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idea of a climax community—of the form of vegetation best adapted to some idealized set of environmental conditions—as a conceptual starting point for describing the vegetation in a given area. There are good reasons to believe that the species best adapted to some conditions might appear there when those conditions occur. But much of
Clements' work was devoted to characterizing what happens when those ideal conditions do not occur. In those circumstances, vegetation other than the ideal climax will often occur instead. But those different kinds of vegetation can still be described as deviations from the climax ideal. Therefore, Clements developed a very large vocabulary of theoretical terms describing the various possible causes of vegetation, and various non-climax states vegetation adopts as a consequence. His method of dealing with ecological complexity was to define an ideal form of vegetation—the climax community—and describe other forms of vegetation as deviations from that ideal.
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Though the views are sometimes attributed to him, Clements never argued that climax communities must always occur, or that the different species in an ecological community are tightly integrated physiologically, or that plant communities have sharp boundaries in time or space. Rather, he employed the
132:'s early challenges to Clements' organism simile, and other strategies of his for describing vegetation were largely disregarded for several decades until substantially vindicated by research in the 1950s and 1960s (below). Meanwhile, climax theory was deeply incorporated in both
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that competitively prevent the re-introduction of once native species. This concept borrows from
Clements' earliest interpretation of climax as referring to an ecosystem that is resistant to
81:. This equilibrium was thought to occur because the climax community is composed of species best adapted to average conditions in that area. The term is sometimes also applied in
85:
development. Nevertheless, it has been found that a "steady state" is more apparent than real, particularly across long timescales. Notwithstanding, it remains a useful concept.
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factors, in a given climatic zone. Clements had called these end-points other terms, not climaxes, and had thought they were not stable because by definition, climax
116:" and even sometimes claimed that communities could be homologous to complex organisms and sought to define a single climax-type for each area. The English botanist
325:
See, for example, Roughgarden, Jonathan, Robert M. May and Simon A. Levin, editors. 1989. Perspectives in
Ecological Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
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phenomenon which prevents the facilitation and succession to a true climax community, it is one of the only examples of climax that can be observed in nature.
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forest. The primary disturbances are floods, landslides, and salt spray, all of which occur only in small areas, allowing for a relatively stable equilibrium.
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and disclimax continued to be used to describe the many communities which persist in states that diverge from the climax ideal for a particular area.
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Clements, Frederic E. 1916. Plant
Succession: An Analysis of the Development of Vegetation. Washington D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington.
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180:. Many authors and nature-enthusiasts continue to use the term "climax" in a diluted form to refer to what might otherwise be called mature or
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communities. The term "climax" has also been adopted as a description for a late successional stage for marine macroinvertebrate communities.
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112:. Clements suggested only comparisons to very simple organisms. Later ecologists developed this idea that the ecological community is a "
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Johnson, K. 1984. Prairie and plains disclimax and disappearing butterflies, in the central United States. Atala. Vol. 10-12, pp. 20-30
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Despite the overall abandonment of climax theory, during the 1990s use of climax concepts again became more popular among some
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Studies in
History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
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41:. Beech (center) and sugar maple (bottom left) dominate the forest due to their towering height and tolerance of shade.
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Hagen, Joel B. 1992. An
Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
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Cowles, Henry
Chandler (1899). "The Ecological Relations of the Vegetation on the Sand Dunes of Lake Michigan".
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Eliot, Christopher (March 2007). "Method and metaphysics in
Clements's and Gleason's ecological explanations".
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in 1899, but it was
Clements who used the term "climax" to describe the idealized endpoint of succession.
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in the early 1900s. The first analysis of succession as leading to something like a climax was written by
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by outside species. The term disclimax was used in-context by
Clements (1936), and despite being an
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The idea of a single climax, which is defined in relation to regional climate, originated with
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Clements described the successional development of an ecological community comparable to the
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developed this idea with the "polyclimax"—multiple steady-state end-points, determined by
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Additionally, some contemporary ecologists still use the term "disclimax" to describe an
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and in vegetation management. Clements' terms such as pre-climax, post-climax,
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Clements, Frederic E. (February 1936). "Nature and Structure of the Climax".
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Rosenberg, R; Agrenius, S; Hellman, B; Nilsson, Hc; Norling, K (2002).
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in the development of vegetation in an area over time, have reached a
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Mature ecological community of organisms best adapted to an area
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128:is best-adapted to the climate of a given area.
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1426:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
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1324:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
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1356:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
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1164:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
268:"Alaskan Pacific maritime ecosystems"
37:in Michigan, USA, is an example of a
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1179:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
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100:Frederic Clements' use of "climax"
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718:Generalist and specialist species
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1174:Plant defense against herbivory
1041:Competitive exclusion principle
753:Mesopredator release hypothesis
1046:Consumer–resource interactions
341:Marine Ecology Progress Series
73:which, through the process of
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1892:Biological data visualization
1719:Environmental niche modelling
1446:Population viability analysis
1377:Density-dependent inhibition
172:Continuing usage of "climax"
1846:Liebig's law of the minimum
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572:Metabolic theory of ecology
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213:Stratification (vegetation)
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1746:Niche apportionment models
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670:Primary nutritional groups
567:List of feeding behaviours
108:development of individual
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1927:Ecosystem based fisheries
1539:Interspecific competition
1431:Minimum viable population
1289:Maximum sustainable yield
1274:Intraspecific competition
1269:Effective population size
1149:Anti-predator adaptations
660:Photosynthetic efficiency
57:is a historic term for a
55:climatic climax community
39:beech-maple climax forest
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1882:Alternative stable state
18:Climax plant communities
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512:Biogeochemical cycle
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147:Climax community in
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1962:Natural environment
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1998:Outline of ecology
1947:Industrial ecology
1942:Functional ecology
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1714:Ecosystem engineer
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993:North Pacific Gyre
978:hydrothermal vents
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675:Primary production
620:Foundation species
362:10.3354/MEPS234043
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532:Carrying capacity
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237:Botanical Gazette
90:Frederic Clements
16:(Redirected from
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834:Bacteriophage
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827:
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801:Decomposition
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748:Mesopredators
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527:Biotic stress
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299:(1): 85–109.
298:
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273:
272:www.fs.fed.us
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201:anthropogenic
198:
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190:
185:
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139:
135:
131:
130:Henry Gleason
127:
123:
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115:
114:superorganism
111:
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76:
72:
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64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
40:
36:
32:
19:
1967:Regime shift
1952:Macroecology
1673:
1669:
1609:Edge effects
1579:Biogeography
1524:Commensalism
1372:Biodiversity
1249:Allee effect
1035:
988:kelp forests
941:Example webs
806:Detritivores
645:Organotrophs
625:Kinetotrophs
577:Productivity
414:
381:
377:
371:
344:
340:
330:
321:
296:
292:
286:
275:. Retrieved
271:
262:
253:
244:
236:
231:
197:colonization
186:
175:
166:
157:Sitka spruce
138:plagioclimax
103:
94:Henry Cowles
87:
79:steady state
54:
50:
44:
35:Warren Woods
1604:Disturbance
1507:interaction
1329:Recruitment
1259:Depensation
1051:Copiotrophs
922:Energy flow
844:Lithotrophy
788:Decomposers
768:Planktivore
743:Insectivore
733:Heterotroph
698:Bacterivore
665:Phototrophs
615:Chemotrophs
587:Restoration
537:Competition
106:ontogenetic
2011:Categories
1972:Sexecology
1549:Parasitism
1514:Antibiosis
1349:Resistance
1344:Resilience
1234:Population
1154:Camouflage
1106:Oligotroph
1021:Ascendency
983:intertidal
973:cold seeps
927:Food chain
728:Herbivores
703:Carnivores
630:Mixotrophs
605:Autotrophs
484:components
277:2021-05-08
224:References
182:old-growth
126:vegetation
1877:Allometry
1831:Emergence
1559:Symbiosis
1544:Mutualism
1339:Stability
1244:Abundance
1056:Dominance
1014:Processes
1003:tide pool
899:Food webs
773:Predation
758:Omnivores
685:Consumers
640:Mycotroph
597:Producers
542:Ecosystem
507:Behaviour
347:: 43–53.
189:ecosystem
110:organisms
59:community
1932:Endolith
1861:Xerosere
1773:networks
1589:Ecocline
1135:Defense,
811:Detritus
713:Foraging
582:Resource
313:17324810
207:See also
2022:Habitat
1922:Ecopath
1729:Habitat
1599:Ecotype
1594:Ecotone
1571:ecology
1569:Spatial
1505:Species
1365:Species
1236:ecology
1221:Ecology
1169:Mimicry
1137:counter
1081:f-ratio
829:Archaea
517:Biomass
490:General
482:Trophic
474:Ecology
406:2256278
386:Bibcode
349:Bibcode
122:edaphic
67:animals
953:Rivers
849:Marine
404:
311:
153:Alaska
69:, and
63:plants
1870:Other
1771:Other
1724:Guild
1696:Niche
948:Lakes
402:JSTOR
71:fungi
958:Soil
309:PMID
155:, a
83:soil
394:doi
357:doi
345:234
301:doi
61:of
53:or
45:In
2013::
1419:/
1223::
480::
476::
400:.
392:.
382:24
380:.
355:.
343:.
339:.
307:.
297:38
295:.
270:.
151:,
65:,
49:,
1674:K
1672:/
1670:r
1213:e
1206:t
1199:v
466:e
459:t
452:v
408:.
396::
388::
365:.
359::
351::
315:.
303::
280:.
159:-
20:)
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