2172:
2162:
2154:
2149:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2100:(mi) i l'hai
2099:
2096:Piedmontese
2089:
2084:
2080:(mi) a u fai
2079:
2074:
2064:
2059:
2055:(mi) go fato
2054:
2049:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1936:
1930:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1908:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1863:
1849:
1846:duodēvigintī
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1831:
1825:
1818:
1814:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1796:decem ac sex
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1723:, Sardinian
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1631:
1623:
1615:
1607:
1595:
1594:in Romansh,
1587:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1563:
1555:
1547:
1546:in Catalan,
1539:
1531:
1521:
1505:
1492:
1482:
1478:
1470:
1462:
1460:
1445:
1437:
1429:
1421:
1413:
1412:), Catalan (
1405:
1404:), Spanish (
1399:
1395:
1377:
1373:
1354:
1346:
1338:
1330:
1316:
1308:
1300:
1289:
1288:, Sardinian
1278:
1267:
1263:
1256:
1252:
1250:
1222:
1201:
1173:
1165:
1131:
1123:
1120:
1112:dialectology
1110:, including
1092:
1036:
1015:
998:
963:
947:
901:
856:Degemination
831:
829:
608:
570:
563:
541:
521:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
484:
483:forms (e.g.
476:
473:
469:
466:
462:
434:
430:
427:
371:
367:
364:conservative
363:
356:
339:
332:
325:
305:Vulgar Latin
300:Roman Empire
297:
282:
256:
254:
211:Subdivisions
198:
140:
130:distribution
104:
95:
85:
78:
71:
64:
52:
40:Please help
35:verification
32:
15:
6586:Campidanese
6412:Old Catalan
6405:Old Occitan
6142:Old Spanish
6076:Rioplatense
5880:Old Leonese
5708:Cotentinais
5672:Guernésiais
5595:Frenchville
5588:New England
5467:Bourbonnais
5419:Piedmontese
5413:Old Lombard
5305:Bergamasque
5229:Sammarinese
4636:(in French)
4575:(in French)
4481:(1990: 294)
4337:Wright 2013
3936:Wright 2013
3366:a cantaggna
2529:sono caduto
2519:or Italian
2468:, the form
2457:, Friulian
2455:ține cartea
2453:, Romanian
2365:Portuguese
2293:(yo) tiengo
2273:(jo) he fet
2150:(ijo) tengo
2146:Neapolitan
2075:(mi) a gh-u
1982:I have done
1964:Existential
1868:"to have",
1850:ūndēvigintī
1842:septendecim
1815:șaisprezece
1804:diez y seis
1798:), Spanish
1790:, Galician
1711:, Friulian
1703:, Venetian
1652:ne(c) entem
1538:in French,
1522:(rem) natam
1390:; medieval
1345:, Venetian
1329:, Friulian
1315:, Ligurian
1237:in liaison.
1231:determiners
922:instead of
583:, Occitan,
433:instead of
372:progressive
6657:Categories
6633:indicates
6591:Logudorese
6124:Philippine
6090:Andalusian
6084:Peninsular
5974:Estremenho
5930:Portuguese
5857:Cantabrian
5690:Law French
5682:Sercquiais
5516:Meridional
5477:Champenois
5472:Burgundian
5283:Tabarchino
5273:Monégasque
5212:Parmigiano
5069:Neapolitan
5042:Manduriano
5009:Florentine
4876:Wallachian
4846:Bukovinian
4498:les festes
4280:2024-03-31
4118:2021-05-04
3990:2020-05-25
3855:Penny 2000
3777:9027278113
3641:References
3608:cliticized
3541:imperative
3489:imperative
2680:Infinitive
2646:Classical
2634:Portuguese
2537:sono stato
2416:Portuguese
2369:(eu) tenho
2320:(yo) tengo
2289:Aragonese
2169:Sardinian
1952:Possessive
1715:, Lombard
1707:, Romansh
1337:, Romansh
1307:, Lombard
1277:, Italian
1214:Plural in
1154:Macedonian
1140:, such as
1108:Wave model
1096:Tree model
1076:Portuguese
1027:Tree model
1023:Wave model
838:isoglosses
603:See also:
550:, and all
465:'dog' but
393:Sardinians
368:innovative
128:Geographic
68:newspapers
6641:varieties
6624:indicate
6581:Sardinian
6538:Triestine
6486:Sursilvan
6397:Mentonasc
6375:Provençal
6324:Auvergnat
6310:Valencian
6266:Mallorcan
6256:Algherese
6231:Occitano-
6178:Navarrese
6166:Aragonese
6102:Castilian
6005:Castilian
5981:Uruguayan
5954:Brazilian
5917:Minderico
5911:/Eonavian
5874:Mirandese
5788:Valdôtain
5774:/Arpitan
5715:Orléanais
5666:Auregnais
5650:Mayennais
5600:Louisiana
5482:Ardennais
5462:Berrichon
5268:Intemelio
5224:Forlivese
5207:Bolognese
5153:Dalmatian
5117:Tarantino
5080:Benevento
5037:Salentino
4997:Sassarese
4961:Gallurese
4944:Romanesco
4897:Dalmatian
4861:Moldavian
4856:Maramureș
4814:Aromanian
4051:ignored (
4041:cite book
3628:proclitic
3624:enclitics
3594:Catalonia
3422:a cantèdi
3370:chantions
2782:cantandum
2666:Bolognese
2619:Sardinian
2565:ho lavato
2557:j'ai lavé
2449:, French
2345:(eu) teño
2341:Galician
2268:(jo) tinc
2248:j'ai fait
2218:(jau) hai
2203:nc(h)'est
2199:nc(h)'at
2177:(deu) apu
2173:(deo) apo
2121:Romanian
2046:Venetian
2025:(jo) o ai
2021:Friulian
1954:predicate
1800:dieciséis
1788:dezesseis
1784:dezasseis
1769:quatòrdes
1699:, French
1483:nulla res
1172:= "sky",
1146:Bulgarian
1134:Aromanian
1046:Sardinian
1039:Mario Pei
978:Aragonese
848:Phonemic
591:, and an
560:La Spezia
417:Sardinian
385:Sardinian
241:Glottolog
217:Sardinian
6517:Venetian
6491:Vallader
6481:Surmiran
6454:Cadorino
6437:Friulian
6370:Limousin
6339:Béarnese
6301:Western
6283:Northern
6271:Menorcan
6261:Balearic
6252:Eastern
6248:dialects
6107:Castrapo
6064:Peruvian
6035:dialects
5968:European
5936:dialects
5923:Portugis
5904:Galician
5845:Asturian
5783:Savoyard
5735:Poitevin
5703:Cauchois
5677:Jèrriais
5524:Canadian
5403:Varesino
5398:Ticinese
5386:Novarese
5381:Cremunés
5371:Ossolano
5366:Milanese
5354:Lecchese
5322:Brianzöö
5253:Ligurian
5219:Romagnol
5100:Arianese
5095:Irpinian
5090:Cilentan
5054:Pantesco
5049:Sicilian
5020:Southern
4956:Corsican
4932:Macerata
4927:Fabriano
4866:Oltenian
4836:dialects
4796:Southern
4633:in CNRTL
4593:Archived
4572:in CNTRL
4494:la festa
4458:1950: 46
4427:Archived
4405:31 March
4381:50404104
4353:(eds.).
4322:28 March
4238:28 March
4194:28 March
4112:Archived
4031:27 March
3984:Archived
3982:. 2020.
3959:Archived
3909:28 March
3687:(2014),
3651:(2024).
3480:chantent
3476:i cànten
3426:chantiez
3391:cantiate
3387:cantetis
3384:cantētis
3343:cantemos
3339:cantemos
3335:cantiamo
3331:cantemus
3328:cantēmus
3310:al canta
3149:chantent
3145:i cànten
3057:cantates
3054:cantātis
3040:chantons
3036:a cantän
3014:cantamos
3010:cantamos
3006:cantiamo
3002:cantamus
2999:cantāmus
2981:al canta
2822:chantant
2818:cantànd
2797:cantando
2793:cantando
2789:cantando
2785:cantande
2733:cantātum
2661:Romanian
2653:Milanese
2533:J'ai été
2521:ho visto
2316:Spanish
2264:Catalan
2214:Romansh
2135:este / e
1996:Italian
1987:There is
1973:English
1968:Pattern
1948:Language
1840:, ... ,
1838:duodecim
1808:digissei
1792:dezaseis
1775:but now
1767:but now
1765:quatòrze
1759:but now
1751:but now
1743:but now
1674:, while
1297:/ˈpruzu/
1142:Albanian
1100:linkages
1064:Romanian
974:Pyrenees
850:lenition
630:Eastern
624:Southern
548:Sardinia
409:Florence
405:lenition
396:century.
353:Criteria
247:roma1334
98:May 2010
6622:Italics
6523:Chipilo
6466:Romansh
6429:Romance
6427:Rhaeto-
6392:Gardiol
6344:Landese
6334:Aranese
6319:Occitan
6278:Central
6242:Catalan
6233:Romance
6134:Creoles
6129:Saharan
6117:Murcian
6095:Llanito
6052:Chilean
6029:Spanish
5986:Creoles
5960:Mineiro
5942:African
5867:Riberan
5862:Leonese
5827:Iberian
5820:Romance
5747:Walloon
5720:Paydret
5698:Augeron
5638:Vosgien
5633:Gaumais
5628:Lorrain
5620:Creoles
5583:Muskrat
5529:Acadian
5457:Angevin
5447:Langues
5438:Romance
5344:Comasco
5317:Western
5310:Cremish
5300:Eastern
5295:Lombard
5263:Genoese
5258:Brigasc
5202:Emilian
5180:Western
5159:Istriot
5122:Vastese
5107:Molisan
4969:Italian
4905:Central
4851:Crișana
4806:Eastern
4789:Western
4774:Eastern
4477:Koutna
4456:Italica
3630:forms:
3612:a magnè
3600:or the
3584:chantez
3576:cântați
3563:cantatz
3551:cantate
3547:cantate
3544:cantāte
3447:cantino
3443:cantent
3440:cantent
3418:cântați
3404:cantetz
3399:canteis
3395:cantéis
3259:chantes
3200:a canta
3116:cantano
3112:cantant
3109:cantant
3095:chantez
3091:a cantè
3087:cântați
3074:cantatz
3069:cantais
3065:cantáis
3061:cantate
2931:chantes
2814:cântând
2810:cantand
2805:cantant
2801:cantant
2748:cantado
2744:cantado
2740:cantato
2736:cantatu
2724:chanter
2716:a cânta
2690:cantare
2686:cantare
2683:cantāre
2669:Emilian
2656:Lombard
2648:Catalan
2642:Occitan
2629:Spanish
2624:Italian
2616:Nuorese
2517:J'ai vu
2478:es gibt
2474:calqued
2239:French
2125:(eu) am
2050:(mi) go
2000:(io) ho
1959:Perfect
1834:ūndecim
1817:(where
1777:quìndes
1709:sedesch
1656:ne inde
1227:liaison
1162:Turkish
1138:Balkans
1070:Occitan
1066:: 23.5%
1058:Spanish
1052:Italian
1019:linkage
792:short U
750:short O
713:short I
666:short E
661:long A
635:short A
589:Romansh
544:Corsica
507:, Rom.
499:, Rum.
489:Catalan
445:before
341:spoken
334:linkage
199:Romance
123:Romance
82:scholar
6553:Others
6533:Talian
6528:Fiuman
6502:Others
6442:Fornes
6380:Niçard
6329:Gascon
6297:Patuet
6203:Others
6112:Castúo
5818:Ibero-
5778:Faetar
5725:Picard
5655:Norman
5643:Welche
5566:Magoua
5556:Quebec
5546:Brayon
5505:French
5487:Rémois
5436:Gallo-
5391:Pavese
5349:Laghée
5327:Canzés
5278:Royasc
5140:Others
5075:Barese
5003:Tuscan
4949:Sabino
4922:Ancona
4895:Italo-
4682:
4656:
4629:Entry
4613:niente
4611:Entry
4586:Entry
4568:Entry
4550:Entry
4514:Entry
4479:et al.
4379:
4369:
4313:
4271:
4229:
4185:
4148:
4104:
4022:
3900:
3870::171).
3857:: 22).
3829:
3800:
3774:
3739:. 1950
3702:
3666:
3632:magnèv
3596:, the
3572:cantev
3567:cantau
3559:cantai
3555:cantad
3532:chante
3463:canten
3459:canten
3455:cantem
3451:canten
3414:cantev
3408:canteu
3362:cântăm
3358:cantom
3352:cantem
3348:cantem
3314:chante
3276:cantet
3273:cantet
3255:t cant
3247:càntet
3242:cantes
3238:cantes
3233:cantes
3229:cantes
3221:cantes
3218:cantēs
3204:chante
3163:cantem
3132:canten
3128:cantan
3124:cantam
3120:cantan
3083:cantev
3078:cantau
3032:cântăm
3028:cantom
3023:cantam
3019:cantam
2985:chante
2948:cantat
2945:cantat
2927:t cant
2919:càntet
2914:cantes
2910:cantas
2905:cantas
2901:cantas
2893:cantas
2890:cantās
2876:chante
2872:a cant
2779:Gerund
2773:chanté
2765:cântat
2761:cantad
2756:cantat
2752:cantat
2720:cantèr
2712:cantar
2707:cantar
2703:cantar
2698:cantar
2694:cantar
2674:French
2466:igl ha
2443:tenēre
2253:il y a
2228:igl ha
2195:bi est
2159:ce sta
1977:I have
1896:, and
1894:habēre
1886:tenēre
1870:tenēre
1866:habēre
1773:quinze
1761:tërdes
1757:trëzze
1733:sëddes
1729:sëddes
1725:sèighi
1705:sédexe
1693:sedici
1676:gnente
1648:gnente
1644:niente
1618:nagott
1600:gnente
1488:niente
1275:/plys/
1082:French
986:Picard
982:Norman
953:. The
924:/(t)s/
869:/(t)s/
813:long U
776:long O
729:long I
692:long E
556:Rimini
517:lingua
485:sa mar
189:Italic
84:
77:
70:
63:
55:
6476:Putèr
6471:Jauer
6459:Nones
6449:Ladin
5948:Asian
5605:Houma
5578:Métis
5561:Joual
5534:Chiac
5499:Gallo
5449:d'oïl
4841:Banat
4714:stare
4631:néant
4516:nulla
4460:(cf.
3841:Notes
3718:(PDF)
3692:(PDF)
3656:(PDF)
3620:magnè
3580:cantè
3528:canta
3524:cântă
3520:canta
3515:canta
3511:canta
3507:canta
3503:canta
3499:canta
3495:canta
3492:cantā
3472:cânte
3306:cânte
3302:canta
3293:cante
3288:cante
3284:cante
3280:canti
3251:cânți
3225:canti
3192:canta
3183:cante
3178:cante
3174:cante
3170:canti
3166:cante
3141:cântă
3105:INDIC
3050:INDIC
2995:INDIC
2977:cântă
2973:canta
2968:canta
2964:canta
2960:canta
2956:canta
2952:canta
2941:INDIC
2923:cânți
2897:canti
2886:INDIC
2864:canti
2855:cante
2851:canto
2847:canto
2843:canto
2839:canto
2836:cantō
2832:INDIC
2769:cantè
2611:Latin
2470:i dat
2305:bi ha
2278:hi ha
2191:bi at
2110:a-i é
1826:super
1823:Latin
1753:dódes
1745:óndes
1737:sëzze
1713:sedis
1701:seize
1697:setze
1664:néant
1610:gnent
1590:nagut
1582:nimic
1495:nudda
1479:nulla
1473:nulla
1465:nihil
1424:massa
1374:Magis
1362:/pus/
1286:/pju/
1257:magis
1176:cerul
1150:Greek
1084:: 44%
1078:: 31%
1072:: 25%
1060:: 20%
1054:: 12%
886:>
562:(see
513:acqua
509:limbă
505:limba
447:/ieɛ/
389:Dante
313:Latin
89:JSTOR
75:books
6631:Bold
6216:Caló
5899:Fala
5825:West
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