762:«…The problem of the structure of atoms has been attacked mainly by physicists who have given little consideration to the chemical properties which must ultimately be explained by a theory of atomic structure. The vast store of knowledge of chemical properties and relationships, such as is summarized by the Periodic Table, should serve as a better foundation for a theory of atomic structure than the relatively meager experimental data along purely physical lines... These electrons arrange themselves in a series of concentric shells, the first shell containing two electrons, while all other shells tend to
1005:
1181:. The first electrons to be ionized come not from the 3d-orbital, as one would expect if it were "higher in energy", but from the 4s-orbital. This interchange of electrons between 4s and 3d is found for all atoms of the first series of transition metals. The configurations of the neutral atoms (K, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, ...) usually follow the order 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, ...; however the successive stages of ionization of a given atom (such as Fe, Fe, Fe, Fe, Fe) usually follow the order 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, ...
48:
843:, published in 1926, gave three of the four quantum numbers as a direct consequence of its solution for the hydrogen atom: this solution yields the atomic orbitals that are shown today in textbooks of chemistry (and above). The examination of atomic spectra allowed the electron configurations of atoms to be determined experimentally, and led to an empirical rule (known as Madelung's rule (1936), see below) for the order in which atomic orbitals are filled with electrons.
303:
296:
275:
317:
310:
536:, whose configuration is 1s 2s 2p, only by the presence of a third shell. The portion of its configuration that is equivalent to neon is abbreviated as , allowing the configuration of phosphorus to be written as 3s 3p rather than writing out the details of the configuration of neon explicitly. This convention is useful as it is the electrons in the outermost shell that most determine the chemistry of the element.
885:
31:
1202:
described by either an 3d 4s or an 3d 4s configuration, but is rather well described as a 90% contribution of the first and a 10% contribution of the second. Indeed, visible light is already enough to excite electrons in most transition metals, and they often continuously "flow" through different configurations when that happens (copper and its group are an exception).
1064:
no more. However, the energy of an electron "in" an atomic orbital depends on the energies of all the other electrons of the atom (or ion, or molecule, etc.). There are no "one-electron solutions" for systems of more than one electron, only a set of many-electron solutions that cannot be calculated exactly (although there are mathematical approximations available, such as the
1228:. The electron configuration of the central chromium atom is described as 3d with the six electrons filling the three lower-energy d orbitals between the ligands. The other two d orbitals are at higher energy due to the crystal field of the ligands. This picture is consistent with the experimental fact that the complex is
809:"). Pauli hypothesized successfully that the Zeeman effect can be explained as depending only on the response of the outermost (i.e., valence) electrons of the atom. Pauli was able to reproduce Stoner's shell structure, but with the correct structure of subshells, by his inclusion of a fourth quantum number and his
3736:, a fact that is sometimes referred to as "indistinguishability of electrons". A one-electron solution to a many-electron system would imply that the electrons could be distinguished from one another, and there is strong experimental evidence that they can't be. The exact solution of a many-electron system is a
1063:
The aufbau principle rests on a fundamental postulate that the order of orbital energies is fixed, both for a given element and between different elements; in both cases this is only approximately true. It considers atomic orbitals as "boxes" of fixed energy into which can be placed two electrons and
1201:
In chemical environments, configurations can change even more: Th as a bare ion has a configuration of 5f, yet in most Th compounds the thorium atom has a 6d configuration instead. Mostly, what is present is rather a superposition of various configurations. For instance, copper metal is poorly
1248:
among the heavier elements, and as atomic number increases it becomes more and more difficult to find simple explanations such as the stability of half-filled subshells. It is possible to predict most of the exceptions by
Hartree–Fock calculations, which are an approximate method for taking account
1184:
This phenomenon is only paradoxical if it is assumed that the energy order of atomic orbitals is fixed and unaffected by the nuclear charge or by the presence of electrons in other orbitals. If that were the case, the 3d-orbital would have the same energy as the 3p-orbital, as it does in hydrogen,
1276:
atom has 4s lower in energy than 3d, but a Ca cation has 3d lower in energy than 4s. In practice the configurations predicted by the
Madelung rule are at least close to the ground state even in these anomalous cases. The empty f orbitals in lanthanum, actinium, and thorium contribute to chemical
1267:
The table below shows the configurations of the f-block (green) and d-block (blue) atoms. It shows the ground state configuration in terms of orbital occupancy, but it does not show the ground state in terms of the sequence of orbital energies as determined spectroscopically. For example, in the
1161:
have electron configurations 3d 4s and 3d 4s respectively, i.e. one electron has passed from the 4s-orbital to a 3d-orbital to generate a half-filled or filled subshell. In this case, the usual explanation is that "half-filled or completely filled subshells are particularly
674:
atom is 1s 2s 2p 3s, as deduced from the Aufbau principle (see below). The first excited state is obtained by promoting a 3s electron to the 3p subshell, to obtain the 1s 2s 2p 3p configuration, abbreviated as the 3p level. Atoms can move from one configuration to
658:
The energy associated to an electron is that of its orbital. The energy of a configuration is often approximated as the sum of the energy of each electron, neglecting the electron-electron interactions. The configuration that corresponds to the lowest electronic energy is called the
1260:. In general, these relativistic effects tend to decrease the energy of the s-orbitals in relation to the other atomic orbitals. This is the reason why the 6d elements are predicted to have no Madelung anomalies apart from lawrencium (for which relativistic effects stabilise the p
3286:(He) with two electrons in its valence shell. Similarly, neutral atomic oxygen has six electrons in its valence shell, and acquires a share of two electrons from the two hydrogen atoms, so that its configuration is similar to that of its nearest noble gas
400:
electrons. For example, the first shell can accommodate two electrons, the second shell eight electrons, the third shell eighteen, and so on. The factor of two arises because the number of allowed states doubles with each successive shell due to
1197:
of atomic structure calculation. More recently Scerri has argued that contrary to what is stated in the vast majority of sources including the title of his previous article on the subject, 3d orbitals rather than 4s are in fact preferentially occupied.
1112:
appear in the periodic table before the transition metals, and have electron configurations 4s and 4s respectively, i.e. the 4s-orbital is filled before the 3d-orbital. This is in line with
Madelung's rule, as the 4s-orbital has
551:
together, corresponding to the "spectroscopic" order of orbital energies that is the reverse of the order in which electrons are removed from a given atom to form positive ions; 3d is filled before 4s in the sequence Ti, Ti, Ti, Ti, Ti.
2859:
orbitals. That said, the filling sequence 8s, 5g, 6f, 7d, 8p is predicted to hold approximately, with perturbations due to the huge spin-orbit splitting of the 8p and 9p shells, and the huge relativistic stabilisation of the 9s shell.
3550:
and such a picture is no longer exact. A very large number of electronic configurations are needed to exactly describe any multi-electron system, and no energy can be associated with one single configuration. However, the electronic
3574:
configuration listed in tables, although not all the energy levels are observed in practice. It is through the analysis of atomic spectra that the ground-state electron configurations of the elements were experimentally determined.
559:
may be written as either 3s 3p or 3s 3p. In atoms where a subshell is unoccupied despite higher subshells being occupied (as is the case in some ions, as well as certain neutral atoms shown to deviate from the
1076:, which only has one electron, the s-orbital and the p-orbitals of the same shell have exactly the same energy, to a very good approximation in the absence of external electromagnetic fields. (However, in a real hydrogen atom, the
2855:, having a p rather than a g electron. Electron configurations beyond this are tentative and predictions differ between models, but Madelung's rule is expected to break down due to the closeness in energy of the 5g, 6f, 7d, and 8p
1071:
The fact that the aufbau principle is based on an approximation can be seen from the fact that there is an almost-fixed filling order at all, that, within a given shell, the s-orbital is always filled before the p-orbitals. In a
3257:
Every system has the tendency to acquire the state of stability or a state of minimum energy, and so chemical elements take part in chemical reactions to acquire a stable electronic configuration similar to that of its nearest
1249:
of the effect of the other electrons on orbital energies. Qualitatively, for example, the 4d elements have the greatest concentration of
Madelung anomalies, because the 4d–5s gap is larger than the 3d–4s and 5d–6s gaps.
1288:
5s) may be occupied and bonding in chemical compounds. (The same is also true for the p-orbitals, which are not explicitly shown because they are only actually occupied for lawrencium in gas-phase ground states.)
785:
third quantum number into the description of electron shells, and correctly predicted the shell structure of sulfur to be 2.8.6. However neither Bohr's system nor Stoner's could correctly describe the changes in
728:'s chemical bonding theory, he outlined his "concentric theory of atomic structure". Langmuir had developed his work on electron atomic structure from other chemists as is shown in the development of the
892:
The principle works very well (for the ground states of the atoms) for the known 118 elements, although it is sometimes slightly wrong. The modern form of the aufbau principle describes an order of
4454:
539:
For a given configuration, the order of writing the orbitals is not completely fixed since only the orbital occupancies have physical significance. For example, the electron configuration of the
1044:
in the p-block due to its chemical inertness, a consequence of its full outer shell (though there is discussion in the contemporary literature on whether this exception should be retained).
2821:
The various anomalies describe the free atoms and do not necessarily predict chemical behavior. Thus for example neodymium typically forms the +3 oxidation state, despite its configuration
1036:
is due to the number of electrons (2, 6, 10, and 14) needed to fill s, p, d, and f subshells. These blocks appear as the rectangular sections of the periodic table. The single exception is
879:
a maximum of two electrons are put into orbitals in the order of increasing orbital energy: the lowest-energy subshells are filled before electrons are placed in higher-energy orbitals.
5056:
1280:
Vacant s, d, and f orbitals have been shown explicitly, as is occasionally done, to emphasise the filling order and to clarify that even orbitals unoccupied in the ground state (e.g.
888:
The approximate order of filling of atomic orbitals, following the arrows from 1s to 7p. (After 7p the order includes subshells outside the range of the diagram, starting with 8s.)
1268:
transition metals, the 4s orbital is of a higher energy than the 3d orbitals; and in the lanthanides, the 6s is higher than the 4f and 5d. The ground states can be seen in the
5163:
3594:
1269:
854:
464:+ 1). This gives two electrons in an s subshell, six electrons in a p subshell, ten electrons in a d subshell and fourteen electrons in an f subshell.
4569:
4171:
3836:
3807:
588:
489:
Physicists and chemists use a standard notation to indicate the electron configurations of atoms and molecules. For atoms, the notation consists of a sequence of atomic
750:
of the atom, in which the electron shells were orbits at a fixed distance from the nucleus. Bohr's original configurations would seem strange to a present-day chemist:
144:
is associated with each electron configuration. In certain conditions, electrons are able to move from one configuration to another by the emission or absorption of a
679:
for example, sodium atoms are excited to the 3p level by an electrical discharge, and return to the ground state by emitting yellow light of wavelength 589 nm.
3523:
as the starting point. The last step in such a calculation is the assignment of electrons among the molecular orbitals according to the aufbau principle. Not all
547:
for the configurations of neutral atoms; 4s is filled before 3d in the sequence Ar, K, Ca, Sc, Ti. The second notation groups all orbitals with the same value of
3555:
is usually dominated by a very small number of configurations and therefore the notion of electronic configuration remains essential for multi-electron systems.
505:
has two electrons in the 1s-subshell and one in the (higher-energy) 2s-subshell, so its configuration is written 1s 2s (pronounced "one-s-two, two-s-one").
4327:
3282:, and on formation of water it acquires a share of a second electron coming from oxygen, so that its configuration is similar to that of its nearest noble gas
4764:
Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.).
702:
photons. This would be the case for example to excite a 2p electron of sodium to the 3s level and form the excited 1s 2s 2p 3s configuration.
516:
For atoms with many electrons, this notation can become lengthy and so an abbreviated notation is used. The electron configuration can be visualized as the
5049:
4480:
3773:
The labels are written in lowercase to indicate that they correspond to one-electron functions. They are numbered consecutively for each symmetry type (
532:: each element in a period differs only by the last few subshells. Phosphorus, for instance, is in the third period. It differs from the second-period
5158:
3625:
4502:
Meek, Terry L.; Allen, Leland C. (2002). "Configuration irregularities: deviations from the
Madelung rule and inversion of orbital energy levels".
2825:
that if interpreted naïvely would suggest a more stable +2 oxidation state corresponding to losing only the 6s electrons. Contrariwise, uranium as
758:'s 1893 paper. In fact, the chemists accepted the concept of atoms long before the physicists. Langmuir began his paper referenced above by saying,
2931:
1264:
orbital as well and cause its occupancy in the ground state), as relativity intervenes to make the 7s orbitals lower in energy than the 6d ones.
1185:
yet it clearly does not. There is no special reason why the Fe ion should have the same electron configuration as the chromium atom, given that
5184:
5042:
705:
The remainder of this article deals only with the ground-state configuration, often referred to as "the" configuration of an atom or molecule.
4418:
Wickleder, Mathias S.; Fourest, Blandine; Dorhout, Peter K. (2006). "Thorium". In Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.).
4843:
4810:
4777:
3921:
3875:
3512:
4970:"Laboratory for Theoretical Studies of Electronic Structure and Spectroscopy of Open-Shell and Electronically Excited Species – iOpenShell"
4675:
Xu, Wei; Ji, Wen-Xin; Qiu, Yi-Xiang; Schwarz, W. H. Eugen; Wang, Shu-Guang (2013). "On structure and bonding of lanthanoid trifluorides LnF
3456:, the electron states become very numerous. They cease to be discrete, and effectively blend into continuous ranges of possible states (an
746:
in the properties of the elements might be explained by the electronic structure of the atom. His proposals were based on the then current
4419:
3584:
467:
The numbers of electrons that can occupy each shell and each subshell arise from the equations of quantum mechanics, in particular the
5091:
5015:
4995:
3508:
137:
4769:
591:(IUPAC) recommends a normal typeface (as used here). The choice of letters originates from a now-obsolete system of categorizing
587:
It is quite common to see the letters of the orbital labels (s, p, d, f) written in an italic or slanting typeface, although the
603:
1055:. The similarities in the chemical properties were remarked on more than a century before the idea of electron configuration.
1032:
configuration), and have notable similarities in their chemical properties. The periodicity of the periodic table in terms of
543:
ground state can be written as either 4s 3d or 3d 4s. The first notation follows the order based on the
497:
the sequence 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p) with the number of electrons assigned to each subshell placed as a superscript. For example,
5303:
3036:
1253:
1193:
have analyzed the changes of orbital energy with orbital occupations in terms of the two-electron repulsion integrals of the
2935:
1189:
has two more protons in its nucleus than chromium, and that the chemistry of the two species is very different. Melrose and
3720:
3406:
729:
4925:
716:
was the first to propose in his 1919 article "The
Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules" in which, building on
5283:
130:
4906:
4313:
5298:
5293:
4323:
3774:
75:
1236:, the d-like orbitals occupied by the six electrons are no longer identical with the d orbitals of the free atom.
5179:
3528:
810:
468:
4453:
Ferrão, Luiz; Machado, Francisco
Bolivar Correto; Cunha, Leonardo dos Anjos; Fernandes, Gabriel Freire Sanzovo.
2836:
has not yet been empirically verified, but they are expected to follow
Madelung's rule without exceptions until
1170:(Nb) has an anomalous d s configuration that does not give it a half-filled or completely filled subshell.
5288:
5120:
5111:
4504:
3485:
3430:
3414:
3402:
1233:
1206:
955:
In this list the subshells in parentheses are not occupied in the ground state of the heaviest atom now known (
632:
433:
361:
1194:
1065:
5278:
5129:
3683:
3599:
3524:
3504:
2927:
1004:
894:
840:
525:
5029:
1020:
is closely related to the atomic electron configuration for each element. For example, all the elements of
452: = 0, 1, 2, 3 correspond to the s, p, d, and f labels, respectively. For example, the 3d subshell has
155:
Knowledge of the electron configuration of different atoms is useful in understanding the structure of the
47:
4318:
3605:
1256:
on the energies of the atomic orbitals, as the inner-shell electrons are moving at speeds approaching the
1081:
1009:
999:
564:), the empty subshell is either denoted with a superscript 0 or left out altogether. For example, neutral
4826:
Jørgensen, Christian K. (1988). "Influence of rare earths on chemical understanding and classification".
405:—each atomic orbital admits up to two otherwise identical electrons with opposite spin, one with a spin +
4048:
3748:
3615:
3516:
1218:
951:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, (8s, 5g, 6f, 7d, 8p, and 9s)
778:
754:
was given as 2.4.4.6 instead of 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p (2.8.6). Bohr used 4 and 6 following
4872:
4688:
4649:
4513:
4283:
4210:
4090:
4081:(1925). "Über den Einfluss der Geschwindigkeitsabhändigkeit der elektronmasse auf den Zeemaneffekt".
3983:
3547:
3024:
1210:
1033:
1021:
3436:
The electronic configuration of polyatomic molecules can change without absorption or emission of a
5138:
4349:
Langeslay, Ryan R.; Fieser, Megan E.; Ziller, Joseph W.; Furche, Philip; Evans, William J. (2015).
3691:
3630:
3489:
3477:
2930:
implementations of molecular orbital theory, open-shell molecules have to be handled by either the
979:
402:
126:
4628:
3570:
available to an atom. Term symbols can be calculated for any electron configuration, not just the
4721:
4472:
4256:
4106:
3999:
3733:
3687:
3314:
2980:
1073:
817:
It should be forbidden for more than one electron with the same value of the main quantum number
806:
617:
168:
4802:
460: = 2. The maximum number of electrons that can be placed in a subshell is given by 2(2
302:
295:
274:
4640:
Glotzel, D. (1978). "Ground-state properties of f band metals: lanthanum, cerium and thorium".
3892:
3764:
There are some cases in the second and third series where the electron remains in an s-orbital.
5241:
5210:
5086:
5011:
4991:
4839:
4806:
4773:
4704:
4436:
4400:
3917:
3911:
3871:
3635:
3559:
3481:
3473:
3441:
3310:
3306:
2972:
2968:
2939:
2923:
2919:
2904:
2785:
1052:
987:
910:
787:
782:
676:
647:
353:
338:
95:
67:
41:
1145: = 2). After calcium, most neutral atoms in the first series of transition metals (
5255:
5226:
5189:
4880:
4831:
4696:
4657:
4610:
4601:
4583:
4521:
4464:
4428:
4390:
4382:
4291:
4274:
Melrose, Melvyn P.; Scerri, Eric R. (1996). "Why the 4s
Orbital is Occupied before the 3d".
4248:
4218:
4185:
4133:
4118:
4098:
4060:
4030:
3991:
3953:
3850:
3821:
3589:
3279:
3028:
2992:
2988:
1245:
1101:
1048:
898:
860:
717:
683:
660:
561:
544:
529:
316:
309:
164:
1232:, meaning that it has no unpaired electrons. However, in a more accurate description using
639:, of 0, 1, 2 or 3 respectively. After f, the sequence continues alphabetically g, h, i... (
471:, which states that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same values of the four
3937:
3778:
3562:. In this case, it is necessary to supplement the electron configuration with one or more
3422:
1222:
1214:
983:
864:
713:
501:
has one electron in the s-orbital of the first shell, so its configuration is written 1s.
118:
3410:
4876:
4692:
4653:
4517:
4287:
4214:
4094:
4019:"Die Valenz und das periodische System. Versuch einer Theorie der Molekularverbindungen"
3987:
3472:
The most widespread application of electron configurations is in the rationalization of
5103:
5081:
5076:
4860:
4795:
4395:
4351:"Synthesis, structure, and reactivity of crystalline molecular complexes of the {[C
4350:
4154:
4078:
4021:[Valency and the periodic system. Attempt at a theory of molecular compounds].
3752:
3737:
3663:
3520:
3318:
2976:
2912:
2876:
1257:
1017:
975:
917:
906:
802:
791:
743:
725:
643: = 4, 5, 6...), skipping j, although orbitals of these types are rarely required.
628:
610:
592:
490:
484:
472:
429:
381:
377:
349:
334:
188:
176:
156:
122:
114:
107:
91:
63:
37:
4835:
4525:
3747: ≥ 3 (the nucleus counts as one of the "bodies"): such problems have evaded
5272:
5231:
5205:
4579:
4476:
4427:. Vol. 3 (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. pp. 52–160.
4260:
4181:
4110:
4003:
3846:
3704:
3640:
3552:
3493:
3457:
3326:
2892:
2884:
2183:
902:
795:
771:
755:
695:
664:
517:
510:
357:
160:
4661:
3817:
801:
Bohr was well aware of this shortcoming (and others), and had written to his friend
4540:
4455:"The Chemical Bond Across the Periodic Table: Part 1 – First Row and Simple Metals"
3703:
The similarities in chemical properties and the numerical relationship between the
3571:
3567:
3426:
3418:
2648:
1506:
1488:
1162:
stable arrangements of electrons". However, this is not supported by the facts, as
1077:
721:
646:
The electron configurations of molecules are written in a similar way, except that
596:
369:
141:
4733:
884:
4914:. Nobel Symposium NS160 – Chemistry and Physics of Heavy and Superheavy Elements.
3558:
A fundamental application of electron configurations is in the interpretation of
2938:
method. Conversely a closed-shell configuration corresponds to a state where all
4574:
4309:
4176:
3841:
3812:
3782:
3563:
3511:
of chemical properties. For many years, most such calculations relied upon the "
3461:
2803:
2732:
1991:
1897:
1850:
1229:
1190:
691:
555:
The superscript 1 for a singly occupied subshell is not compulsory; for example
30:
4468:
4252:
2911:
is obtained with a completely filled valence shell. This configuration is very
805:
in 1923 to ask for his help in saving quantum theory (the system now known as "
113:
Electronic configurations describe each electron as moving independently in an
5250:
4951:
4929:
4064:
3971:
3620:
2984:
2869:
2837:
2553:
2369:
2334:
2295:
2109:
1832:
1732:
1588:
1085:
1040:, which despite being an s-block atom is conventionally placed with the other
871:
763:
747:
739:
733:
506:
494:
326:
52:
4587:
4578:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
4189:
4180:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
4034:
3854:
3845:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
3816:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
3460:). The notion of electron configuration ceases to be relevant, and yields to
171:. In bulk materials, this same idea helps explain the peculiar properties of
125:
and all the other electrons. Mathematically, configurations are described by
4432:
4137:
3825:
3785:
for the molecule), starting from the orbital of lowest energy for that type.
3712:
3610:
3429:). The explanation of the paramagnetism of dioxygen was a major success for
3259:
3226:
3032:
2996:
2964:
2955:
2943:
2841:
2602:
2440:
2351:
2147:
2020:
1803:
1703:
1656:
1606:
1538:
1382:
1285:
1281:
1105:
1041:
1029:
956:
577:
565:
556:
521:
17:
4708:
4404:
2829:
is not very stable in the +3 oxidation state either, preferring +4 and +6.
1153:) have configurations with two 4s electrons, but there are two exceptions.
698:
is possible, but requires much higher energies, generally corresponding to
3484:. In effect, electron configurations, along with some simplified forms of
1166:(W) has a Madelung-following d s configuration and not d s, and
5034:
4884:
4459:
3543:
3539:
3398:
3302:
3263:
2900:
2888:
2623:
2316:
2274:
2239:
2200:
2129:
2091:
2055:
2038:
1685:
1638:
1403:
1163:
1154:
1146:
540:
498:
342:
87:
79:
34:
4614:
3957:
4700:
4386:
4239:
Scerri, Eric (2019). "Five ideas in chemical education that must die".
4102:
3995:
3708:
3139:
3012:
2833:
2776:
2767:
2695:
2611:
2535:
2523:
2514:
2479:
2449:
2405:
2387:
2378:
2304:
2257:
2227:
2218:
2165:
2156:
2082:
2073:
1973:
1944:
1879:
1785:
1556:
1456:
1273:
1167:
1109:
1097:
971:
502:
145:
56:
4599:
Pyykkö, Pekka (1988). "Relativistic effects in structural chemistry".
4295:
4222:
2946:). Open shell molecules are more difficult to study computationally.
2926:
theory, this leads to molecular orbitals that are singly occupied. In
1252:
For the heavier elements, it is also necessary to take account of the
4543:[D. I. Mendeleev's periodic system of the chemical elements]
4201:
Wong, D. Pan (1979). "Theoretical justification of
Madelung's rule".
3716:
3437:
3330:
3283:
3267:
3061:
3000:
2686:
2665:
2593:
2570:
2496:
2461:
1926:
1753:
1435:
1225:
1158:
1037:
967:
751:
687:
671:
385:
172:
149:
4018:
3974:(1923). "Über die Anwendung der Quantumtheorie auf den Atombau. I".
3941:
2868:
This section is about the concept in physics. For the software, see
1096:
The naïve application of the aufbau principle leads to a well-known
1080:
are slightly split by the magnetic field of the nucleus, and by the
1024:(the table's second column) have an electron configuration of
4119:"The Electron Configuration Model, Quantum Mechanics and Reduction"
3531:(DFT) is an important example of a method that discards the model.
3453:
3301:
is more complex than the electron configuration of atoms, as each
3271:
3196:
3167:
3112:
3020:
3016:
3008:
2812:
2794:
2758:
2741:
2716:
2674:
2657:
2632:
2585:
2579:
2562:
2544:
2505:
2488:
2470:
2431:
2414:
2396:
2360:
2343:
2325:
2283:
2266:
2248:
2209:
2192:
2174:
2138:
2118:
2100:
2064:
2047:
2029:
2000:
1982:
1953:
1935:
1906:
1888:
1859:
1841:
1812:
1794:
1762:
1741:
1712:
1694:
1665:
1647:
1615:
1597:
1565:
1547:
1515:
1497:
1465:
1444:
1412:
1391:
1003:
883:
699:
29:
874:
original concept of electron configuration. It may be stated as:
3535:
3497:
3322:
3287:
3086:
3004:
2896:
2749:
2707:
2422:
1221:
can be described as a chromium atom (not ion) surrounded by six
1186:
1150:
966:
The aufbau principle can be applied, in a modified form, to the
533:
330:
99:
83:
5038:
3682:
arise from the fact that the solutions to the time-independent
27:
Mode of arrangement of electrons in different shells of an atom
4371:
Th} anion containing thorium in the formal +2 oxidation state"
3515:" (LCAO) approximation, using an ever-larger and more complex
1178:
650:
labels are used instead of atomic orbital labels (see below).
4969:
4541:"Периодическая система химических элементов Д. И. Менделеева"
4051:(1924). "The distribution of electrons among atomic levels".
1293:
Electron shells filled in violation of Madelung's rule (red)
2891:
or that has not given all of its valence electrons through
821:
to have the same value for the other three quantum numbers
686:(such as 3s for sodium) involves energies corresponding to
110:
are occupied by two, two, and six electrons, respectively.
1277:
bonding, as do the empty p orbitals in transition metals.
3910:
Ebbing, Darrell D.; Gammon, Steven D. (12 January 2007).
947:
This gives the following order for filling the orbitals:
415:(usually denoted by an up-arrow) and one with a spin of −
4766:
The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements
4421:
The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements
909:
in 1936, and later given a theoretical justification by
870:, "building up, construction") was an important part of
392:= 1, and the orbital contains two electrons). An atom's
513:
15) is as follows: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p.
192:
3942:"The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules"
3031:
because they already have a noble gas configuration.
2918:
For molecules, "open shell" signifies that there are
670:
As an example, the ground state configuration of the
325:
Electron configuration was first conceived under the
4828:
Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths
3278:
O). Neutral atomic hydrogen has one electron in its
2832:
The electron-shell configuration of elements beyond
1205:
Similar ion-like 3d 4s configurations occur in
1100:(or apparent paradox) in the basic chemistry of the
770:
The valence electrons in the atom were described by
5240:
5219:
5198:
5172:
5164:
Electron configurations of the elements (data page)
5151:
5102:
3870:(6 ed.). Macmillan Education. pp. 13–15.
3595:
Electron configurations of the elements (data page)
1270:
Electron configurations of the elements (data page)
855:
Electron configurations of the elements (data page)
163:that hold atoms together, and in understanding the
4861:"Electronic Configurations of Superheavy Elements"
4797:The periodic table: its story and its significance
4794:
3602: – discusses the limits of the periodic table
4126:The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science
589:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
98:. For example, the electron configuration of the
5030:What does an atom look like? Configuration in 3D
631:: their modern usage indicates orbitals with an
1173:The apparent paradox arises when electrons are
815:
742:(1923) incorporated Langmuir's model that the
675:another by absorbing or emitting energy. In a
5050:
1272:. However this also depends on the charge: a
337:despite the advances in understanding of the
8:
4768:(3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands:
3866:Rayner-Canham, Geoff; Overton, Tina (2014).
3658:
3656:
4149:
4147:
3492:concept, describing the number and type of
3488:, have become the modern equivalent of the
3329:; hence, the electron configuration of the
3290:with eight electrons in its valence shell.
931:Where two subshells have the same value of
388:'s electron configuration is 1s, therefore
5057:
5043:
5035:
4908:Is the Periodic Table all right ("PT OK")?
4750:(2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall. p. 38.
4234:
4232:
4859:Umemoto, Koichiro; Saito, Susumu (1996).
4394:
1129: = 0) while the 3d-orbital has
939:, they are filled in order of increasing
849:Atoms: Aufbau principle and Madelung rule
654:Energy of ground state and excited states
432:is the set of states defined by a common
5159:Periodic table (electron configurations)
4865:Journal of the Physical Society of Japan
4759:
4757:
3946:Journal of the American Chemical Society
3803:
3801:
3626:Periodic table (electron configurations)
3043:
2844:should have the anomalous configuration
1291:
1177:from the transition metal atoms to form
46:
4952:"Chapter 11. Configuration Interaction"
4314:"The trouble with the aufbau principle"
4159:Mathematische Hilfsmittel des Physikers
3797:
3652:
2942:are either doubly occupied or empty (a
899:Madelung's rule (or Klechkowski's rule)
920:are filled in the order of increasing
4746:Miessler, G. L.; Tarr, D. A. (1999).
3513:linear combination of atomic orbitals
3262:. An example of this tendency is two
1244:There are several more exceptions to
1008:Electron configuration table showing
368:, that electrons may occupy. In each
333:, and it is still common to speak of
7:
5010:(2nd ed., Prentice Hall 1999) p.118
4990:(4th ed., Prentice Hall 1991) p.376
4801:. Oxford University Press. pp.
4330:from the original on 21 January 2018
2887:which is not completely filled with
1059:Shortcomings of the aufbau principle
4681:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
4642:Journal of Physics F: Metal Physics
4023:Zeitschrift für Anorganische Chemie
3507:, which typically attempts to make
3299:Electron configuration in molecules
3294:Electron configuration in molecules
1240:Other exceptions to Madelung's rule
1092:Ionization of the transition metals
396:th electron shell can accommodate 2
4830:. Vol. 11. pp. 197–292.
4736:by A. V. Kulsha and T. A. Kolevich
4734:this Russian periodic table poster
4575:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
4177:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
3842:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
3813:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
3525:methods in computational chemistry
3503:This approach is taken further in
2932:restricted open-shell Hartree–Fock
106:, meaning that the 1s, 2s, and 2p
25:
5092:Introduction to quantum mechanics
2963:is the electron configuration of
1295:Predictions for elements 109–112
1051:largely determine each element's
90:(or other physical structure) in
3527:rely on electron configuration:
3448:Electron configuration in solids
3413:, these electrons have parallel
3313:are labelled according to their
901:. This rule was first stated by
663:. Any other configuration is an
315:
308:
301:
294:
273:
4770:Springer Science+Business Media
3868:Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry
3566:, which describe the different
2747:
2663:
2568:
2494:
2420:
2349:
2272:
2198:
2127:
2053:
2006:
1959:
1912:
1865:
1818:
1771:
1718:
1671:
1624:
1574:
1524:
1474:
1421:
1368:
627:ine"), based on their observed
440:, within a shell. The value of
3585:Born–Oppenheimer approximation
3546:, the motion of electrons are
372:of an electron configuration,
1:
4836:10.1016/S0168-1273(88)11007-6
4526:10.1016/S0009-2614(02)00919-3
4276:Journal of Chemical Education
4203:Journal of Chemical Education
1254:effects of special relativity
730:History of the periodic table
580:ion may be written as either
131:configuration state functions
5006:Miessler G.L. and Tarr D.A.
4322:. Vol. 50, no. 6.
3421:, and so dioxygen has a net
3266:(H) atoms reacting with one
286:
265:
148:of energy, in the form of a
5152:Ground-state configurations
3891:Weisstein, Eric W. (2007).
3751:since at least the time of
3035:to be more reactive due to
1209:as described by the simple
682:Usually, the excitation of
448: − 1. The values
5320:
5121:Azimuthal quantum number (
5112:Principal quantum number (
4469:10.26434/chemrxiv.11860941
4324:Royal Society of Chemistry
4253:10.1007/s10698-018-09327-y
3818:configuration (electronic)
3775:irreducible representation
3721:Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner
2953:
2867:
1207:transition metal complexes
997:
852:
482:
444:is in the range from 0 to
186:
157:periodic table of elements
5180:Pauli exclusion principle
5130:Magnetic quantum number (
5072:
4662:10.1088/0305-4608/8/7/004
4115:English translation from
4065:10.1080/14786442408634535
3847:Pauli exclusion principle
3529:density functional theory
3500:can be expected to form.
3052:
2936:unrestricted Hartree–Fock
2013:
2007:
1966:
1960:
1919:
1913:
1872:
1866:
1825:
1819:
1778:
1772:
1725:
1719:
1678:
1672:
1631:
1625:
1581:
1575:
1531:
1525:
1481:
1475:
1428:
1422:
1375:
1369:
1317:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1049:valence (outermost) shell
905:in 1929, rediscovered by
694:light. The excitation of
568:may be written as either
469:Pauli exclusion principle
227:
204:
136:According to the laws of
4793:Scerri, Eric R. (2007).
4588:10.1351/goldbook.RT07093
4505:Chemical Physics Letters
4241:Foundations of Chemistry
4190:10.1351/goldbook.AT06996
4117:Scerri, Eric R. (1991).
4035:10.1002/zaac.19040390125
3855:10.1351/goldbook.PT07089
3486:molecular orbital theory
3431:molecular orbital theory
1234:molecular orbital theory
1213:, even if the metal has
633:azimuthal quantum number
434:azimuthal quantum number
362:principal quantum number
4539:Kulsha, Andrey (2004).
4433:10.1007/1-4020-3598-5_3
3826:10.1351/goldbook.C01248
3600:Extended periodic table
3505:computational chemistry
2961:Noble gas configuration
2950:Noble gas configuration
2928:computational chemistry
1365:Electron Configuration
169:geometries of molecules
5066:Electron configuration
4905:Pyykkö, Pekka (2016).
4319:Education in Chemistry
4083:Zeitschrift für Physik
4053:Philosophical Magazine
3976:Zeitschrift für Physik
3606:Group (periodic table)
3509:quantitative estimates
3033:Oganesson is predicted
2864:Open and closed shells
1353:Electron Configuration
1341:Electron Configuration
1329:Electron Configuration
1217: 0. For example,
1082:quantum electrodynamic
1013:
1000:Block (periodic table)
889:
837:
779:E. C. Stoner
768:
72:electron configuration
59:
44:
5304:Theoretical chemistry
5220:Bonding participation
5139:Spin quantum number (
4138:10.1093/bjps/42.3.309
3662:In formal terms, the
3616:Molecular term symbol
2954:Further information:
1219:chromium hexacarbonyl
1047:The electrons in the
1034:periodic table blocks
1007:
887:
760:
425:(with a down-arrow).
167:of compounds and the
159:, for describing the
50:
33:
4885:10.1143/JPSJ.65.3175
4722:Example for platinum
4580:relativistic effects
3684:Schrödinger equation
3365:, or equivalently 1σ
3037:relativistic effects
1239:
1211:crystal field theory
841:Schrödinger equation
520:, equivalent to the
360:that share the same
335:shells and subshells
183:Shells and subshells
5284:Chemical properties
5008:Inorganic Chemistry
4877:1996JPSJ...65.3175U
4748:Inorganic Chemistry
4693:2013PCCP...15.7839X
4654:1978JPhF....8L.163G
4615:10.1021/cr00085a006
4518:2002CPL...362..362M
4312:(7 November 2013).
4288:1996JChEd..73..498M
4215:1979JChEd..56..714W
4161:. Berlin: Springer.
4095:1925ZPhy...31..373P
3988:1923ZPhy...13..117B
3958:10.1021/ja02227a002
3749:analytical solution
3734:identical particles
3719:was first noted by
3692:spherical harmonics
3688:hydrogen-like atoms
3631:Spherical harmonics
3542:with more than one
3474:chemical properties
3397:represents the two
2991:generally obey the
2983:generally obey the
2971:is the tendency of
2967:. The basis of all
1296:
1195:Hartree–Fock method
1066:Hartree–Fock method
1053:chemical properties
963: = 118).
811:exclusion principle
456: = 3 and
380:that precedes each
127:Slater determinants
4974:iopenshell.usc.edu
4932:on 3 November 2007
4701:10.1039/C3CP50717C
4679:(Ln = La to Lu)".
4483:on 1 December 2020
4387:10.1039/C4SC03033H
4326:. pp. 24–26.
4103:10.1007/BF02980592
4017:Abegg, R. (1904).
3996:10.1007/BF01328209
3893:"Electron Orbital"
3442:vibronic couplings
3317:, rather than the
3311:molecular orbitals
2969:chemical reactions
2940:molecular orbitals
2920:unpaired electrons
2875:In the context of
1292:
1074:hydrogen-like atom
1014:
890:
807:old quantum theory
339:quantum-mechanical
96:molecular orbitals
60:
45:
42:molecular orbitals
5299:Quantum chemistry
5294:Molecular physics
5264:
5263:
5242:Electron counting
5211:Unpaired electron
5087:Quantum mechanics
4988:Quantum Chemistry
4845:978-0-444-87080-3
4812:978-0-19-530573-9
4779:978-1-4020-3555-5
4296:10.1021/ed073p498
4223:10.1021/ed056p714
3923:978-0-618-73879-3
3913:General Chemistry
3877:978-1-319-15411-0
3636:Unpaired electron
3482:organic chemistry
3307:orbital structure
3270:(O) atom to form
3253:
3252:
3039:for heavy atoms.
2989:transition metals
2973:chemical elements
2924:molecular orbital
2905:chemical reaction
2819:
2818:
1102:transition metals
988:nuclear chemistry
911:V. M. Klechkowski
684:valence electrons
677:sodium-vapor lamp
648:molecular orbital
530:valence electrons
524:of the preceding
493:labels (e.g. for
323:
322:
165:chemical formulas
138:quantum mechanics
68:quantum chemistry
16:(Redirected from
5311:
5256:18-electron rule
5227:Valence electron
5199:Electron pairing
5190:Aufbau principle
5173:Electron filling
5142:
5133:
5124:
5115:
5059:
5052:
5045:
5036:
5018:
5004:
4998:
4984:
4978:
4977:
4966:
4960:
4959:
4956:www.semichem.com
4948:
4942:
4941:
4939:
4937:
4928:. Archived from
4926:"Periodic table"
4922:
4916:
4915:
4913:
4902:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4891:
4856:
4850:
4849:
4823:
4817:
4816:
4800:
4790:
4784:
4783:
4761:
4752:
4751:
4743:
4737:
4732:See for example
4730:
4724:
4719:
4713:
4712:
4672:
4666:
4665:
4648:(7): L163–L168.
4637:
4631:
4625:
4619:
4618:
4602:Chemical Reviews
4596:
4590:
4567:
4561:
4560:
4558:
4556:
4546:
4536:
4530:
4529:
4499:
4493:
4492:
4490:
4488:
4479:. Archived from
4450:
4444:
4443:
4442:on 7 March 2016.
4441:
4435:. Archived from
4426:
4415:
4409:
4408:
4398:
4346:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4335:
4306:
4300:
4299:
4271:
4265:
4264:
4236:
4227:
4226:
4198:
4192:
4182:aufbau principle
4169:
4163:
4162:
4151:
4142:
4141:
4123:
4114:
4075:
4069:
4068:
4045:
4039:
4038:
4014:
4008:
4007:
3968:
3962:
3961:
3938:Langmuir, Irving
3934:
3928:
3927:
3907:
3901:
3900:
3888:
3882:
3881:
3863:
3857:
3834:
3828:
3805:
3786:
3771:
3765:
3762:
3756:
3730:
3724:
3701:
3695:
3680:
3672:
3660:
3590:d electron count
3321:labels used for
3305:has a different
3044:
2993:18-electron rule
2981:Main-group atoms
2854:
2853:
2849:
2828:
2824:
2726:
2722:
2701:
2680:
2642:
2638:
2617:
2591:
2529:
2455:
2310:
2289:
2233:
2124:
1768:
1747:
1621:
1571:
1521:
1471:
1450:
1418:
1397:
1297:
1144:
1141: = 3,
1137: = 5 (
1136:
1128:
1125: = 4,
1121: = 4 (
1120:
1016:The form of the
938:
927:
895:orbital energies
861:aufbau principle
718:Gilbert N. Lewis
642:
638:
583:
575:
571:
463:
459:
451:
443:
439:
424:
423:
419:
414:
413:
409:
378:positive integer
319:
312:
305:
298:
277:
208:
201:
193:
117:, in an average
105:
21:
5319:
5318:
5314:
5313:
5312:
5310:
5309:
5308:
5289:Electron states
5269:
5268:
5265:
5260:
5236:
5215:
5194:
5168:
5147:
5140:
5131:
5122:
5113:
5104:Quantum numbers
5098:
5068:
5063:
5026:
5021:
5005:
5001:
4985:
4981:
4968:
4967:
4963:
4950:
4949:
4945:
4935:
4933:
4924:
4923:
4919:
4911:
4904:
4903:
4899:
4889:
4887:
4858:
4857:
4853:
4846:
4825:
4824:
4820:
4813:
4792:
4791:
4787:
4780:
4763:
4762:
4755:
4745:
4744:
4740:
4731:
4727:
4720:
4716:
4687:(15): 7839–47.
4678:
4674:
4673:
4669:
4639:
4638:
4634:
4626:
4622:
4598:
4597:
4593:
4568:
4564:
4554:
4552:
4544:
4538:
4537:
4533:
4512:(5–6): 362–64.
4501:
4500:
4496:
4486:
4484:
4452:
4451:
4447:
4439:
4424:
4417:
4416:
4412:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4348:
4347:
4343:
4333:
4331:
4308:
4307:
4303:
4273:
4272:
4268:
4238:
4237:
4230:
4200:
4199:
4195:
4170:
4166:
4155:Madelung, Erwin
4153:
4152:
4145:
4121:
4116:
4079:Pauli, Wolfgang
4077:
4076:
4072:
4059:(286): 719–36.
4047:
4046:
4042:
4016:
4015:
4011:
3970:
3969:
3965:
3936:
3935:
3931:
3924:
3916:. p. 284.
3909:
3908:
3904:
3890:
3889:
3885:
3878:
3865:
3864:
3860:
3835:
3831:
3806:
3799:
3795:
3790:
3789:
3779:character table
3772:
3768:
3763:
3759:
3731:
3727:
3702:
3698:
3681:
3678:
3670:
3664:quantum numbers
3661:
3654:
3649:
3581:
3521:atomic orbitals
3470:
3450:
3423:magnetic moment
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3337:, is written 1σ
3336:
3296:
3277:
2958:
2952:
2907:. Conversely a
2877:atomic orbitals
2873:
2866:
2858:
2851:
2847:
2845:
2826:
2822:
2815:] 7s 5f 6d
2744:] 7s 5f 6d
2724:
2720:
2699:
2678:
2660:] 7s 5f 6d
2640:
2636:
2615:
2589:
2583:
2582:] 4s 3d or
2565:] 7s 5f 6d
2527:
2491:] 7s 5f 6d
2453:
2417:] 7s 5f 6d
2346:] 7s 5f 6d
2308:
2287:
2269:] 7s 5f 6d
2231:
2195:] 7s 5f 6d
2122:
2050:] 7s 5f 6d
2003:] 7s 5f 6d
1956:] 7s 5f 6d
1909:] 7s 5f 6d
1862:] 7s 5f 6d
1815:] 7s 5f 6d
1766:
1745:
1715:] 7s 5f 6d
1668:] 7s 5f 6d
1619:
1569:
1519:
1469:
1448:
1416:
1395:
1294:
1263:
1246:Madelung's rule
1242:
1223:carbon monoxide
1215:oxidation state
1142:
1134:
1126:
1118:
1094:
1084:effects of the
1061:
1028:s (where is a
1002:
996:
984:nuclear physics
936:
925:
857:
851:
714:Irving Langmuir
711:
656:
640:
636:
581:
573:
569:
487:
481:
473:quantum numbers
461:
457:
449:
441:
437:
421:
417:
416:
411:
407:
406:
262:
254:
246:
206:
199:
191:
185:
142:level of energy
121:created by the
103:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5317:
5315:
5307:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5279:Atomic physics
5271:
5270:
5262:
5261:
5259:
5258:
5253:
5247:
5245:
5238:
5237:
5235:
5234:
5229:
5223:
5221:
5217:
5216:
5214:
5213:
5208:
5202:
5200:
5196:
5195:
5193:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5176:
5174:
5170:
5169:
5167:
5166:
5161:
5155:
5153:
5149:
5148:
5146:
5145:
5136:
5127:
5118:
5108:
5106:
5100:
5099:
5097:
5096:
5095:
5094:
5084:
5082:Atomic orbital
5079:
5077:Electron shell
5073:
5070:
5069:
5064:
5062:
5061:
5054:
5047:
5039:
5033:
5032:
5025:
5024:External links
5022:
5020:
5019:
4999:
4979:
4961:
4943:
4917:
4897:
4871:(10): 3175–9.
4851:
4844:
4818:
4811:
4785:
4778:
4753:
4738:
4725:
4714:
4676:
4667:
4632:
4620:
4591:
4562:
4531:
4494:
4445:
4410:
4381:(1): 517–521.
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4341:
4301:
4282:(6): 498–503.
4266:
4228:
4209:(11): 714–18.
4193:
4164:
4143:
4070:
4055:. 6th Series.
4040:
4029:(1): 330–380.
4009:
3963:
3952:(6): 868–934.
3929:
3922:
3902:
3883:
3876:
3858:
3829:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3788:
3787:
3766:
3757:
3732:Electrons are
3725:
3705:atomic weights
3696:
3677:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3644:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3580:
3577:
3560:atomic spectra
3494:chemical bonds
3469:
3466:
3449:
3446:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3327:monatomic ions
3319:atomic orbital
3295:
3292:
3275:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3247:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3229:
3224:
3220:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3211:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3194:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3145:
3142:
3137:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3118:
3115:
3110:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3101:
3099:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3054:
3053:Configuration
3051:
3048:
2951:
2948:
2934:method or the
2893:chemical bonds
2865:
2862:
2856:
2817:
2816:
2809:
2806:
2801:
2798:
2797:] 6s 4f 5d
2791:
2788:
2783:
2780:
2773:
2770:
2765:
2762:
2755:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2738:
2735:
2730:
2727:
2713:
2710:
2705:
2702:
2692:
2689:
2684:
2681:
2671:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2654:
2651:
2646:
2643:
2629:
2626:
2621:
2618:
2608:
2605:
2600:
2597:
2576:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2559:
2556:
2551:
2548:
2547:] 6s 4f 5d
2541:
2538:
2533:
2530:
2520:
2517:
2512:
2509:
2502:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2485:
2482:
2477:
2474:
2473:] 6s 4f 5d
2467:
2464:
2459:
2456:
2446:
2443:
2438:
2435:
2428:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2411:
2408:
2403:
2400:
2399:] 6s 4f 5d
2393:
2390:
2385:
2382:
2375:
2372:
2367:
2364:
2357:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2340:
2337:
2332:
2329:
2328:] 6s 4f 5d
2322:
2319:
2314:
2311:
2301:
2298:
2293:
2290:
2280:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2263:
2260:
2255:
2252:
2251:] 6s 4f 5d
2245:
2242:
2237:
2234:
2224:
2221:
2216:
2213:
2206:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2189:
2186:
2181:
2178:
2177:] 6s 4f 5d
2171:
2168:
2163:
2160:
2153:
2150:
2145:
2142:
2135:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2115:
2112:
2107:
2104:
2103:] 6s 4f 5d
2097:
2094:
2089:
2086:
2079:
2076:
2071:
2068:
2061:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2044:
2041:
2036:
2033:
2032:] 6s 4f 5d
2026:
2023:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2009:
2005:
2004:
1997:
1994:
1989:
1986:
1985:] 6s 4f 5d
1979:
1976:
1971:
1968:
1965:
1962:
1958:
1957:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1939:
1938:] 6s 4f 5d
1932:
1929:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1910:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1892:
1891:] 6s 4f 5d
1885:
1882:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1864:
1863:
1856:
1853:
1848:
1845:
1844:] 6s 4f 5d
1838:
1835:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1821:
1817:
1816:
1809:
1806:
1801:
1798:
1797:] 6s 4f 5d
1791:
1788:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1770:
1769:
1759:
1756:
1751:
1748:
1738:
1735:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1721:
1717:
1716:
1709:
1706:
1701:
1698:
1697:] 6s 4f 5d
1691:
1688:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1670:
1669:
1662:
1659:
1654:
1651:
1650:] 6s 4f 5d
1644:
1641:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1623:
1622:
1612:
1609:
1604:
1601:
1600:] 6s 4f 5d
1594:
1591:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1573:
1572:
1562:
1559:
1554:
1551:
1550:] 6s 4f 5d
1544:
1541:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1523:
1522:
1512:
1509:
1504:
1501:
1500:] 6s 4f 5d
1494:
1491:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1473:
1472:
1462:
1459:
1454:
1451:
1441:
1438:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1420:
1419:
1409:
1406:
1401:
1398:
1388:
1385:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1261:
1258:speed of light
1241:
1238:
1093:
1090:
1060:
1057:
1018:periodic table
998:Main article:
995:
994:Periodic table
992:
976:atomic nucleus
953:
952:
945:
944:
929:
907:Erwin Madelung
882:
881:
850:
847:
803:Wolfgang Pauli
792:magnetic field
788:atomic spectra
726:Walther Kossel
710:
707:
696:core electrons
690:of visible or
655:
652:
629:fine structure
593:spectral lines
578:lanthanum(III)
518:core electrons
485:Atomic orbital
480:
477:
382:orbital letter
358:allowed states
350:electron shell
321:
320:
313:
306:
299:
292:
285:
284:
282:
280:
278:
271:
264:
263:
258:
255:
250:
247:
242:
239:
236:
233:
232:
226:
220:
214:
211:
210:
203:
196:
189:Electron shell
187:Main article:
184:
181:
177:semiconductors
161:chemical bonds
64:atomic physics
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5316:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5267:
5257:
5254:
5252:
5249:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5239:
5233:
5232:Core electron
5230:
5228:
5225:
5224:
5222:
5218:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5206:Electron pair
5204:
5203:
5201:
5197:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5175:
5171:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5156:
5154:
5150:
5144:
5137:
5135:
5128:
5126:
5119:
5117:
5110:
5109:
5107:
5105:
5101:
5093:
5090:
5089:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5074:
5071:
5067:
5060:
5055:
5053:
5048:
5046:
5041:
5040:
5037:
5031:
5028:
5027:
5023:
5017:
5016:0-13-841891-8
5013:
5009:
5003:
5000:
4997:
4996:0-205-12770-3
4993:
4989:
4983:
4980:
4975:
4971:
4965:
4962:
4957:
4953:
4947:
4944:
4931:
4927:
4921:
4918:
4910:
4909:
4901:
4898:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4855:
4852:
4847:
4841:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4822:
4819:
4814:
4808:
4804:
4799:
4798:
4789:
4786:
4781:
4775:
4771:
4767:
4760:
4758:
4754:
4749:
4742:
4739:
4735:
4729:
4726:
4723:
4718:
4715:
4710:
4706:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4671:
4668:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4636:
4633:
4630:
4624:
4621:
4616:
4612:
4609:(3): 563–94.
4608:
4604:
4603:
4595:
4592:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4563:
4550:
4542:
4535:
4532:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4506:
4498:
4495:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4461:
4456:
4449:
4446:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4423:
4422:
4414:
4411:
4406:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4345:
4342:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4320:
4315:
4311:
4305:
4302:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4270:
4267:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4235:
4233:
4229:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4197:
4194:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4165:
4160:
4156:
4150:
4148:
4144:
4139:
4135:
4132:(3): 309–25.
4131:
4127:
4120:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4074:
4071:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4044:
4041:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4013:
4010:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3967:
3964:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3940:(June 1919).
3939:
3933:
3930:
3925:
3919:
3915:
3914:
3906:
3903:
3898:
3894:
3887:
3884:
3879:
3873:
3869:
3862:
3859:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3830:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3802:
3798:
3792:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3770:
3767:
3761:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3741:-body problem
3740:
3735:
3729:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3700:
3697:
3693:
3690:are based on
3689:
3685:
3676:
3668:
3665:
3659:
3657:
3653:
3646:
3642:
3641:Valence shell
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3569:
3568:energy levels
3565:
3561:
3556:
3554:
3553:wave function
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3532:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3501:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3459:
3458:electron band
3455:
3447:
3445:
3443:
3439:
3434:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3405:π*-orbitals (
3404:
3400:
3393:. The term 1π
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3293:
3291:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3280:valence shell
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3248:
3245:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3222:
3221:
3218:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3206:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3149:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3074:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3042:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2957:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2944:singlet state
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2885:valence shell
2882:
2878:
2871:
2863:
2861:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2830:
2814:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2799:
2796:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2781:
2778:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2743:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2728:
2718:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2703:
2697:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2682:
2676:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2644:
2634:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2613:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2598:
2595:
2587:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2564:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2525:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2451:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2433:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2416:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2345:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2312:
2306:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2268:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2194:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2184:Rutherfordium
2182:
2179:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2120:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2084:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2069:
2066:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2016:
2010:
2002:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1963:
1955:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1869:
1861:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1822:
1814:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1775:
1764:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1743:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1722:
1714:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1675:
1667:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1628:
1617:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1578:
1567:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1528:
1517:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1478:
1467:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1446:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1425:
1414:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1393:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1372:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1314:
1308:
1302:
1298:
1290:
1287:
1283:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1255:
1250:
1247:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1140:
1133: +
1132:
1124:
1117: +
1116:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1078:energy levels
1075:
1069:
1067:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1006:
1001:
993:
991:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
964:
962:
958:
950:
949:
948:
942:
935: +
934:
930:
924: +
923:
919:
916:
915:
914:
912:
908:
904:
903:Charles Janet
900:
896:
886:
880:
877:
876:
875:
873:
869:
866:
862:
856:
848:
846:
844:
842:
836:
835:
832:
828:
824:
820:
814:
812:
808:
804:
799:
797:
796:Zeeman effect
793:
789:
784:
781:incorporated
780:
775:
773:
772:Richard Abegg
767:
765:
759:
757:
756:Alfred Werner
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
708:
706:
703:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
680:
678:
673:
668:
666:
665:excited state
662:
653:
651:
649:
644:
634:
630:
626:
622:
620:
615:
613:
608:
606:
601:
599:
594:
590:
585:
579:
567:
563:
562:Madelung rule
558:
553:
550:
546:
545:Madelung rule
542:
537:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
514:
512:
511:atomic number
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
486:
478:
476:
474:
470:
465:
455:
447:
435:
431:
426:
404:
403:electron spin
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
346:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
318:
314:
311:
307:
304:
300:
297:
293:
290:
287:
283:
281:
279:
276:
272:
269:
266:
261:
256:
253:
248:
245:
240:
237:
235:
234:
230:
224:
221:
218:
215:
213:
212:
197:
195:
194:
190:
182:
180:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
153:
151:
147:
143:
139:
134:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
111:
109:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
58:
54:
49:
43:
39:
36:
32:
19:
5266:
5065:
5007:
5002:
4987:
4986:Levine I.N.
4982:
4973:
4964:
4955:
4946:
4934:. Retrieved
4930:the original
4920:
4907:
4900:
4888:. Retrieved
4868:
4864:
4854:
4827:
4821:
4796:
4788:
4765:
4747:
4741:
4728:
4717:
4684:
4680:
4670:
4645:
4641:
4635:
4623:
4606:
4600:
4594:
4573:
4565:
4553:. Retrieved
4551:(in Russian)
4548:
4534:
4509:
4503:
4497:
4485:. Retrieved
4481:the original
4458:
4448:
4437:the original
4420:
4413:
4378:
4374:
4344:
4332:. Retrieved
4317:
4310:Scerri, Eric
4304:
4279:
4275:
4269:
4244:
4240:
4206:
4202:
4196:
4175:
4167:
4158:
4129:
4125:
4086:
4082:
4073:
4056:
4052:
4049:Stoner, E.C.
4043:
4026:
4022:
4012:
3979:
3975:
3966:
3949:
3945:
3932:
3912:
3905:
3896:
3886:
3867:
3861:
3840:
3832:
3811:
3769:
3760:
3744:
3738:
3728:
3699:
3674:
3666:
3572:ground-state
3564:term symbols
3557:
3533:
3502:
3471:
3468:Applications
3451:
3435:
3427:paramagnetic
3419:ground state
3411:Hund's rules
3298:
3297:
3256:
3249:7s 5f 6d 7p
2960:
2959:
2917:
2909:closed shell
2908:
2880:
2874:
2831:
2820:
2649:Darmstadtium
2121:] 7s 5f
1507:Protactinium
1489:Praseodymium
1279:
1266:
1251:
1243:
1204:
1200:
1183:
1174:
1172:
1138:
1130:
1122:
1114:
1095:
1070:
1062:
1046:
1042:noble gasses
1025:
1015:
978:, as in the
965:
960:
954:
946:
940:
932:
921:
891:
878:
867:
858:
845:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
816:
800:
783:Sommerfeld's
776:
769:
761:
738:
722:cubical atom
712:
704:
681:
669:
661:ground state
657:
645:
624:
618:
611:
604:
597:
586:
584:or simply .
554:
548:
538:
515:
488:
466:
453:
445:
427:
397:
393:
389:
373:
365:
347:
324:
288:
267:
259:
251:
243:
228:
222:
216:
154:
135:
112:
76:distribution
71:
61:
53:Bohr diagram
18:Closed shell
5185:Hund's rule
4629:NIST tables
4549:primefan.ru
3972:Bohr, Niels
3783:point group
3462:band theory
3407:antibonding
3401:in the two
3333:molecule, O
3246:6s 4f 5d 6p
3216:6s 4f 5d 6p
3027:than other
3023:) are less
2997:noble gases
2975:to acquire
2965:noble gases
2895:with other
2842:Element 121
2838:element 120
2804:Copernicium
2779:] 5s 4d
2761:] 4s 3d
2733:Roentgenium
2508:] 4s 3d
2434:] 4s 3d
2381:] 5s 4d
2363:] 4s 3d
2212:] 4s 3d
2159:] 5s 4d
2141:] 4s 3d
2085:] 5s 4d
2067:] 4s 3d
1992:Mendelevium
1898:Einsteinium
1851:Californium
1230:diamagnetic
1191:Eric Scerri
980:shell model
744:periodicity
724:theory and
692:ultraviolet
5273:Categories
5251:Octet rule
4936:1 November
4890:31 January
4089:(1): 373.
3982:(1): 117.
3793:References
3621:Octet rule
3548:correlated
3476:, in both
3403:degenerate
2985:octet rule
2881:open shell
2870:Open Shell
2554:Meitnerium
2370:Technetium
2335:Seaborgium
2296:Molybdenum
2110:Lawrencium
1833:Dysprosium
1733:Gadolinium
1589:Promethium
1086:Lamb shift
863:(from the
853:See also:
764:hold eight
748:Bohr model
740:Niels Bohr
734:Octet rule
621:undamental
576:, and the
572:or simply
528:, and the
507:Phosphorus
495:phosphorus
483:See also:
341:nature of
327:Bohr model
4487:23 August
4477:226121612
4375:Chem. Sci
4261:104311030
4247:: 61–69.
4111:122477612
4004:123582460
3713:strontium
3611:HOMO/LUMO
3540:molecules
3517:basis set
3478:inorganic
3399:electrons
3260:noble gas
2977:stability
2956:Noble gas
2903:during a
2901:molecules
2889:electrons
2603:Palladium
2441:Ruthenium
2352:Manganese
2148:Zirconium
2021:Ytterbium
1804:Berkelium
1765:] 7s
1744:] 6s
1704:Americium
1657:Plutonium
1618:] 7s
1607:Neptunium
1568:] 7s
1539:Neodymium
1518:] 7s
1468:] 7s
1447:] 6s
1415:] 7s
1394:] 6s
1383:Lanthanum
1318:Period 7
1286:palladium
1282:lanthanum
1106:Potassium
1030:noble gas
918:Subshells
897:given by
777:In 1924,
774:in 1904.
566:palladium
557:aluminium
522:noble gas
343:electrons
108:subshells
80:electrons
4709:23598823
4627:See the
4460:ChemRxiv
4405:29560172
4328:Archived
4157:(1936).
3723:in 1817.
3579:See also
3544:electron
3496:that an
3440:through
3409:). From
3389: 1π
3385: 3σ
3381: 1π
3377: 2σ
3373: 2σ
3369: 1σ
3361: 1π
3357: 1π
3353: 3σ
3349: 2σ
3345: 2σ
3341: 1σ
3331:dioxygen
3315:symmetry
3303:molecule
3264:hydrogen
3243:5s 4d 5p
3240:4s 3d 4p
3213:5s 4d 5p
3210:4s 3d 4p
3184:5s 4d 5p
3181:4s 3d 4p
3153:4s 3d 4p
3050:Element
3029:elements
3025:reactive
2987:, while
2827:5f 6d 7s
2823:4f 5d 6s
2624:Platinum
2594:disputed
2317:Tungsten
2275:Chromium
2240:Tantalum
2201:Vanadium
2130:Titanium
2092:Lutetium
2056:Scandium
2039:Nobelium
1686:Europium
1639:Samarium
1404:Actinium
1312:Period 6
1306:Period 5
1300:Period 4
1164:tungsten
1155:Chromium
1149:through
1147:scandium
972:neutrons
813:(1925):
732:and the
607:rincipal
541:titanium
499:hydrogen
491:subshell
479:Notation
430:subshell
104:1s 2s 2p
102:atom is
88:molecule
35:Electron
4873:Bibcode
4689:Bibcode
4650:Bibcode
4514:Bibcode
4396:5811171
4334:12 June
4284:Bibcode
4211:Bibcode
4091:Bibcode
3984:Bibcode
3897:wolfram
3781:of the
3777:in the
3709:calcium
3490:valence
3425:(it is
3417:in the
3047:Period
2834:hassium
2786:Mercury
2768:Cadmium
2536:Iridium
2515:Rhodium
2480:Hassium
2406:Bohrium
2388:Rhenium
2258:Dubnium
2219:Niobium
2166:Hafnium
2074:Yttrium
1974:Thulium
1945:Fermium
1880:Holmium
1786:Terbium
1557:Uranium
1457:Thorium
1359:Element
1347:Element
1335:Element
1323:Element
1274:calcium
1226:ligands
1175:removed
1168:niobium
1110:calcium
1098:paradox
1022:group 2
974:in the
968:protons
709:History
688:photons
623:" (or "
616:" and "
503:Lithium
420:⁄
410:⁄
376:is the
352:is the
329:of the
146:quantum
115:orbital
74:is the
57:lithium
5014:
4994:
4842:
4809:
4805:–240.
4776:
4707:
4555:17 May
4475:
4403:
4393:
4259:
4109:
4002:
3920:
3874:
3717:barium
3438:photon
3309:. The
3284:helium
3268:oxygen
2995:. The
2913:stable
2850:6f 7d
2800:
2782:
2764:
2729:
2719:]
2704:
2698:]
2687:Silver
2683:
2677:]
2666:Copper
2645:
2635:]
2620:
2614:]
2599:
2588:]
2571:Nickel
2550:
2532:
2526:]
2511:
2497:Cobalt
2476:
2462:Osmium
2458:
2454:5s 4d
2452:]
2437:
2402:
2384:
2366:
2331:
2313:
2307:]
2292:
2286:]
2254:
2236:
2230:]
2215:
2180:
2162:
2144:
2106:
2088:
2070:
2035:
2017:
2014:
2011:
2008:
1988:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1961:
1941:
1927:Erbium
1923:
1920:
1917:
1914:
1894:
1876:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1847:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1800:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1754:Curium
1750:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1700:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1653:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1603:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1553:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1503:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1453:
1436:Cerium
1432:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1400:
1379:
1376:
1373:
1370:
1356:
1344:
1332:
1315:
1309:
1303:
1284:4f or
1159:copper
1038:helium
1010:blocks
872:Bohr's
868:Aufbau
865:German
752:sulfur
672:sodium
614:iffuse
526:period
386:helium
173:lasers
150:photon
123:nuclei
92:atomic
82:of an
70:, the
38:atomic
5244:rules
4912:(PDF)
4570:IUPAC
4545:(PDF)
4473:S2CID
4440:(PDF)
4425:(PDF)
4367:]
4359:(SiMe
4257:S2CID
4172:IUPAC
4122:(PDF)
4107:S2CID
4000:S2CID
3837:IUPAC
3808:IUPAC
3753:Euler
3743:with
3647:Notes
3536:atoms
3454:solid
3452:In a
3415:spins
3323:atoms
3272:water
3237:3s 3p
3234:2s 2p
3207:3s 3p
3204:2s 2p
3178:3s 3p
3175:2s 2p
3150:3s 3p
3147:2s 2p
3123:3s 3p
3120:2s 2p
3094:2s 2p
2922:. In
2897:atoms
2883:is a
2879:, an
2811:[
2793:[
2775:[
2757:[
2740:[
2715:[
2700:5s 4d
2694:[
2679:4s 3d
2673:[
2656:[
2631:[
2616:5s 4d
2610:[
2590:4s 3d
2584:[
2578:[
2561:[
2543:[
2528:5s 4d
2522:[
2504:[
2487:[
2469:[
2448:[
2430:[
2413:[
2395:[
2377:[
2359:[
2342:[
2324:[
2309:5s 4d
2303:[
2288:4s 3d
2282:[
2265:[
2247:[
2232:5s 4d
2226:[
2208:[
2191:[
2173:[
2155:[
2137:[
2123:6d 7p
2117:[
2099:[
2081:[
2063:[
2046:[
2028:[
1999:[
1981:[
1952:[
1934:[
1905:[
1887:[
1858:[
1840:[
1811:[
1793:[
1767:5f 6d
1761:[
1746:4f 5d
1740:[
1711:[
1693:[
1664:[
1646:[
1620:5f 6d
1614:[
1596:[
1570:5f 6d
1564:[
1546:[
1520:5f 6d
1514:[
1496:[
1470:5f 6d
1464:[
1449:4f 5d
1443:[
1417:5f 6d
1411:[
1396:4f 5d
1390:[
794:(the
790:in a
700:X-ray
570:4d 5s
231:= ±1
209:= 1)
202:= 0)
119:field
5012:ISBN
4992:ISBN
4938:2007
4892:2021
4840:ISBN
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