559:
1230:
1016:
586:
have been blown away by wind onto what presumably is another plant, where they may establish a new colony. There are many variations on such themes, such as scale insects that are associated with species of ants that act as herders and carry the young ones to protected sites to feed. In either case, many such species of crawlers, when they moult, lose the use of their legs if they are female, and stay put for life. Only the males retain legs, and in some species wings, and use them in seeking females. To do this they usually walk, as their ability to fly is limited, but they may get carried to new locations by the wind.
598:
moving in spring to tender young growth. However, the majority of female scale insects are sedentary as adults. Their dispersal ability depends on how far a crawler can crawl before it needs to shed its skin and start feeding. There are various strategies for dealing with deciduous trees. On these, males often feed on the leaves, usually beside the veins, while females select the twigs. Where there are several generations in the year, there may be a general retreat onto the twigs as fall approaches. On branches, the underside is usually preferred as giving protection against predation and adverse weather. The
590:
1190:
1174:
680:, males are born from unfertilized eggs but diploidy is briefly restored by fusion of haploid cleave nuclei and then one sex chromosome is lost through heterochromatinization. Females can reproduce parthenogenetically with six different variants based on whether males are entirely absent or not (obligate v. facultative parthenogenesis); the sex of fertilized v. unfertilized eggs; and based on how diploidy is restored in unfertilized eggs. The evolution of these systems are thought to be the result of intra-
1380:
1040:
1452:
1349:
693:
1321:
622:. In some species, sexual and asexual populations are found in different locations, and in general, species with a wide geographic range and a diversity of plant hosts are more likely to be asexual. Large population size is hypothesized to protect an asexual population from becoming extinct, but nevertheless, parthenogenesis is uncommon among scale insects, with the most widespread generalist feeders reproducing sexually, the majority of these being pest species.
816:
141:
653:, both sexes are produced from fertilized eggs but during development males eliminate the paternal genome and this system called paternal genome elimination (PGE) is found in nearly 14 scale insect families. This elimination is achieved with several variations. The commonest (known as the lecanoid system) involved deactivation of the paternal genome and elimination at the time of sperm production in males, this is seen in Pseudococcidae,
1218:
420:
462:. Adult females are pear-shaped, elliptical or circular, with no wings, and usually no constriction separating the head from the body. Segmentation of the body is indistinct, but may be indicated by the presence of marginal bristles. Legs are absent in the females of some families, and when present vary from single segment stubs to five-segmented limbs. Female scale insects have no compound eyes, but
882:
1293:
626:
1401:
119:
498:. They have antennae with nine or ten segments, compound eyes (Margarodidae and Ortheziidae) or simple eyes (most other families), and legs with five segments. Most species have wings, and in some, generations may alternate between being winged and wingless. Adult males do not feed, and die within two or three days of emergence.
1501:. The Coccomorpha are division into two clades the "Archaeococcoids" and "Neococcoids". The archaeococcoid families have adult males with either compound eyes or a row of unicorneal eyes and have abdominal spiracles in the females. In neoccoids, the females have no abdominal spiracles. In the cladogram below the genus
712:. They feed on a wide variety of plants but are unable to survive long away from their hosts. While some specialise on a single plant species (monophagous), and some on a single genus or plant family (oligophagous), others are less specialised and feed on several plant groups (polyphagous). The parasite biologist
946:
is known as the "mealybug destroyer" because both adults and larvae feed on mealybugs and some soft scales. Ants looking after their providers of honeydew tend to drive off predators, but the mealybug destroyer has outwitted the ants by developing cryptic camouflage, with their larvae mimicking scale
585:
The first instars of most species of scale insects emerge from the egg with functional legs, and are informally called "crawlers". They immediately crawl around in search of a suitable spot to settle down and feed. In some species they delay settling down either until they are starving, or until they
288:
due to taxonomic uncertainties. Adult females typically have soft bodies and no limbs, and are concealed underneath domed scales, extruding quantities of wax for protection. Some species are hermaphroditic, with a combined ovotestis instead of separate ovaries and testes. Males, in the species where
1480:
evidence to be incorporated). They showed that the main scale insect lineages diverged before their angiosperm hosts, and suggested that the insects switched from feeding on gymnosperms once the angiosperms became common and widespread in the
Cretaceous. The Coccomorpha appeared at the start of the
908:
have a more complex, mutualistic relationship with scale insects. The fungus lives on trees where it forms a mat which overgrows the scales, reducing the growth of the individual parasitised scales and sometimes rendering them infertile, but protecting the scale colony from environmental conditions
667:
system, the somatic cells have the paternal genome untouched. A third variant found in
Diaspididae involves the paternal genome being completely removed at an early stage making males haploid both in somatic and germ cells even though they are formed from diploids, i.e., from fertilized eggs. In
597:
Adult females of the families
Margarodidae, Ortheziidae and Pseudococcidae are mobile and can move to other parts of the host plant or even adjoining plants, but the mobile period is limited to a short period between moults. Some of these overwinter in crevices in the bark or among plant litter,
794:
in the family
Ortheziidae. Plant sap provides a liquid diet which is rich in sugar and non-essential amino acids. In order to make up for the shortage of essential amino acids, they depend on endosymbiotic proteobacteria. Scale insects secrete a large quantity of sticky viscid fluid known as
545:
exhibit an unusual form. The adult possesses an ovotestis, consisting of both female and male reproductive tissue, and sperm is transmitted to the young for their future use. The fact that a new population can be founded by a single individual may have contributed to the success of the
871:
ants which tend them; they allow themselves to be carried into the ant colony. Here the mealybugs are safe from predation and environmental hazards, while the ants have a source of nourishment. Another species of ant maintains a herd of scale insects inside the hollow stems of a
352:. The majority of female scale insects remain in one place as adults, with newly hatched nymphs, known as "crawlers", being the only mobile life stage, apart from the short-lived males. The reproductive strategies of many species include at least some amount of
578:(crawler) stage and a second instar stage before becoming adult. In more primitive families there is an additional instar stage. Males pass through a first and second instar stage, a pre-pupal and a pupal stage before adulthood (actually a pseudopupa, as only
901:
can attack suitable scales and completely overgrow them. The identity of the host is not always apparent as many fungi are host-specific, and may destroy all the scales of one species present on a leaf while not affecting another species. Fungi in the genus
1250:
The containing group of the scale insects was formerly treated as the superfamily
Coccoidea but taxonomic uncertainties have led workers to prefer the use of the infraorder Coccomorpha as the preferred name for the group. Scale insects are members of the
1015:
720:, living on the outside of their host and feeding only on them, even if they have not traditionally been so described; in his view, those species that remain immobile on a single host and feed only on it behave as obligate ectoparasites. For example,
2255:
Recognition of scale insect families has fluctuated over time, and the validity of many remains in flux, with several recognized families not included in the phylogeny presented above including extinct groups are listed below:
1189:
858:
takes this to an extreme by transporting a fertilised female mealybug with it on its nuptial flight, so that the nest it founds can be provisioned. This provides a means for the mealybug to be dispersed widely. Species of
4078:
Vršanský, P.; Sendi, H.; Kotulová, J.; Szwedo, J.; Havelcová, M.; Palková, H.; Vršanská, L.; Sakala, J.; Puškelová, L.; Golej, M.; Biroň, A.; Peyrot, D.; Quicke, D.; Néraudeau, D.; Uher, P.; Maksoud, S.; Azar, D. (2024).
1475:
Phylogenetic diversification within the
Coccomorpha has been analysed by the taxonomist Isabelle Vea and the entomologist David Grimaldi in 2016, combining DNA (3 gene regions) and 174 morphological characters (to allow
489:
Adult males in contrast have the typical head, thorax and abdomen of other insect groups, and are so different from females that pairing them as a species is challenging. They are usually slender insects resembling
811:
by the leaves and detracts from the appearance of ornamental plants. The scale's activities can result in stress for the plant, causing reduced growth and giving it a greater susceptibility to plant diseases.
1496:
from
Lebanon. They are abundantly preserved in amber from the Early Cretaceous, 130 mya, onwards; they were already highly diversified by Cretaceous times. All the families were monophyletic except for the
443:
covers (some shaped like oysters, others like mussel shells), to shiny pearl-like objects (about 5 mm), to animals covered with mealy wax. Adult females are almost always immobile (apart from
4110:"A study of the scale insect genera Puto Signoret (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Putoidae) and Ceroputo Šulc (Pseudococcidae) with a comparison to Phenacoccus Cockerell (Pseudococcidae)"
1039:
878:
tree; the scale insects feed on the sap and the ants, while benefiting from the honeydew, drive away other herbivorous insects from the tree as well as preventing vines from smothering it.
968:
measures. In 1990, they caused around $ 5 billion of damage to crops in the United States. The waxy covering of many species of scale protects their adults effectively from contact
451:, and giving them their common name. The key character that sets apart the Coccomorpha from all other Hemiptera is the single segmented tarsus on the legs with only one claw at the tip.
1229:
1173:
684:
as well as possibly inter-genomic conflict with endosymbionts under varied selection pressures. The diversity of systems has made scale insects ideal models for research.
3849:
6471:
501:
In species with winged males, generally only the forewings are fully functional. This is unusual among insects; it most closely resembles the situation in the
558:
4469:
6496:
4394:
Poinar, G. O. Jr (2020). "Macrodrilidae fam. nov. (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea), a new family of scale insects in mid-Cretaceous
Burmese amber".
1489:; the neococcoids some 185 mya. Scale insects are very well represented in the fossil record, with the oldest known member of the group reported from the
6544:
6534:
375:
fruit trees; they are difficult to control as the scale and waxy covering protect them effectively from contact insecticides. Some species are used for
6539:
668:
addition to this there is also true haplodiploidy with females born from fertilized eggs and males from unfertilized eggs. This is seen in the genus
6432:
4151:"Putting scales into evolutionary time: the divergence of major scale insect lineages (Hemiptera) predates the radiation of modern angiosperm hosts"
570:. a) underside of scale showing female and eggs, x24 b) scale upperside, x24 c) female scales on twig d) male scale, x12 e) male scales on twig
4479:
940:. Ladybirds feed on aphids and scale insects, laying their eggs near their prey to ensure their larvae have immediate access to food. The ladybird
6458:
2852:
840:
live inside the nests of neotropical ant species. Many tropical plants need ants to survive which in turn cultivate scale insects thus forming a
852:, ants have been observed building a papery tent over the scales. In other instances, scale insects are carried inside the ant's nest; the ant
3720:
3978:
3638:
3482:
3455:
3324:
3160:
3093:
Ross, Laura; Pen, Ido; Shuker, David M. (2010). "Genomic
Conflict in Scale Insects: the causes and consequences of bizarre genetic systems".
2976:
2900:
1068:
At the same time, some kinds of scale insects are themselves useful as biological control agents for pest plants, such as various species of
602:
feeds on the foliage of its host in summer and the roots in winter, and large numbers of scale species feed invisibly, year-round on roots.
4247:"The phylogeny of the superfamily Coccoidea (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha) based on the morphology of extant and extinct macropterous males"
458:; female scale insects, unusually for Hemiptera, retain the immature external morphology even when sexually mature, a condition known as
4541:
4458:
3826:
6529:
3951:
736:. Some species have certain habitat requirements; some Ortheziidae occur in damp meadows, among mosses and in woodland soil, and the
3861:
3703:
593:
Apple scale. a) male, with legs and wings b) foot of male c) larva, x20 d) antenna of larva e) immobile female (removed from scale)
589:
447:) and permanently attached to the plant on which they are feeding. They secrete a waxy coating for defence, making them resemble
4010:"The case for using the infraorder Coccomorpha above the superfamily Coccoidea for the scale insects (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha)"
1092:
Some types of scale insect are economically valuable for the substances they can yield under proper husbandry. Some, such as the
4431:
4322:
897:
Scale insects have various natural enemies, and research in this field is largely directed at the species that are crop pests.
610:
Scale insects show a very wide range of variations in the genetics of sex determination and the modes of reproduction. Besides
486:, but other families possess antennae with from one to thirteen segments. The mouthparts are adapted for piercing and sucking.
3528:
6463:
3560:"DNA Barcode Efficacy for the Identification of Economically Important Scale Insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) in South Africa"
2848:
6344:
4361:
ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) with scale insects (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea): 20 million years of intimate symbiosis"
463:
4449:
505:, the Diptera. However, the Diptera and Hemiptera are not closely related, and do not closely resemble each other in
509:; for example, the tail filaments of the Coccomorpha do not resemble anything in the morphology of flies. The hind (
6411:
1081:
513:) wings are reduced, commonly to the point that they can easily be overlooked. In some species the hind wings have
140:
6476:
6424:
3377:
Itino, Takao; Murase, Kaori; Sato, Yumiko; Inamori, Keita; Itioka, Takao; Quek, Swee-Peck; Ueda, Shouhei (2008).
3136:
1217:
942:
713:
4372:
1003:
One species, the cottony cushion scale, is a serious commercial pest on 65 families of woody plants, including
1505:
is moved to the "Neococcoids". A cladogram showing the major families using this methodology is shown below.
6524:
4534:
4503:
3532:
2994:"The evolution of hermaphroditism by an infectious male-derived cell lineage: an inclusive-fitness analysis"
898:
886:
533:
with the control organs of
Diptera, and it is not clear whether they have any substantial control function.
6519:
6297:
4050:
1379:
599:
217:
439:
Scale insects vary dramatically in appearance, from very small organisms (1–2 mm) that grow beneath
4511:
4487:
4465:
1022:
750:
681:
2362:
4495:
3654:
3021:
2771:
2712:
2492:
2433:
6486:
6393:
4258:
4162:
3197:
2551:
2351:
2329:
2318:
841:
796:
756:
615:
506:
353:
298:
5439:
2669:
2621:
2425:
1451:
1348:
799:". This includes sugars, amino acids and minerals, and is attractive to ants as well as acting as a
6160:
5901:
5661:
5486:
3765:
3659:
3558:
Sethusa, M.T.; Millar, I.M.; Yessoufou, K.; Jacobs, A.; Bank, M. van der; Bank, H. van der (2014).
2828:
2821:
2693:
2645:
2562:
2449:
2441:
2414:
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and predators. The fungus benefits by metabolising the sap extracted from the tree by the insects.
845:
819:
800:
737:
663:
611:
302:
6170:
5859:
5833:
4081:"Jurassic Park approached: a coccid from Kimmeridgian cheirolepidiacean Aintourine Lebanese amber"
2803:
2395:
2269:
1320:
1112:, have been used to produce red dyes for coloring foods and dyeing fabrics. Both the colour name "
861:
836:
5460:
5337:
5328:
4527:
4411:
4376:
4303:
4216:"Phylogeny and higher classification of the scale insects (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea)"
3934:
Munro, John (2012). "Scarlet". In Gale Owen-Crocker; Elizabeth Coatsworth; Maria Hayward (eds.).
3757:
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135:
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815:
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5120:
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3699:
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3634:
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3478:
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3416:
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3314:
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3166:
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3110:
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2747:
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2500:
1858:
1486:
1151:
997:
981:
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483:
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277:
3968:
3140:
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6145:
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5974:
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5648:
5426:
5418:
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4990:
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4403:
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4295:
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4186:
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4021:
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3886:
3739:
3571:
3472:
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3390:
3357:
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3213:
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3065:
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3008:
2929:
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2307:
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1981:
1710:
1109:
1073:
692:
676:
325:
234:
4286:
Szwedo, J. (2018). "The unity, diversity and conformity of bugs (Hemiptera) through time".
4009:
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drawn directly from the plant's vascular system, but a few species feed on fungal mats and
6198:
6165:
6104:
6008:
6003:
5940:
5915:
5656:
5509:
5350:
5314:
5304:
5286:
5222:
4877:
4610:
4453:
1469:
1200:
1133:
1097:
973:
965:
913:
766:. Several other monophagous scale insects, especially those on islands, are threatened by
619:
547:
448:
406:
402:
365:
357:
266:
6335:
4215:
4108:
Williams, D. J.; Gullan, P. J.; Miller, D. R.; Matile-Ferrero, D.; Han, Sarah I. (2011).
4262:
4166:
3201:
6419:
6406:
6224:
5982:
5864:
5627:
5598:
5400:
5309:
5294:
5165:
5152:
5059:
5030:
4910:
4814:
4698:
4657:
4191:
4150:
3605:
3411:
3378:
3218:
3185:
3152:
2795:
2779:
2701:
2661:
2543:
2112:
1905:
1456:
1374:
1274:
1252:
1046:
808:
650:
579:
345:
289:
they occur, have legs and sometimes wings, and resemble small flies. Scale insects are
273:
202:
4330:
419:
293:, piercing plant tissues with their mouthparts and remaining in one place, feeding on
6513:
6272:
6260:
6232:
6091:
6031:
6013:
5969:
5953:
5838:
5823:
5721:
5470:
5455:
5447:
5181:
5104:
5096:
5006:
4882:
4819:
4784:
4745:
4732:
4667:
4647:
4415:
4307:
3559:
3498:
3186:"Which host-dependent insects are most prone to coextinction under changed climates?"
3106:
3070:
3053:
2951:
2755:
2677:
2629:
2535:
2508:
2473:
2465:
2299:
2291:
2054:
1829:
1807:
1725:
1595:
1541:
1490:
1260:
961:
933:
904:
823:
721:
536:
317:
76:
41:
4380:
3680:
3591:
3447:
3362:
3341:
3122:
3038:
574:
Female scale insects in more advanced families develop from the egg through a first
363:
Some scale insects are serious commercial pests, notably the cottony cushion scale (
6193:
6044:
5869:
5828:
5790:
5773:
5759:
5747:
5700:
5692:
5538:
5525:
5491:
5299:
5266:
5212:
5088:
5051:
5014:
4794:
4719:
4711:
4622:
4594:
3943:
3761:
3435:
2993:
2637:
2597:
2570:
2457:
2116:
2076:
1688:
1643:
1498:
1361:
1315:
1236:
1204:
867:
848:
relationship; the ants feed on the honeydew and in return protect the scales. On a
767:
762:
745:
717:
658:
522:
467:
390:
4407:
3536:
6385:
6349:
3275:
6445:
6329:
6268:
6211:
6122:
6057:
6039:
6021:
5990:
5818:
5619:
5367:
5259:
5217:
5207:
5202:
5112:
5043:
5035:
4998:
4867:
4862:
4804:
4776:
4759:
3800:
2685:
2613:
2481:
2155:
2108:
2071:
1611:
1156:
1145:
1069:
985:
969:
929:
804:
646:
518:
479:
471:
51:
4231:
3243:"Aphids and scale insects on threatened trees: co-extinction is a minor threat"
3054:"Large population size predicts the distribution of sexuality in scale insects"
2934:
1292:
1029:) with young crawlers. The species is a major commercial pest of crops such as
6155:
6114:
6096:
5877:
5782:
5679:
5671:
5635:
5552:
5194:
5067:
4985:
4872:
4857:
4852:
4829:
4737:
4724:
4662:
4652:
4631:
4441:
4299:
4288:
Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
4125:
4026:
3259:
3242:
2731:
2586:
2403:
1958:
1666:
1287:
993:
937:
921:
917:
849:
790:
732:
726:
709:
705:
701:
625:
614:, a number of different forms of reproductive systems are employed, including
510:
337:
96:
61:
6320:
4182:
4051:"New Termitaphididae and Aradidae (Hemiptera) in Mexican and Dominican amber"
3994:
3583:
6175:
6135:
6127:
6067:
6052:
6026:
5924:
5798:
5577:
5569:
5533:
5384:
5235:
5227:
5173:
5072:
4959:
4789:
4582:
4570:
4551:
4519:
4351:
Johnson, Christine; Agosti, Donat; Delabie, Jacques H.; et al. (2001).
3871:
2739:
1997:
1395:
1264:
1256:
1160:
1101:
1093:
925:
890:
881:
828:
774:
716:
notes that the feeding behaviour of scale insects closely resembles that of
654:
349:
310:
290:
269:
192:
172:
152:
101:
4200:
4035:
3782:
3753:
3440:
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3394:
3227:
3170:
3114:
3079:
3030:
2943:
4446:
4093:
4080:
3912:
3850:"4: Medieval Woollens: Textiles, Technology, and Organisation c. 800–1500"
3147:. Advances in Parasitology. Vol. 74. Academic Press. pp. 27–28.
1400:
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5590:
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4922:
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4824:
4809:
4799:
4588:
3575:
3184:
Moir, Melinda L.; Hughes, Lesley; Vesk, Peter A.; Leng, Mei Chen (2014).
2653:
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1935:
1873:
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874:
526:
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341:
333:
329:
91:
86:
71:
66:
56:
45:
17:
3805:
Major colourants and dyestuffs, mainly produced in horticultural systems
3725:(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae) and identification of the symbiotic bacteria"
3630:
Pests: A Guide to the World's Most Maligned, Yet Misunderstood Creatures
3402:
3052:
Ross, Laura; Hardy, Nate B.; Okusu, Akiko; Normark, Benjamin B. (2013).
988:
them, systemic pesticides that poison the sap of the host plants, or by
708:
came to dominance among plants, with only a few groups species found on
6188:
6150:
5851:
5843:
5726:
5606:
4847:
4437:
Cottony cushion scale: the pest that launched a pest control revolution
4271:
4246:
3299:
3276:"The coevolution of bacterial endosymbionts and phloem-feeding insects"
3241:
Thacker, Jonathan I.; Hopkins, Graham W.; Dixon, Anthony F. G. (2006).
1466:
1164:
1113:
1077:
1055:
459:
431:, adult females (circular, with dark spot) and immatures (oblong). (C)
398:
394:
386:
381:
106:
81:
4174:
4134:
3209:
118:
6450:
6372:
4693:
4677:
4576:
4564:
1477:
1128:
for the dye used for Italian silk textiles, in turn from the Persian
1005:
778:
670:
638:
575:
541:
514:
371:
262:
182:
162:
6437:
6291:
4352:
3744:
3507:
The genome portal of the Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute
3291:
1259:
of the extant groups, inferred from analysis of small subunit (18S)
517:, hooklets, that couple the hind wings to the main wings, as in the
284:
which is considered a more convenient grouping than the superfamily
3379:"An ancient tripartite symbiosis of plants, ants and scale insects"
3012:
1140:, denoting extremely expensive luxury silks dyed red using kermes.
6264:
4943:
1493:
1450:
880:
814:
785:
691:
624:
588:
563:
557:
491:
418:
321:
127:
2968:
Ane's Encyclopedic Dictionary of General & Applied Entomology
1132:(قرمز), meaning both the colour and the insect. The colour name "
6398:
6295:
5256:
4907:
4607:
4523:
781:
502:
495:
440:
306:
294:
3856:. Vol. I. Cambridge University Press. pp. 214–215.
3695:
Tropical Forest Insect Pests: Ecology, Impact, and Management
2895:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 3263–3272.
700:
Scale insects are an ancient group, having originated in the
4396:
Historical Biology: An International Journal of Paleobiology
3346:
Ferris (Hemiptera: Coccidae) associated with bamboo in Peru"
964:
and are particularly problematic for their ability to evade
385:. Others produce commercially valuable substances including
301:
on which sooty mold tends to grow. The insects often have a
4373:
10.1206/0003-0082(2001)335<0001:AAAAHF>2.0.CO;2
3997:. The Mail (Adelaide, SA : 1912 – 1954). 18 Dec 1937.
435:, adult female walnut scale with waxy scale cover removed.
2916:
Hodgson, Chris; Denno, Barb; Watson, Gillian W. (2021).
3383:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
637:
Many species have the XX-XO system where the female is
5091:(cottony cushion scales, giant coccids, ground pearls)
3827:"Guidance for Industry: Cochineal Extract and Carmine"
2971:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 198.
724:
are restricted to cactus hosts, and the gall-inducing
6271:. Heteroptera with Coleorrhyncha were referred to as
3342:"A new species of ant-tended soft scale of the genus
324:. They were already substantially diversified by the
4073:
4071:
2720:
2709:
2594:
2559:
2524:
2489:
2422:
2411:
2392:
2381:
2370:
2359:
2348:
2337:
2326:
2315:
2288:
2277:
2266:
972:, which are only effective against the first-instar
6304:
6223:
6113:
6066:
5952:
5923:
5914:
5781:
5772:
5746:
5712:
5691:
5670:
5647:
5618:
5589:
5568:
5551:
5508:
5469:
5438:
5417:
5383:
5366:
5336:
5327:
5285:
5193:
5164:
4968:
4942:
4921:
4775:
4758:
4710:
4676:
4630:
4621:
3145:
The Many Roads to Parasitism: A Tale of Convergence
1179:Collecting scale insects from a prickly pear for a
309:, which feed on the honeydew and protect them from
3439:
606:Reproduction and the genetics of sex determination
276:. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme
2918:"The Infraorder Coccomorpha (Insecta: Hemiptera)"
754:that fed solely on the now critically endangered
4008:Williams, Douglas J.; Hodgson, Chris J. (2014).
1009:fruits. It has spread worldwide from Australia.
980:. However, scales can often be controlled using
539:is very rare in insects, but several species of
5880:(assassin bugs, wheel bugs, thread-legged bugs)
3471:Evans, Harry C.; Hywel-Jones, Nigel L. (1997).
1054:, a highly effective biological control of the
865:have long clinging legs with claws to grip the
297:. The excess fluid they imbibe is secreted as
4535:
4459:Scales of southeastern U.S. woody ornamentals
4149:Vea, Isabelle M.; Grimaldi, David A. (2016).
8:
316:The oldest fossils of the group date to the
4470:Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences
4321:Ben-Dov, Y.; Miller, D. R.; Gibson, G.A.P.
3936:Encyclopedia of Medieval Dress and Textiles
3698:. Cambridge University Press. p. 221.
2884:
2882:
770:due to threats faced by their host plants.
313:. There are about 8,000 described species.
6292:
5920:
5778:
5743:
5565:
5505:
5380:
5333:
5282:
5278:
5253:
4918:
4904:
4772:
4627:
4618:
4604:
4542:
4528:
4520:
4245:Hodgson, Chris J.; Hardy, Nate B. (2013).
3973:. Cambridge University Press. p. 58.
3340:Kondo, Takumasa; Gullan, Penny J. (2004).
3022:11370/c2d17516-c096-4e53-80a1-d79b3aab10b3
2880:
2878:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2862:
529:, club-like appendages, but these are not
117:
31:
4270:
4190:
4133:
4092:
4025:
3854:The Cambridge History of Western Textiles
3743:
3410:
3361:
3258:
3217:
3069:
3020:
2933:
379:of pest plants such as the prickly pear,
3529:"Know Your Friends - Mealybug Destroyer"
2574:Pergande in Hubbard & Pergande, 1898
760:has gone extinct as has another species
328:suggesting an earlier origin during the
3280:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden
3143:. In Rollinson, D.; Hay, S. I. (eds.).
2853:Integrated Taxonomic Information System
2840:
1169:
1011:
466:(simple eyes) are sometimes present in
1143:Some waxy scale species in the genera
645:and missing a sex chromosome. In some
844:. Some ants and scale insects have a
7:
6487:c805fc05-bf88-438c-8797-655ee16815d9
6425:2667d3a8-0fb1-4b5b-84c8-4829e49c8487
6034:(jewel bugs or metallic shield bugs)
3446:. Harvard University Press. p.
1080:, which spread widely especially in
960:Many scale species are serious crop
788:, such as some species in the genus
696:A cluster of scale insects on a stem
5846:(plant bugs, leaf bugs, grass bugs)
5793:(minute pirate bugs or flower bugs)
5450:(marsh treaders or water measurers)
4214:Gullan, P. J.; Cook, L. G. (2007).
2132:
2101:
2047:
2040:
1974:
1951:
1928:
1921:
1898:
1851:
1844:
1822:
1800:
1703:
1681:
1659:
1636:
1588:
1581:
1533:
1526:
1518:
1508:
1367:
1336:
1308:
1280:
1270:
1136:" is similarly derived from Arabic
550:which has spread around the world.
3721:"Molecular phylogeny of the genus
3535:. 14 February 2009. Archived from
3153:10.1016/B978-0-12-385897-9.00001-X
2485:Amyot & Audinet-Serville, 1843
641:and homogametic while the male is
525:wings are often reduced to pseudo-
397:lacquer. The two red colour-names
336:. Their closest relatives are the
25:
6545:Extant Triassic first appearances
6535:Insect pests of ornamental plants
5985:(giant shield bugs and relatives)
4740:(typical treehoppers, thorn bugs)
1000:may also be used against scales.
6540:Insect pests of tropical forests
3107:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00127.x
3071:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01784.x
1399:
1378:
1347:
1319:
1291:
1228:
1216:
1188:
1172:
1038:
1014:
139:
6178:(milkweed bugs, true seed bugs)
6086:(squash bugs, leaf-footed bugs)
5353:(unique-headed bugs, gnat bugs)
3363:10.1590/S1519-566X2004000600009
3313:Stauffer, S.; Rose, M. (1997).
807:can grow. The mould can reduce
280:, they comprise the infraorder
5609:(water scorpions, needle bugs)
4049:Poinar, G.; Heiss, E. (2011).
3944:10.1163/2213-2139_emdt_COM_550
3719:Ramírez-Puebla, S. T. (2010).
3319:. Elsevier. pp. 186–187.
3141:"The Many Roads to Parasitism"
2992:Gardner, A.; Ross, L. (2011).
2366:Szwedo, Azar & Sendi, 2024
405:both derive from the names of
249:
1:
4408:10.1080/08912963.2020.1733549
3995:"How Shellac Is Manufactured"
411:products in other languages.
3887:"معنی قرمز | لغت نامه دهخدا"
2849:"Coccoidea Handlirsch, 1903"
6235:(red bugs, cotton stainers)
3852:. In Jenkins, David (ed.).
2965:Dhooria, Manjit S. (2009).
1465:(in the jaws of an ant) in
834:Scale insects in the genus
582:insects have a true pupa).
423:Armoured scale insects:(A)
6561:
4232:10.11646/zootaxa.1668.1.22
3531:. www.entomology.wisc.edu
3509:. Fungal Genomics Resource
3477:. Elsevier. pp. 3–4.
2935:10.11646/zootaxa.4979.1.24
2892:Encyclopedia of Entomology
2889:Capinera, John L. (2008).
2705:Brown & McKenzie, 1962
1290:(jumping plant lice, etc)
1155:produce materials such as
661:. In the other variant or
433:Diaspidiotus juglansregiae
6530:Agricultural pest insects
6256:
5742:
5504:
5281:
5277:
5252:
5062:(pupillarial palm scales)
4917:
4903:
4617:
4603:
4559:
4365:American Museum Novitates
4300:10.1017/s175569101700038x
4126:10.11646/zootaxa.2802.1.1
4027:10.11646/zootaxa.3869.3.9
3633:. ABC-CLIO. p. 149.
3260:10.1017/S0030605306000123
2399:Koteja & Poinar, 2001
2153:
2137:
2130:
2106:
2099:
2068:
2052:
2045:
2038:
1995:
1979:
1972:
1956:
1949:
1933:
1926:
1919:
1903:
1896:
1871:
1856:
1849:
1842:
1827:
1820:
1805:
1798:
1728:(cottony cushion scales)
1723:
1708:
1701:
1686:
1679:
1664:
1657:
1641:
1634:
1609:
1593:
1586:
1579:
1554:
1538:
1531:
1524:
1516:
1393:
1372:
1365:
1341:
1334:
1313:
1306:
1285:
1278:
1223:Some varieties of shellac
1195:Coronation cloak of King
943:Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
916:, mostly in the families
247:
242:
136:Scientific classification
134:
125:
116:
34:
4505:Eucalymnatus tessellatus
4442:Diaspididae of the World
3967:Zhang, Xiaoming (2011).
3732:Environmental Entomology
3274:Moran, Nancy A. (2001).
2716:Vea & Grimaldi, 2015
2388:Vea & Grimaldi, 2015
2273:Vea & Grimaldi, 2015
1522:"Archaeococcoids"
1263:, is shown in the first
1159:, and several genera of
912:Natural enemies include
449:reptilian or fish scales
303:mutualistic relationship
5176:(woolly conifer aphids)
4085:National Science Review
3848:Munro, John H. (2003).
3801:"Cochineal and Carmine"
3789:. CABI. 3 January 2018.
3692:Nair, K. S. S. (2007).
3608:. Iowa State University
3533:University of Wisconsin
3001:The American Naturalist
2751:Targioni-Tozzetti, 1869
2689:Targioni-Tozzetti, 1868
2496:Koteja & Azar, 2008
2429:Koteja & Azar, 2008
2355:Koteja & Azar, 2008
1116:" and the generic name
887:Cheilomenes sexmaculata
827:ants tending a herd of
773:Most scale insects are
454:The group is extremely
6099:(scentless plant bugs)
5099:(Mediterranean scales)
3395:10.1098/rspb.2008.0573
3350:Neotropical Entomology
1472:
1064:As biological controls
899:Entomopathogenic fungi
894:
831:
763:Phyllococcus oahuensis
748:. A Hawaiian mealybug
704:, the period in which
697:
634:
594:
571:
436:
27:Superfamily of insects
6243:(bordered plant bugs)
6016:(includes ebony bugs)
5682:(creeping water bugs)
4513:Phoenicoccus marlatti
4466:University of Florida
4251:Systematic Entomology
3190:Ecology and Evolution
1454:
1240:and its shellac tubes
1023:cottony cushion scale
996:wasps and ladybirds.
884:
818:
751:Clavicoccus erinaceus
695:
628:
592:
561:
548:cottony cushion scale
427:, adult females. (B)
425:Lepidosaphes gloverii
422:
6420:Fauna Europaea (new)
6214:(ash-grey leaf bugs)
6206:(atypical seed bugs)
5872:(old world bat bugs)
5801:(bed bugs, bat bugs)
5729:(pygmy backswimmers)
5638:(velvety shore bugs)
5230:(jumping plant lice)
3785:Opuntia ficus-indica
3627:Piper, Ross (2011).
3576:10.4001/003.022.0218
2057:(cochineal insects)
1961:(kermes dye scales)
992:agents such as tiny
842:tripartite symbiosis
757:Abutilon sandwicense
616:asexual reproduction
354:asexual reproduction
6078:(broad-headed bugs)
5429:(velvet water bugs)
5017:(ornate pit scales)
4507:, tessellated scale
4263:2013SysEn..38..794H
4167:2016NatSR...623487V
4094:10.1093/nsr/nwae200
3539:on 16 February 2012
3202:2014EcoEv...4.1295M
2829:Lepidosaphes beckii
2822:Conchaspis capensis
1598:(pine bast scales)
1207:, made from female
976:stage known as the
742:Newsteadia floccosa
738:boreal ensign scale
612:sexual reproduction
600:solenopsis mealybug
5601:(giant water bugs)
5528:(spiny shore bugs)
5461:Paraphrynoveliidae
5374:(semiaquatic bugs)
5329:Enicocephalomorpha
5123:(phenacoleachiids)
5121:Phenacoleachiidae
5083:(false pit scales)
5081:Lecanodiaspididae
4481:Ceroplastes rubens
4473:Featured Creatures
4452:2020-09-30 at the
4447:Scale Insect Forum
4272:10.1111/syen.12030
4155:Scientific Reports
3915:. Etymology Online
3564:African Entomology
3474:Soft Scale Insects
3434:Hölldobler, Bert;
3316:Soft Scale Insects
3095:Biological Reviews
2407:MacGillivray, 1921
2303:MacGillivray, 1921
2158:(armoured scales)
2079:" (felted scales)
1876:(giant mealybugs)
1473:
1462:Electromyrmococcus
1377:(phylloxera bugs)
1197:Roger II of Sicily
1106:Armenian cochineal
990:biological control
982:horticultural oils
895:
855:Acropyga exsanguis
832:
730:are restricted to
698:
635:
595:
572:
568:Mytilaspis pomorum
562:Life-cycle of the
456:sexually dimorphic
437:
377:biological control
338:jumping plant lice
6507:
6506:
6298:Taxon identifiers
6289:
6288:
6285:
6284:
6281:
6280:
6276:
6252:
6251:
6244:
6236:
6215:
6207:
6204:Rhyparochromidae
6179:
6131:
6100:
6087:
6079:
6048:
6035:
6017:
5999:
5986:
5978:
5975:Acanthosomatidae
5962:
5944:
5936:
5910:
5909:
5897:
5889:
5888:(royal palm bugs)
5886:Thaumastocoridae
5881:
5873:
5855:
5847:
5814:
5802:
5794:
5768:
5767:
5738:
5737:
5730:
5704:
5683:
5639:
5631:
5610:
5602:
5581:
5561:
5559:(true water bugs)
5547:
5546:
5529:
5521:
5500:
5499:
5479:
5451:
5430:
5409:
5396:
5376:
5362:
5361:
5354:
5323:
5322:
5272:
5248:
5247:
5244:
5243:
5231:
5185:
5177:
5156:
5148:
5147:(giant mealybugs)
5140:
5132:
5129:Phoenicococcidae
5124:
5116:
5108:
5100:
5092:
5084:
5076:
5063:
5055:
5047:
5039:
5026:
5018:
5010:
5002:
4994:
4991:Asterolecaniidae
4978:
4952:
4934:
4899:
4898:
4895:
4894:
4891:
4890:
4843:Hypochthonellidae
4833:
4768:
4754:
4753:
4741:
4728:
4702:
4686:
4640:
4489:Ceroplastes rusci
4432:ScaleNet homepage
4175:10.1038/srep23487
3980:978-0-521-18646-9
3970:Chinese Furniture
3640:978-0-313-38426-4
3484:978-0-08-054135-8
3457:978-0-674-04075-5
3436:Wilson, Edward O.
3389:(1649): 2319–26.
3326:978-0-08-054135-8
3210:10.1002/ece3.1021
3162:978-0-12-385897-9
2978:978-1-4020-8644-1
2902:978-1-4020-6242-1
2748:Lecanodiaspididae
2641:Balachowsky, 1942
2582:Borchsenius, 1950
2501:Phenacoleachiidae
2363:Jankotejacoccidae
2262:Borchsenius, 1958
2252:
2251:
2243:
2242:
2230:
2229:
2221:
2220:
2212:
2211:
2203:
2202:
2194:
2193:
2185:
2184:
2176:
2175:
2167:
2166:
2088:
2087:
2027:
2026:
2018:
2017:
2009:
2008:
1885:
1884:
1859:Phenacoleachiidae
1782:
1781:
1773:
1772:
1764:
1763:
1755:
1754:
1746:
1745:
1737:
1736:
1623:
1622:
1568:
1567:
1485:period, some 245
1448:
1447:
1439:
1438:
1430:
1429:
1421:
1420:
1412:
1411:
1183:, cochineal, 1777
1120:are from Italian
1070:cochineal insects
998:Insecticidal soap
722:cochineal species
476:Phenacoleachiidae
278:sexual dimorphism
256:
255:
238:
221:
16:(Redirected from
6552:
6500:
6499:
6490:
6489:
6480:
6479:
6467:
6466:
6454:
6453:
6441:
6440:
6428:
6427:
6415:
6414:
6402:
6401:
6389:
6388:
6376:
6375:
6363:
6362:
6353:
6352:
6340:
6339:
6338:
6325:
6324:
6323:
6293:
6263:are a different
6258:
6242:
6234:
6213:
6205:
6177:
6146:Cryptorhamphidae
6141:Colobathristidae
6129:
6098:
6085:
6077:
6046:
6033:
6015:
5998:(burrowing bugs)
5997:
5984:
5976:
5963:
5961:
5958:
5942:
5941:Termitaphididae
5934:
5921:
5895:
5887:
5879:
5871:
5853:
5845:
5811:Curalium cronini
5808:
5800:
5792:
5779:
5752:
5744:
5728:
5702:
5681:
5649:Aphelocheiroidea
5637:
5629:
5608:
5600:
5579:
5566:
5562:
5560:
5557:
5527:
5519:
5506:
5480:
5478:
5477:(water treaders)
5475:
5449:
5428:
5407:
5395:(water striders)
5394:
5381:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5352:
5351:Enicocephalidae
5346:Aenictopecheidae
5338:Enicocephaloidea
5334:
5283:
5279:
5271:
5265:
5262:
5254:
5229:
5183:
5175:
5154:
5146:
5138:
5130:
5122:
5114:
5106:
5098:
5090:
5082:
5074:
5061:
5053:
5046:(armored scales)
5045:
5037:
5024:
5016:
5008:
5000:
4992:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4932:
4919:
4905:
4831:
4773:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4739:
4726:
4700:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4628:
4619:
4605:
4544:
4537:
4530:
4521:
4515:, red date scale
4483:, red wax scale
4420:
4419:
4402:(9): 1726–1730.
4391:
4385:
4384:
4348:
4342:
4341:
4339:
4338:
4329:. Archived from
4318:
4312:
4311:
4294:(2–3): 109–128.
4283:
4277:
4276:
4274:
4242:
4236:
4235:
4211:
4205:
4204:
4194:
4146:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4105:
4099:
4098:
4096:
4075:
4066:
4065:
4055:
4046:
4040:
4039:
4029:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3964:
3958:
3957:
3931:
3925:
3924:
3922:
3920:
3909:
3903:
3902:
3900:
3898:
3882:
3876:
3875:
3845:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3834:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3812:
3797:
3791:
3790:
3779:
3773:
3772:
3770:
3764:. Archived from
3747:
3729:
3716:
3710:
3709:
3689:
3683:
3678:
3672:
3671:
3669:
3667:
3660:Gardeners' World
3651:
3645:
3644:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3613:
3602:
3596:
3595:
3555:
3549:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3525:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3514:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3445:
3431:
3425:
3424:
3414:
3374:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3337:
3331:
3330:
3310:
3304:
3303:
3271:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3238:
3232:
3231:
3221:
3196:(8): 1295–1312.
3181:
3175:
3174:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3090:
3084:
3083:
3073:
3049:
3043:
3042:
3024:
2998:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2937:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2886:
2857:
2856:
2845:
2808:
2800:
2792:
2784:
2776:
2772:Porphyrophoridae
2768:
2764:Phoenicococcidae
2760:
2752:
2744:
2736:
2728:
2722:
2717:
2713:Hodgsonicoccidae
2711:
2706:
2698:
2690:
2682:
2674:
2666:
2658:
2650:
2642:
2634:
2626:
2618:
2610:
2606:Asterolecaniidae
2602:
2596:
2591:
2583:
2575:
2567:
2561:
2556:
2548:
2540:
2532:
2526:
2521:
2513:
2505:
2497:
2493:Pennygullaniidae
2491:
2486:
2478:
2470:
2462:
2454:
2446:
2438:
2434:Lithuanicoccidae
2430:
2424:
2419:
2413:
2408:
2400:
2394:
2389:
2383:
2378:
2372:
2367:
2361:
2356:
2350:
2345:
2339:
2334:
2328:
2323:
2317:
2312:
2308:Coelostomidiidae
2304:
2296:
2290:
2285:
2279:
2274:
2268:
2263:
2140:Phoenicococcidae
2133:
2102:
2048:
2041:
1982:Asterolecaniidae
1975:
1952:
1929:
1922:
1899:
1852:
1845:
1823:
1801:
1711:Coelostomidiidae
1704:
1682:
1660:
1646:(ground pearls)
1637:
1614:(ensign scales)
1589:
1582:
1534:
1527:
1519:
1509:
1403:
1382:
1368:
1351:
1346:(scale insects)
1337:
1323:
1309:
1295:
1281:
1271:
1232:
1220:
1192:
1176:
1110:Polish cochineal
1074:invasive species
1042:
1018:
928:beetles such as
914:parasitoid wasps
682:genomic conflict
677:Parthenolecanium
429:Parlatoria oleae
326:Early Cretaceous
233:
216:
144:
143:
121:
111:
48:
38:Temporal range:
32:
21:
6560:
6559:
6555:
6554:
6553:
6551:
6550:
6549:
6510:
6509:
6508:
6503:
6495:
6493:
6485:
6483:
6475:
6470:
6462:
6457:
6449:
6444:
6436:
6431:
6423:
6418:
6410:
6405:
6397:
6392:
6384:
6379:
6371:
6366:
6358:
6356:
6348:
6343:
6334:
6333:
6328:
6319:
6318:
6313:
6300:
6290:
6277:
6248:
6219:
6199:Pachygronthidae
6166:Heterogastridae
6109:
6105:Stenocephalidae
6062:
6009:Parastrachiidae
6004:Thaumastellidae
5983:Tessaratomidae
5959:
5957:
5956:
5948:
5916:Pentatomomorpha
5906:
5764:
5751:(Coleorrhyncha)
5750:
5749:
5748:Peloridiomorpha
5734:
5708:
5687:
5666:
5657:Aphelocheiridae
5643:
5628:Gelastocoridae
5614:
5599:Belostomatidae
5585:
5580:(water boatmen)
5558:
5556:
5555:
5543:
5510:Leptopodomorpha
5496:
5476:
5474:
5473:
5465:
5434:
5413:
5373:
5371:
5370:
5358:
5319:
5315:Stemmocryptidae
5305:Hypsipterygidae
5287:Dipsocoromorpha
5273:
5269:
5263:
5240:
5223:Phacopteronidae
5189:
5160:
5155:(stictococcids)
5153:Stictococcidae
5137:Pseudococcidae
5115:(ensign scales)
5060:Halimococcidae
4976:(scale insects)
4975:
4973:
4972:
4964:
4949:
4947:
4946:
4938:
4913:
4887:
4878:Tettigometridae
4765:
4763:
4762:
4750:
4706:
4701:(hairy cicadas)
4699:Tettigarctidae
4683:
4681:
4680:
4672:
4637:
4635:
4634:
4613:
4611:Auchenorrhyncha
4599:
4555:
4548:
4491:, fig wax scale
4454:Wayback Machine
4428:
4423:
4393:
4392:
4388:
4350:
4349:
4345:
4336:
4334:
4320:
4319:
4315:
4285:
4284:
4280:
4244:
4243:
4239:
4213:
4212:
4208:
4148:
4147:
4143:
4107:
4106:
4102:
4077:
4076:
4069:
4058:Palaeodiversity
4053:
4048:
4047:
4043:
4007:
4006:
4002:
3993:
3992:
3988:
3981:
3966:
3965:
3961:
3954:
3933:
3932:
3928:
3918:
3916:
3911:
3910:
3906:
3896:
3894:
3884:
3883:
3879:
3864:
3847:
3846:
3842:
3832:
3830:
3825:
3824:
3820:
3810:
3808:
3799:
3798:
3794:
3787:(prickly pear)"
3781:
3780:
3776:
3768:
3745:10.1603/EN10037
3727:
3718:
3717:
3713:
3706:
3691:
3690:
3686:
3679:
3675:
3665:
3663:
3655:"Scale insects"
3653:
3652:
3648:
3641:
3626:
3625:
3621:
3611:
3609:
3606:"Scale Insects"
3604:
3603:
3599:
3557:
3556:
3552:
3542:
3540:
3527:
3526:
3522:
3512:
3510:
3497:
3496:
3492:
3485:
3470:
3469:
3465:
3458:
3433:
3432:
3428:
3376:
3375:
3371:
3339:
3338:
3334:
3327:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3292:10.2307/2666130
3273:
3272:
3268:
3240:
3239:
3235:
3183:
3182:
3178:
3163:
3135:
3134:
3130:
3092:
3091:
3087:
3051:
3050:
3046:
2996:
2991:
2990:
2986:
2979:
2964:
2963:
2959:
2915:
2914:
2910:
2903:
2888:
2887:
2860:
2847:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2817:
2806:
2799:Lindinger, 1913
2798:
2790:
2783:Cockerell, 1905
2782:
2774:
2766:
2759:Silvestri, 1939
2758:
2750:
2743:Lindinger, 1937
2742:
2734:
2726:
2715:
2704:
2697:Cockerell, 1899
2696:
2688:
2680:
2673:Kosztarab, 1968
2672:
2664:
2656:
2648:
2640:
2632:
2624:
2616:
2609:Cockerell, 1896
2608:
2600:
2590:Cockerell, 1905
2589:
2581:
2573:
2565:
2554:
2552:Termitococcidae
2546:
2538:
2530:
2519:
2511:
2504:Cockerell, 1902
2503:
2495:
2484:
2476:
2468:
2461:Cockerell, 1899
2460:
2452:
2444:
2436:
2428:
2417:
2406:
2398:
2387:
2376:
2365:
2354:
2352:Hammanococcidae
2343:
2332:
2330:Grimaldiellidae
2321:
2319:Electrococcidae
2310:
2302:
2294:
2283:
2272:
2261:
2260:Archecoccoidea
2253:
2244:
2231:
2222:
2213:
2204:
2195:
2186:
2177:
2168:
2089:
2028:
2019:
2010:
1886:
1783:
1774:
1765:
1756:
1747:
1738:
1624:
1569:
1470:Dominican amber
1449:
1440:
1431:
1422:
1413:
1248:
1241:
1233:
1224:
1221:
1212:
1193:
1184:
1177:
1090:
1066:
1059:
1051:Anagyrus lopezi
1043:
1034:
1027:Icerya purchasi
1019:
958:
953:
690:
620:parthenogenesis
608:
556:
537:Hermaphroditism
417:
366:Icerya purchasi
358:parthenogenesis
346:phylloxera bugs
320:, preserved in
232:
218:Heslop-Harrison
215:
138:
126:Waxy scales on
112:
110:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
40:
39:
36:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6558:
6556:
6548:
6547:
6542:
6537:
6532:
6527:
6525:Sternorrhyncha
6522:
6512:
6511:
6505:
6504:
6502:
6501:
6491:
6481:
6468:
6455:
6442:
6429:
6416:
6407:Fauna Europaea
6403:
6390:
6377:
6364:
6354:
6341:
6326:
6310:
6308:
6302:
6301:
6296:
6287:
6286:
6283:
6282:
6279:
6278:
6257:
6254:
6253:
6250:
6249:
6247:
6246:
6238:
6233:Pyrrhocoridae
6229:
6227:
6225:Pyrrhocoroidea
6221:
6220:
6218:
6217:
6209:
6201:
6196:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6173:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6148:
6143:
6138:
6133:
6125:
6119:
6117:
6111:
6110:
6108:
6107:
6102:
6094:
6089:
6081:
6072:
6070:
6064:
6063:
6061:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6042:
6037:
6032:Scutelleridae
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:Thyreocoridae
6011:
6006:
6001:
5993:
5988:
5980:
5972:
5966:
5964:
5950:
5949:
5947:
5946:
5943:(termite bugs)
5938:
5929:
5927:
5918:
5912:
5911:
5908:
5907:
5905:
5904:
5899:
5891:
5883:
5875:
5867:
5865:Plokiophilidae
5862:
5857:
5849:
5841:
5836:
5831:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5804:
5796:
5787:
5785:
5776:
5770:
5769:
5766:
5765:
5763:
5762:
5756:
5754:
5740:
5739:
5736:
5735:
5733:
5732:
5724:
5718:
5716:
5710:
5709:
5707:
5706:
5703:(backswimmers)
5697:
5695:
5689:
5688:
5686:
5685:
5676:
5674:
5668:
5667:
5665:
5664:
5659:
5653:
5651:
5645:
5644:
5642:
5641:
5633:
5624:
5622:
5616:
5615:
5613:
5612:
5604:
5595:
5593:
5587:
5586:
5584:
5583:
5574:
5572:
5563:
5549:
5548:
5545:
5544:
5542:
5541:
5536:
5531:
5523:
5514:
5512:
5502:
5501:
5498:
5497:
5495:
5494:
5489:
5483:
5481:
5467:
5466:
5464:
5463:
5458:
5453:
5448:Hydrometridae
5444:
5442:
5440:Hydrometroidea
5436:
5435:
5433:
5432:
5423:
5421:
5415:
5414:
5412:
5411:
5403:
5401:Hermatobatidae
5398:
5389:
5387:
5378:
5364:
5363:
5360:
5359:
5357:
5356:
5348:
5342:
5340:
5331:
5325:
5324:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5317:
5312:
5310:Schizopteridae
5307:
5302:
5297:
5295:Ceratocombidae
5291:
5289:
5275:
5274:
5257:
5250:
5249:
5246:
5245:
5242:
5241:
5239:
5238:
5233:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5199:
5197:
5191:
5190:
5188:
5187:
5184:(phylloxerans)
5182:Phylloxeridae
5179:
5170:
5168:
5166:Phylloxeroidea
5162:
5161:
5159:
5158:
5150:
5142:
5134:
5126:
5118:
5110:
5107:(giant scales)
5105:Monophlebidae
5102:
5097:Micrococcidae
5094:
5086:
5078:
5070:
5065:
5057:
5049:
5041:
5036:Dactylopiidae
5033:
5031:Conchaspididae
5028:
5020:
5012:
5009:(carayonemids)
5007:Carayonemidae
5004:
4996:
4988:
4982:
4980:
4966:
4965:
4963:
4962:
4956:
4954:
4940:
4939:
4937:
4936:
4927:
4925:
4915:
4914:
4911:Sternorrhyncha
4908:
4901:
4900:
4897:
4896:
4893:
4892:
4889:
4888:
4886:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4832:(lanternflies)
4827:
4822:
4817:
4815:Dictyopharidae
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4781:
4779:
4770:
4766:(planthoppers)
4756:
4755:
4752:
4751:
4749:
4748:
4743:
4735:
4730:
4722:
4716:
4714:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4704:
4696:
4690:
4688:
4674:
4673:
4671:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4658:Clastopteridae
4655:
4650:
4644:
4642:
4625:
4615:
4614:
4608:
4601:
4600:
4598:
4597:
4591:
4585:
4579:
4573:
4567:
4560:
4557:
4556:
4549:
4547:
4546:
4539:
4532:
4524:
4518:
4517:
4509:
4501:
4497:Coccus viridia
4493:
4485:
4462:
4461:
4456:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4427:
4426:External links
4424:
4422:
4421:
4386:
4343:
4313:
4278:
4257:(4): 794–804.
4237:
4206:
4141:
4100:
4067:
4041:
4020:(3): 348–350.
4000:
3986:
3979:
3959:
3953:978-9004124356
3952:
3926:
3913:"Crimson (n.)"
3904:
3877:
3862:
3840:
3818:
3792:
3774:
3771:on 2015-09-23.
3738:(4): 1178–83.
3711:
3704:
3684:
3673:
3646:
3639:
3619:
3597:
3570:(2): 257–266.
3550:
3520:
3490:
3483:
3463:
3456:
3426:
3369:
3356:(6): 717–723.
3332:
3325:
3305:
3266:
3253:(2): 233–236.
3233:
3176:
3161:
3137:Poulin, Robert
3128:
3101:(4): 807–828.
3085:
3064:(1): 196–206.
3044:
3013:10.1086/660823
3007:(2): 191–201.
2984:
2977:
2957:
2928:(1): 226–227.
2908:
2901:
2858:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2832:
2825:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2801:
2796:Stictococcidae
2793:
2791:Williams, 1969
2785:
2780:Pseudococcidae
2777:
2775:Signoret, 1875
2769:
2767:Stickney, 1934
2761:
2753:
2745:
2737:
2735:Signoret, 1875
2729:
2718:
2707:
2702:Halimococcidae
2699:
2691:
2683:
2681:Signoret, 1875
2675:
2670:Cryptococcidae
2667:
2662:Conchaspididae
2659:
2651:
2643:
2635:
2627:
2622:Calycicoccidae
2619:
2611:
2603:
2592:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2568:
2557:
2555:Jakubski, 1965
2549:
2547:Morrison, 1927
2544:Stigmacoccidae
2541:
2539:Morrison, 1927
2533:
2522:
2514:
2512:McKenzie, 1942
2506:
2498:
2487:
2479:
2477:Morrison, 1927
2471:
2469:Morrison, 1927
2463:
2455:
2453:Morrison, 1927
2447:
2439:
2431:
2426:Lebanococcidae
2420:
2409:
2401:
2390:
2379:
2368:
2357:
2346:
2335:
2324:
2313:
2311:Morrison, 1927
2305:
2297:
2286:
2275:
2250:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2241:
2240:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2210:
2209:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2142:(palm scales)
2136:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2113:Stictococcidae
2105:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2051:
2046:
2044:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2025:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2007:
2006:
2003:
2002:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1978:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1955:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1938:(soft scales)
1932:
1927:
1925:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1906:Pseudococcidae
1902:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1855:
1850:
1848:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1826:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1804:
1799:
1797:
1796:"Neococcoids"
1793:
1792:
1785:
1784:
1780:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1735:
1734:
1731:
1730:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1707:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1663:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1652:
1649:
1648:
1640:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1621:
1620:
1617:
1616:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1601:
1600:
1592:
1587:
1585:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1566:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1553:
1550:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1537:
1532:
1530:
1525:
1523:
1517:
1515:
1507:
1455:Fossil of the
1446:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1428:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1385:
1384:
1375:Phylloxeroidea
1371:
1366:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1340:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1312:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1284:
1279:
1277:
1275:Sternorrhyncha
1269:
1253:Sternorrhyncha
1247:
1244:
1243:
1242:
1234:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1215:
1213:
1194:
1187:
1185:
1178:
1171:
1089:
1086:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1047:parasitic wasp
1044:
1037:
1035:
1020:
1013:
957:
954:
952:
949:
930:fungus weevils
809:photosynthesis
689:
686:
651:Pseudococcidae
629:A winged male
607:
604:
580:holometabolous
555:
552:
416:
413:
274:Sternorrhyncha
254:
253:
245:
244:
240:
239:
227:
223:
222:
210:
206:
205:
203:Sternorrhyncha
200:
196:
195:
190:
186:
185:
180:
176:
175:
170:
166:
165:
160:
156:
155:
150:
146:
145:
132:
131:
123:
122:
114:
113:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
49:
37:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6557:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6521:
6520:Scale insects
6518:
6517:
6515:
6498:
6492:
6488:
6482:
6478:
6473:
6469:
6465:
6460:
6456:
6452:
6447:
6443:
6439:
6434:
6430:
6426:
6421:
6417:
6413:
6408:
6404:
6400:
6395:
6391:
6387:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6369:
6365:
6361:
6355:
6351:
6346:
6342:
6337:
6331:
6327:
6322:
6316:
6312:
6311:
6309:
6307:
6303:
6299:
6294:
6274:
6273:Prosorrhyncha
6270:
6266:
6262:
6261:Coleorrhyncha
6255:
6245:
6239:
6237:
6231:
6230:
6228:
6226:
6222:
6216:
6210:
6208:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6180:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6161:Henicocoridae
6159:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6126:
6124:
6121:
6120:
6118:
6116:
6112:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6095:
6093:
6092:Hyocephalidae
6090:
6088:
6082:
6080:
6074:
6073:
6071:
6069:
6065:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6045:Pentatomidae
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5987:
5981:
5979:
5977:(shield bugs)
5973:
5971:
5970:Urostylididae
5968:
5967:
5965:
5960:(shield bugs)
5955:
5954:Pentatomoidea
5951:
5945:
5939:
5937:
5931:
5930:
5928:
5926:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5913:
5903:
5902:Velocipedidae
5900:
5898:
5892:
5890:
5884:
5882:
5876:
5874:
5870:Polyctenidae
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5854:(damsel bugs)
5850:
5848:
5842:
5840:
5839:Microphysidae
5837:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5824:Lasiochilidae
5822:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5805:
5803:
5797:
5795:
5791:Anthocoridae
5789:
5788:
5786:
5784:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5771:
5761:
5758:
5757:
5755:
5753:
5745:
5741:
5731:
5725:
5723:
5722:Helotrephidae
5720:
5719:
5717:
5715:
5711:
5705:
5701:Notonectidae
5699:
5698:
5696:
5694:
5693:Notonectoidea
5690:
5684:
5678:
5677:
5675:
5673:
5669:
5663:
5662:Potamocoridae
5660:
5658:
5655:
5654:
5652:
5650:
5646:
5640:
5634:
5632:
5626:
5625:
5623:
5621:
5617:
5611:
5605:
5603:
5597:
5596:
5594:
5592:
5588:
5582:
5576:
5575:
5573:
5571:
5567:
5564:
5554:
5550:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5526:Leptopodidae
5524:
5522:
5516:
5515:
5513:
5511:
5507:
5503:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5487:Madeoveliidae
5485:
5484:
5482:
5472:
5471:Mesovelioidea
5468:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5456:Macroveliidae
5454:
5452:
5446:
5445:
5443:
5441:
5437:
5431:
5425:
5424:
5422:
5420:
5416:
5410:
5408:(riffle bugs)
5404:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5391:
5390:
5388:
5386:
5382:
5379:
5369:
5365:
5355:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5339:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5326:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5292:
5290:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5276:
5268:
5267:Coleorrhyncha
5261:
5255:
5251:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5200:
5198:
5196:
5192:
5186:
5180:
5178:
5172:
5171:
5169:
5167:
5163:
5157:
5151:
5149:
5143:
5141:
5135:
5133:
5131:(palm scales)
5127:
5125:
5119:
5117:
5111:
5109:
5103:
5101:
5095:
5093:
5089:Margarodidae
5087:
5085:
5079:
5077:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5058:
5056:
5054:(felt scales)
5052:Eriococcidae
5050:
5048:
5042:
5040:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5025:(soft scales)
5021:
5019:
5015:Cerococcidae
5013:
5011:
5005:
5003:
4997:
4995:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4983:
4981:
4971:
4967:
4961:
4958:
4957:
4955:
4945:
4941:
4935:
4929:
4928:
4926:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4906:
4902:
4884:
4883:Tropiduchidae
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4820:Eurybrachidae
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4785:Acanaloniidae
4783:
4782:
4780:
4778:
4774:
4771:
4761:
4760:Fulgoromorpha
4757:
4747:
4746:Myerslopiidae
4744:
4742:
4736:
4734:
4733:Melizoderidae
4731:
4729:
4727:(leafhoppers)
4725:Cicadellidae
4723:
4721:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4713:
4709:
4703:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4691:
4689:
4679:
4675:
4669:
4668:Machaerotidae
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4648:Aphrophoridae
4646:
4645:
4643:
4638:(froghoppers)
4633:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4606:
4602:
4596:
4592:
4590:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4578:
4574:
4572:
4568:
4566:
4562:
4561:
4558:
4553:
4545:
4540:
4538:
4533:
4531:
4526:
4525:
4522:
4516:
4514:
4510:
4508:
4506:
4502:
4500:
4499:, green scale
4498:
4494:
4492:
4490:
4486:
4484:
4482:
4478:
4477:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4467:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4451:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4429:
4425:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4390:
4387:
4382:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4367:(335): 1–18.
4366:
4362:
4360:
4356:
4347:
4344:
4333:on 2013-04-04
4332:
4328:
4324:
4317:
4314:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4282:
4279:
4273:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4241:
4238:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4210:
4207:
4202:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4145:
4142:
4136:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4104:
4101:
4095:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4074:
4072:
4068:
4063:
4059:
4052:
4045:
4042:
4037:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4004:
4001:
3996:
3990:
3987:
3982:
3976:
3972:
3971:
3963:
3960:
3955:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3930:
3927:
3914:
3908:
3905:
3892:
3888:
3885:ویکی, پارسی.
3881:
3878:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3863:0-521-34107-8
3859:
3855:
3851:
3844:
3841:
3828:
3822:
3819:
3806:
3802:
3796:
3793:
3788:
3786:
3778:
3775:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3726:
3724:
3715:
3712:
3707:
3705:9781139464857
3701:
3697:
3696:
3688:
3685:
3682:
3677:
3674:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3650:
3647:
3642:
3636:
3632:
3631:
3623:
3620:
3607:
3601:
3598:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3554:
3551:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3524:
3521:
3508:
3504:
3502:
3501:Septobasidium
3494:
3491:
3486:
3480:
3476:
3475:
3467:
3464:
3459:
3453:
3449:
3444:
3443:
3437:
3430:
3427:
3422:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3373:
3370:
3364:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3345:
3336:
3333:
3328:
3322:
3318:
3317:
3309:
3306:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3270:
3267:
3261:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3237:
3234:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3180:
3177:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3132:
3129:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3089:
3086:
3081:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3048:
3045:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2995:
2988:
2985:
2980:
2974:
2970:
2969:
2961:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2909:
2904:
2898:
2894:
2893:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2854:
2850:
2844:
2841:
2835:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2814:
2805:
2802:
2797:
2794:
2789:
2786:
2781:
2778:
2773:
2770:
2765:
2762:
2757:
2756:Micrococcidae
2754:
2749:
2746:
2741:
2738:
2733:
2730:
2725:
2719:
2714:
2708:
2703:
2700:
2695:
2694:Eriococcoidae
2692:
2687:
2684:
2679:
2678:Dactylopiidae
2676:
2671:
2668:
2663:
2660:
2655:
2652:
2647:
2646:Cissococcidae
2644:
2639:
2636:
2633:Richard, 1986
2631:
2630:Carayonemidae
2628:
2623:
2620:
2615:
2612:
2607:
2604:
2599:
2593:
2588:
2585:
2584:
2580:Neococcoidea
2579:
2572:
2569:
2564:
2563:Weitschatidae
2558:
2553:
2550:
2545:
2542:
2537:
2536:Steingeliidae
2534:
2529:
2523:
2518:
2515:
2510:
2509:Pityococcidae
2507:
2502:
2499:
2494:
2488:
2483:
2480:
2475:
2474:Monophlebidae
2472:
2467:
2466:Matsucoccidae
2464:
2459:
2456:
2451:
2450:Marchalinidae
2448:
2443:
2442:Macrodrilidae
2440:
2435:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2418:Koteja, 2000b
2416:
2415:Labiococcidae
2410:
2405:
2402:
2397:
2391:
2386:
2380:
2375:
2374:Jersicoccidae
2369:
2364:
2358:
2353:
2347:
2342:
2336:
2331:
2325:
2320:
2314:
2309:
2306:
2301:
2300:Callipappidae
2298:
2293:
2292:Burmacoccidae
2287:
2282:
2276:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2258:
2257:
2248:
2247:
2239:
2235:
2234:
2226:
2225:
2217:
2216:
2208:
2207:
2199:
2198:
2190:
2189:
2181:
2180:
2172:
2171:
2163:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2084:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2066:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2055:Dactylopiidae
2050:
2049:
2043:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2032:
2031:
2023:
2022:
2014:
2013:
2005:
2004:
2001:
2000:(lac scales)
1999:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1985:
1984:(pit scales)
1983:
1977:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1943:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1901:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1881:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1865:
1864:
1861:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1840:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1830:Steingeliidae
1825:
1824:
1818:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1808:Pityococcidae
1803:
1802:
1795:
1794:
1791:
1788:‑
1787:
1786:
1778:
1777:
1769:
1768:
1760:
1759:
1751:
1750:
1742:
1741:
1733:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1726:Monophlebidae
1721:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1713:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1673:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1662:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1628:
1627:
1619:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1596:Matsucoccidae
1591:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1564:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1544:
1543:
1542:Burmacoccidae
1536:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1521:
1520:
1514:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1495:
1492:
1491:Late Jurassic
1488:
1484:
1479:
1471:
1468:
1464:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1444:
1443:
1435:
1434:
1426:
1425:
1417:
1416:
1408:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1376:
1370:
1369:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1332:
1331:
1328:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1318:(whiteflies)
1317:
1311:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1289:
1283:
1282:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1261:ribosomal RNA
1258:
1254:
1245:
1239:
1238:
1231:
1226:
1219:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1201:scarlet cloth
1199:, 1133. Silk
1198:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1175:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1153:
1148:
1147:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1063:
1057:
1053:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1021:Adult female
1017:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1007:
1001:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
955:
950:
948:
945:
944:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
910:
907:
906:
905:Septobasidium
900:
892:
889:
888:
883:
879:
877:
876:
870:
869:
864:
863:
857:
856:
851:
847:
843:
839:
838:
830:
826:
825:
824:Formica fusca
821:
817:
813:
810:
806:
802:
798:
793:
792:
787:
783:
780:
777:, feeding on
776:
771:
769:
765:
764:
759:
758:
753:
752:
747:
743:
739:
735:
734:
729:
728:
723:
719:
718:ectoparasites
715:
714:Robert Poulin
711:
707:
703:
694:
687:
685:
683:
679:
678:
673:
672:
666:
665:
664:Comstockiella
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
643:heterogametic
640:
632:
627:
623:
621:
617:
613:
605:
603:
601:
591:
587:
583:
581:
577:
569:
565:
560:
553:
551:
549:
544:
543:
538:
534:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
499:
497:
493:
487:
485:
481:
478:. The family
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
452:
450:
446:
442:
434:
430:
426:
421:
414:
412:
410:
409:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
383:
378:
374:
373:
368:
367:
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
318:Late Jurassic
314:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
268:
264:
260:
259:Scale insects
252:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
228:
226:Superfamily:
225:
224:
219:
214:
211:
208:
207:
204:
201:
198:
197:
194:
191:
188:
187:
184:
181:
178:
177:
174:
171:
168:
167:
164:
161:
158:
157:
154:
151:
148:
147:
142:
137:
133:
129:
124:
120:
115:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
47:
43:
42:Late Jurassic
33:
30:
19:
6305:
6212:Piesmatidae
6194:Oxycarenidae
6171:Idiostolidae
6130:(stilt bugs)
6047:(stink bugs)
5860:Pachynomidae
5834:Medocostidae
5829:Lyctocoridae
5810:
5774:Cimicomorpha
5760:Peloridiidae
5539:Aepophilidae
5520:(shore bugs)
5492:Mesoveliidae
5300:Dipsocoridae
5213:Carsidaridae
5113:Ortheziidae
5075:(lac scales)
5044:Diaspididae
5038:(cochineals)
5001:(beesoniids)
4999:Beesoniidae
4993:(pit scales)
4969:
4933:(whiteflies)
4931:Aleyrodidae
4923:Aleyrodoidea
4795:Achilixiidae
4738:Membracidae
4720:Aetalionidae
4712:Membracoidea
4623:Cicadomorpha
4595:Paraneoptera
4593:Superorder:
4587:Infraclass:
4512:
4504:
4496:
4488:
4480:
4472:
4463:
4399:
4395:
4389:
4364:
4358:
4354:
4346:
4335:. Retrieved
4331:the original
4326:
4316:
4291:
4287:
4281:
4254:
4250:
4240:
4223:
4219:
4209:
4161:(1): 23487.
4158:
4154:
4144:
4117:
4113:
4103:
4084:
4061:
4057:
4044:
4017:
4013:
4003:
3989:
3969:
3962:
3935:
3929:
3917:. Retrieved
3907:
3895:. Retrieved
3893:(in Persian)
3890:
3880:
3853:
3843:
3831:. Retrieved
3821:
3809:. Retrieved
3804:
3795:
3784:
3777:
3766:the original
3735:
3731:
3722:
3714:
3694:
3687:
3676:
3664:. Retrieved
3658:
3649:
3629:
3622:
3610:. Retrieved
3600:
3567:
3563:
3553:
3541:. Retrieved
3537:the original
3523:
3511:. Retrieved
3506:
3500:
3493:
3473:
3466:
3441:
3429:
3386:
3382:
3372:
3353:
3349:
3344:Cryptostigma
3343:
3335:
3315:
3308:
3286:(1): 35–44.
3283:
3279:
3269:
3250:
3246:
3236:
3193:
3189:
3179:
3144:
3131:
3098:
3094:
3088:
3061:
3057:
3047:
3004:
3000:
2987:
2967:
2960:
2925:
2921:
2911:
2891:
2843:
2827:
2820:
2804:Tachardiidae
2727:Koteja, 1989
2657:Fallen, 1814
2638:Cerococcidae
2617:Ferris, 1950
2601:Koteja, 2004
2598:Albicoccidae
2571:Xylococcidae
2566:Koteja, 2008
2531:Koteja, 2008
2458:Margarodidae
2445:Poinar, 2020
2437:Koteja, 2008
2396:Kukaspididae
2377:Koteja, 2000
2344:Koteja, 2008
2333:Koteja, 2000
2322:Koteja, 2000
2295:Koteja, 2004
2284:Koteja, 2008
2270:Apticoccidae
2254:
2237:
2154:
2138:
2117:Eriococcidae
2107:
2077:Eriococcidae
2070:
2069:
2053:
1996:
1980:
1957:
1934:
1908:(mealybugs)
1904:
1872:
1857:
1828:
1806:
1789:
1724:
1709:
1689:Xylococcidae
1687:
1665:
1644:Margarodidae
1642:
1610:
1594:
1555:
1539:
1512:
1502:
1499:Eriococcidae
1474:
1460:
1457:pseudococcid
1394:
1373:
1362:Aphidomorpha
1343:
1342:
1316:Aleyrodoidea
1314:
1286:
1249:
1237:Kerria lacca
1235:
1208:
1150:
1144:
1142:
1137:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1091:
1084:and Africa.
1078:prickly pear
1072:that attack
1067:
1049:
1030:
1026:
1004:
1002:
977:
970:insecticides
959:
951:Significance
941:
911:
903:
896:
893:on mealybugs
885:
873:
868:Dolichoderus
866:
862:Hippeococcus
860:
853:
837:Cryptostigma
835:
833:
822:
789:
772:
768:coextinction
761:
755:
749:
746:plant litter
741:
731:
725:
699:
675:
669:
662:
659:Eriococcidae
636:
630:
609:
596:
584:
573:
567:
540:
535:
511:metathoracic
500:
488:
468:Margarodidae
453:
438:
432:
428:
424:
407:
380:
370:
364:
362:
315:
285:
281:
258:
257:
248:
237:, 1903
229:
212:
209:Infraorder:
35:Scale insect
29:
6446:iNaturalist
6330:Wikispecies
6269:Heteroptera
6123:Artheneidae
6097:Rhopalidae
6058:Megarididae
6040:Plataspidae
6022:Lestoniidae
5991:Dinidoridae
5935:(flat bugs)
5896:(lace bugs)
5878:Reduviidae
5819:Joppeicidae
5807:Curaliidae
5680:Naucoridae
5672:Naucoroidea
5636:Ochteridae
5630:(toad bugs)
5620:Ochteroidea
5368:Gerromorpha
5260:Heteroptera
5218:Homotomidae
5208:Calophyidae
5203:Aphalaridae
5139:(mealybugs)
4868:Nogodinidae
4863:Meenoplidae
4830:Fulgoridae
4805:Delphacidae
4777:Fulgoroidea
4632:Cercopoidea
4226:: 413–425.
4087:. nwae200.
3723:Dactylopius
3499:"The genus
2807:Green, 1896
2788:Rhizoecidae
2686:Diaspididae
2665:Green, 1896
2649:Brain, 1918
2625:Brain, 1918
2614:Beesoniidae
2528:Serafinidae
2482:Ortheziidae
2238:Pityococcus
2156:Diaspididae
2115:, part of "
2109:Beesoniidae
2072:Palaearctic
1790:Pityococcus
1612:Ortheziidae
1513:Coccomorpha
1503:Pityococcus
1344:Coccomorpha
1157:Chinese wax
1146:Ceroplastes
938:sap beetles
846:mutualistic
820:Mutualistic
805:sooty mould
744:) inhabits
710:gymnosperms
706:angiosperms
647:Diaspididae
519:Hymenoptera
480:Beesoniidae
472:Ortheziidae
415:Description
282:Coccomorpha
272:, suborder
213:Coccomorpha
6514:Categories
6494:ScaleNet:
6176:Lygaeidae
6156:Geocoridae
6128:Berytidae
6115:Lygaeoidea
5799:Cimicidae
5783:Cimicoidea
5578:Corixidae
5570:Corixoidea
5553:Nepomorpha
5228:Psyllidae
5195:Psylloidea
5174:Adelgidae
5073:Kerriidae
5068:Kermesidae
4986:Aclerdidae
4944:Aphidoidea
4873:Ricaniidae
4858:Lophopidae
4853:Kinnaridae
4678:Cicadoidea
4663:Epipygidae
4653:Cercopidae
4581:Subclass:
4571:Arthropoda
4337:2013-04-04
4135:1885/63136
3919:17 January
3891:پارسی ویکی
3666:16 January
3612:14 January
3543:16 January
3513:18 January
2836:References
2732:Kermesidae
2587:Aclerdidae
2520:Tang, 1992
2404:Kuwaniidae
2385:Kozariidae
2281:Arnoldidae
1959:Kermesidae
1667:Kuwaniidae
1558:Kozariidae
1288:Psylloidea
1203:dyed with
1161:lac scales
994:parasitoid
966:quarantine
922:Eulophidae
918:Encyrtidae
850:tulip tree
791:Newsteadia
775:herbivores
733:Eucalyptus
727:Apiomorpha
702:Cretaceous
554:Life cycle
531:homologous
507:morphology
503:true flies
393:dyes, and
342:whiteflies
291:herbivores
261:are small
235:Handlirsch
199:Suborder:
173:Arthropoda
6497:Coccoidea
6350:COCCOIDEA
6336:Coccoidea
6306:Coccoidea
6241:Largidae
6136:Blissidae
6084:Coreidae
6076:Alydidae
6068:Coreoidea
6053:Canopidae
6027:Phloeidae
5996:Cydnidae
5933:Aradidae
5925:Aradoidea
5894:Tingidae
5534:Omaniidae
5518:Saldidae
5427:Hebridae
5419:Hebroidea
5406:Veliidae
5393:Gerridae
5385:Gerroidea
5258:Suborder
5236:Triozidae
5145:Putoidae
5023:Coccidae
4970:Coccoidea
4960:Aphididae
4909:Suborder
4790:Achilidae
4694:Cicadidae
4684:(cicadas)
4609:Suborder
4583:Pterygota
4563:Kingdom:
4552:Hemiptera
4475:website:
4416:216480240
4308:134243346
4183:2045-2322
3938:. Brill.
3584:1021-3589
3058:Evolution
2952:235685337
2740:Kerriidae
2341:Grohnidae
1998:Kerriidae
1459:mealybug
1398:(aphids)
1396:Aphididae
1265:cladogram
1257:phylogeny
1246:Evolution
1094:cochineal
1082:Australia
1045:The tiny
986:suffocate
934:ladybirds
926:predatory
829:mealybugs
803:on which
801:substrate
657:and some
655:Kerriidae
523:vestigial
494:or small
445:mealybugs
311:predators
286:Coccoidea
270:Hemiptera
243:Families
230:Coccoidea
193:Hemiptera
159:Kingdom:
153:Eukaryota
18:Coccoidea
6368:BugGuide
6357:BioLib:
6315:Wikidata
6184:Malcidae
5852:Nabidae
5844:Miridae
5727:Pleidae
5714:Pleoidea
5607:Nepidae
5591:Nepoidea
4950:(aphids)
4838:Gengidae
4825:Flatidae
4810:Derbidae
4800:Cixiidae
4589:Neoptera
4569:Phylum:
4565:Animalia
4554:families
4450:Archived
4381:55067700
4355:Acropyga
4327:ScaleNet
4201:27000526
4120:(1): 1.
4064:: 51–62.
4036:25283922
3872:48475172
3811:June 16,
3754:22127169
3681:ScaleNet
3592:84171305
3442:The Ants
3438:(1990).
3421:18611850
3403:25249807
3228:24834327
3171:21295676
3139:(2011).
3123:13719072
3115:20233171
3080:23289572
3039:15361433
3031:21750383
2944:34186999
2815:See also
2724:Inkaidae
2654:Coccidae
2517:Putoidae
1936:Coccidae
1874:Putoidae
1483:Triassic
1181:dyestuff
1163:produce
1152:Ericerus
1088:Products
1058:mealybug
956:As pests
947:larvae.
875:Barteria
797:honeydew
631:Drosicha
527:halteres
484:antennae
334:Jurassic
330:Triassic
299:honeydew
250:See text
169:Phylum:
163:Animalia
149:Domain:
6399:2646078
6321:Q209602
6189:Ninidae
6151:Cymidae
4848:Issidae
4577:Insecta
4575:Class:
4550:Extant
4464:On the
4259:Bibcode
4220:Zootaxa
4192:4802209
4163:Bibcode
4114:Zootaxa
4014:Zootaxa
3897:3 April
3762:5816903
3412:2603224
3300:2666130
3219:4020690
3198:Bibcode
2922:Zootaxa
2236:+
1467:Miocene
1165:shellac
1134:scarlet
1130:qirmizī
1126:cremesi
1122:carmesi
1114:crimson
1056:cassava
1033:fruits.
978:crawler
891:preying
688:Ecology
639:diploid
566:scale,
460:neoteny
403:scarlet
399:crimson
395:shellac
387:carmine
382:Opuntia
265:of the
263:insects
189:Order:
183:Insecta
179:Class:
6484:NZOR:
6464:109195
6259:Note:
4414:
4379:
4359:Azteca
4323:"Home"
4306:
4199:
4189:
4181:
4034:
3977:
3950:
3870:
3860:
3833:6 July
3760:
3752:
3702:
3637:
3590:
3582:
3481:
3454:
3419:
3409:
3401:
3323:
3298:
3226:
3216:
3169:
3159:
3121:
3113:
3078:
3037:
3029:
2975:
2950:
2942:
2899:
1478:fossil
1255:. The
1211:scales
1209:Kermes
1205:kermes
1138:siklāt
1118:Kermes
1108:, and
1098:kermes
1031:Citrus
1006:Citrus
924:, and
779:phloem
671:Icerya
576:instar
542:Icerya
521:. The
515:hamuli
492:aphids
482:lacks
464:ocelli
408:Kermes
391:kermes
372:Citrus
350:aphids
220:, 1952
46:Recent
6477:33381
6451:60922
6412:12496
6360:16834
6267:from
6265:clade
5264:(with
4412:S2CID
4377:S2CID
4304:S2CID
4054:(PDF)
3829:. FDA
3807:. FAO
3769:(PDF)
3758:S2CID
3728:(PDF)
3588:S2CID
3399:JSTOR
3296:JSTOR
3119:S2CID
3035:S2CID
2997:(PDF)
2948:S2CID
1494:amber
984:that
974:nymph
962:pests
786:fungi
674:. In
564:apple
496:flies
369:) on
322:amber
305:with
267:order
130:leaf
128:cycad
6472:NCBI
6459:ITIS
6438:1632
6433:GBIF
4357:and
4224:1668
4197:PMID
4179:ISSN
4118:2802
4032:PMID
4018:3869
3975:ISBN
3948:ISBN
3921:2020
3899:2021
3868:OCLC
3858:ISBN
3835:2016
3813:2015
3750:PMID
3700:ISBN
3668:2020
3635:ISBN
3614:2020
3580:ISSN
3545:2020
3515:2020
3479:ISBN
3452:ISBN
3417:PMID
3321:ISBN
3247:Oryx
3224:PMID
3167:PMID
3157:ISBN
3111:PMID
3076:PMID
3027:PMID
2973:ISBN
2940:PMID
2926:4979
2897:ISBN
1149:and
936:and
920:and
649:and
474:and
401:and
389:and
348:and
307:ants
52:PreꞒ
6394:EoL
6386:4YN
6381:CoL
6373:125
6345:AFD
4404:doi
4369:doi
4296:doi
4292:107
4267:doi
4228:doi
4187:PMC
4171:doi
4130:hdl
4122:doi
4089:doi
4022:doi
3940:doi
3740:doi
3572:doi
3448:553
3407:PMC
3391:doi
3387:275
3358:doi
3288:doi
3255:doi
3214:PMC
3206:doi
3149:doi
3103:doi
3066:doi
3017:hdl
3009:doi
3005:178
2930:doi
1487:mya
1124:or
1102:lac
1076:of
782:sap
633:sp.
618:by
441:wax
356:by
332:or
295:sap
6516::
6474::
6461::
6448::
6435::
6422::
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