155:) was founded in 1950 as part of industrialization process that the South African government considered essential for continued economic development and autonomy. South Africa had no known domestic oil reserves at the time, and this made the country very vulnerable to disruption of supplies coming from outside, albeit for different reasons at different times. Sasol was a successful way to protect the country's balance of payment against the increasing dependence on foreign oil. For years its principal product was synthetic fuel, and this business enjoyed significant government protection in South Africa during the
144:
supply in the 1940s. The DCL and ICL plants effectively complemented each other rather than competed. The reason for this is that coal hydrogenation yields high quality gasoline for aviation and motors, while FT synthesis chiefly produced high-quality diesel, lubrication oil, and waxes together with some smaller amounts of lower-quality motor gasoline. The DCL plants were also more developed, as lignite – the only coal available in many parts of
Germany – worked better with hydrogenation than with FT synthesis. After the war, Germany had to abandon its synthetic fuel production as it was prohibited by the
163:. Although it was generally much more expensive to produce oil from coal than from natural petroleum, the political as well as economic importance of achieving as much independence as possible in this sphere was sufficient to overcome any objections. Early attempts to attract private capital, foreign or domestic, were unsuccessful, and it was only with state support that the coal liquefaction could start. CTL continued to play a vital part in South Africa's national economy, providing around 30% of its domestic fuel demand. The
581:(LPG) and naphtha (petroleum ether). First tests were implemented at the end of 2008. A second and longer test campaign was started in October 2009. In 2011, Shenhua Group reported that the direct liquefaction plant had been in continuous and stable operations since November 2010, and that Shenhua had made 800 million yuan ($ 125.1 million) in earnings before taxes in the first six months of 2011 on the project.
1653:
2314:
2193:
Based on 1913 work by
Bergius it had been noted that certain minerals in coal ash had a mild catalytic activity, and this led to design work on a SRC-II demonstration plant to be built at Morgantown, WV. This too was cancelled in 1981. It appeared based on the work done so far to be desirable to separate the coal-dissolution and catalytic-hydrogenation functions to obtain a greater yield of
1639:
2824:
36:
503:. Advantages of this process are that dissolution and oil upgrading are taking place in the single reactor, products have high H/C ratio, and a fast reaction time, while the main disadvantages are high gas yield (this is basically a thermal cracking process), high hydrogen consumption, and limitation of oil usage only as a boiler oil because of impurities.
321:
280:
for processing, in combination with increasing temperature, through four stages of pyrolysis. Heat is transferred by hot gases produced by combustion of part of the produced char. A modification of this process, the COGAS Process, involves the addition of gasification of char. The TOSCOAL Process, an
2197:
oil; this was accomplished in a small+scale pilot plant at
Wilsonville, AL during 1981-85. The plant also included a critical-solvent deasher to recover a maximum amount of usable liquid product. In a commercial plant, the deasher underflow containing unreacted carbonaceous matter would be gasified
2192:
The SRC-I pilot plant operated at Fort Lewis Wash in the 1970s but was not able to overcome lack of solvent balance problems (continual imports of solvent containing polynuclear aromatics were necessary). A SRC-I demonstration plant was scheduled to be built at Newman, KY but was cancelled in 1981.
818:
Hydrogen from renewables: the hydrogen demand of coal liquefaction processes might be supplied through renewable energy sources including wind, solar, and biomass, significantly reducing the emissions associated with traditional methods of hydrogen synthesis (such as steam methane reforming or char
799:
The United States military has an active program to promote alternative fuels use, and utilizing vast domestic U.S. coal reserves to produce fuels through coal liquefaction would have obvious economic and security advantages. But with their higher carbon footprint, fuels from coal liquefaction face
845:
In terms of commercial development, coal conversion is experiencing a strong acceleration. Geographically, most active projects and recently commissioned operations are located in Asia, mainly in China, while U.S. projects have been delayed or canceled due to the development of shale gas and shale
143:
initiated industrial production of synthetic fuels derived from coal. This led to the construction of twelve DCL plants using hydrogenation and nine ICL plants using
Fischer–Tropsch synthesis by the end of World War II. In total, CTL provided 92% of Germany's air fuel and over 50% of its petroleum
498:
is added. The reaction takes place in a tubular reactor at a temperature between 430 °C (810 °F) and 465 °C (870 °F) at the pressure 150-200 bar. The produced oil has low quality and requires intensive upgrading. H-Coal process, developed by
Hydrocarbon Research, Inc., in
175:
CTL technologies have steadily improved since the Second World War. Technical development has resulted in a variety of systems capable of handling a wide array of coal types. However, only a few enterprises based on generating liquid fuels from coal have been undertaken, most of them based on ICL
268:
process, coal is heated at 680 °F (360 °C) to 1,380 °F (750 °C) in the absence of air. These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. However, any produced liquids are mostly a by-product and the main product is
800:
the significant challenge of reducing life-cycle GHG emissions to competitive levels, which demands continued research and development of liquefaction technology to increase efficiency and reduce emissions. A number of avenues of research & development will need to be pursued, including:
830:
Since 2014, the U.S. Department of Energy and the
Department of Defense have been collaborating on supporting new research and development in the area of coal liquefaction to produce military-specification liquid fuels, with an emphasis on jet fuel, which would be both cost-effective and in
296:
Liquid yields of pyrolysis and the
Karrick process are generally considered too low for practical use for synthetic liquid fuel production. The resulting coal tars and oils from pyrolysis generally require further treatment before they can be usable as motor fuels; they are processed by
707:
The above instances of commercial plants based on indirect coal liquefaction processes, as well as many others not listed here including those in planning stages and under construction, are tabulated in the
Gasification Technologies Council's World Gasification Database.
167:
of South Africa in the 1990s made Sasol search for products that could prove more competitive in the global marketplace; as of the new millennium the company was focusing primarily on its petrochemical business, as well as on efforts to convert natural gas into crude oil
814:
Coal/biomass/natural gas feedstock blends for coal liquefaction: Utilizing carbon-neutral biomass and hydrogen-rich natural gas as co-feeds in coal liquefaction processes has significant potential for bringing fuel products' life-cycle GHG emissions into competitive
226:, often at high pressures and temperatures. Since liquid hydrocarbons generally have a higher hydrogen-carbon molar ratio than coals, either hydrogenation or carbon-rejection processes must be employed in both ICL and DCL technologies.
842:. The 2016 Award recipient is Mr. Jona Pillay, executive director for Gasification & CTL, Jindal Steel & Power Ltd (India). The 2017 Award recipient is Dr. Yao Min, Deputy General Manager of Shenhua Ningxia Coal Group (China).
2719:
176:
technology; the most successful one has been Sasol in South Africa. CTL also received new interest in the early 2000s as a possible mitigation option for reducing oil dependence, at a time when rising oil prices and concerns over
589:
unit. The oil produced had properties that were unique when compared to other coal oils; it was lighter and had far fewer heteroatom impurities. The process was scaled-up to the 6 ton per day level, but not proven commercially.
552:
There are also a number of two-stage direct liquefaction processes; however, after the 1980s only the
Catalytic Two-stage Liquefaction Process, modified from the H-Coal Process; the Liquid Solvent Extraction Process by
446:
584:
Chevron
Corporation developed a process invented by Joel W. Rosenthal called the Chevron Coal Liquefaction Process (CCLP). It is unique due to the close-coupling of the non-catalytic dissolver and the catalytic
513:
The Nuclear Utility Services Corporation developed hydrogenation process which was patented by Wilburn C. Schroeder in 1976. The process involved dried, pulverized coal mixed with roughly 1wt%
92:. This process is often known as "Coal to X" or "Carbon to X", where X can be many different hydrocarbon-based products. However, the most common process chain is "Coal to Liquid Fuels" (CTL).
222:
In contrast, direct liquefaction processes convert coal into liquids directly without having to rely on intermediate steps by breaking down the organic structure of coal with application of
188:
Specific liquefaction technologies generally fall into two categories: direct liquefaction (DCL) and indirect liquefaction (ICL) processes. Direct processes are based on approaches such as
689:(SNG). The Great Plains Gasification Plant in Beulah, North Dakota is a coal-to-SNG facility producing 160 million cubic feet per day of SNG, and has been in operation since 1984. Several
475:
is added. The process takes place in a tubular reactor at the pressure of 300 bar (30 MPa) and at the temperature of 470 °C (880 °F). This process was also explored by
2645:
2257:
Lowe, Phillip A.; Schroeder, Wilburn C.; Liccardi, Anthony L. (1976). "Technical Economies, Synfuels and Coal Energy Symposium, Solid-Phase Catalytic Coal Liquefaction Process".
2118:
Ekinci, E.; Yardim, Y.; Razvigorova, M.; Minkova, V.; Goranova, M.; Petrov, N.; Budinova, T. (2002). "Characterization of liquid products from pyrolysis of subbituminous coal".
1960:
3090:
1986:
3080:
3048:
2596:"Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions Research and Development Leading to Cost-Competitive Coal-to-Liquids (CTL) Based Jet Fuel Production Solicitation Number: DE-FOA-0000981"
2399:
Tarka, Thomas J.; Wimer, John G.; Balash, Peter C.; Skone, Timothy J.; Kern, Kenneth C.; Vargas, Maria C.; Morreale, Bryan D.; White III, Charles W.; Gray, David (2009).
2208:
1709:
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less than or equal to those of their conventional petroleum-based equivalent, as required by Section 526 of the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007.
726:
emissions from the gasification process or as well as from generation of necessary process heat and electricity inputs to the liquefaction reactors, thus releasing
471:, Germany. This plant operated from 1981 to 1987. In this process, coal is mixed with a recycle solvent and iron catalyst. After preheating and pressurizing, H
549:. Other single-stage hydrogenation processes are the Exxon Donor Solvent Process, the Imhausen High-pressure Process, and the Conoco Zinc Chloride Process.
831:
accordance with EISA Section 526. Projects underway in this area are described under the U.S. Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory's
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2487:
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fuels. Also, legislation in the United States has restricted the military's use of alternative liquid fuels to only those demonstrated to have life-cycle
832:
717:
57:
44:
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into the saline aquifer of Erdos Basin, at a rate of 100,000 tonnes per year. As of late October 2013, an accumulated amount of 154,000 tonnes of CO
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2411:
2096:
1938:
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357:
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developed the NEDOL process. In this process, coal is mixed with a recycled solvent and a synthetic iron-based catalyst; after preheating, H
3178:
344:
is typically added to the mixture. The reaction occurs at between 400 °C (752 °F) to 500 °C (932 °F) and 20 to 70
229:
At industrial scales (i.e. thousands of barrels/day) a coal liquefaction plant typically requires multibillion-dollar capital investments.
2460:
Mantripragada, H.; Rubin, E. (2011). "Techno-economic evaluation of coal-to-liquids (CTL) plants with carbon capture and sequestration".
616:
gas). In the second stage, the syngas is converted into light hydrocarbons using one of three main processes: Fischer–Tropsch synthesis,
1891:
Spalding-Fecher, R.; Williams, A.; van Horen, C. (2000). "Energy and environment in South Africa: charting a course to sustainability".
3075:
2703:
2407:
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1964:
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1990:
1813:
2628:
656:
2722:
REVIEW OF WORLDWIDE COAL TO LIQUIDS R, D&D ACTIVITIES AND THE NEED FOR FURTHER INITIATIVES WITHIN EUROPE (2.9MB), 52pp, 2009
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822:
Process improvements such as intensification of the Fischer–Tropsch process, hybrid liquefaction processes, and more efficient
2756:
2326:
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101:
2712:
340:, developed by Friedrich Bergius in 1913. In this process, dry coal is mixed with heavy oil recycled from the process. A
731:
599:
216:
1676:
491:
2513:
1707:
Takao Kaneko, Frank Derbyshire, Eiichiro Makino, David Gray, Masaaki Tamura, Kejian Li (2012). "Coal Liquefaction".
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804:
761:
735:
286:
49:
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1438:
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105:
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and developmental CCS methods to offset emissions from both synthesis and utilization of liquid fuels from coal,
563:, a Chinese coal mining company, decided in 2002 to build a direct liquefaction plant in Erdos, Inner Mongolia (
100:
Coal liquefactions originally was developed at the beginning of the 20th century. The best-known CTL process is
3163:
2965:
2878:
2873:
788:
780:
742:
242:
113:
608:
Indirect coal liquefaction (ICL) processes operate in two stages. In the first stage, coal is converted into
151:
South Africa developed its own CTL technology in the 1950s. The South African Coal, Oil and Gas Corporation (
3125:
1658:
776:
746:
578:
696:
In another application of gasification, hydrogen extracted from synthetic gas reacts with nitrogen to form
3100:
2908:
1866:
1666:
460:
223:
2415:
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several plants based on this technology were built in Germany; these plants were extensively used during
2955:
2853:
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2433:
2266:
2230:
808:
500:
838:
Every year, a researcher or developer in coal conversion is rewarded by the industry in receiving the
2960:
2935:
2141:
Stranges, Anthony N. (1984). "Friedrich Bergius and the Rise of the German Synthetic Fuel Industry".
2032:
467:, was used in the demonstration plant with the capacity of 200 ton of lignite per day, built in
290:
3146:
Note: Peat is considered a precursor to coal. Graphite is only technically considered a coal type.
3038:
2898:
2798:
2293:
1601:
Undefined amount of coal/biomass to 60,000 BPD jet fuel/gasoline/diesel and 200-400 MW electricity
1293:
1.5 million TPY of high-sulfur IL coal generating 10,200 barrels per day of high quality gasoline
3173:
3110:
3053:
3023:
3013:
2970:
2749:
2348:
2166:
2158:
1786:
651:
catalyst. This process, under the moniker MTG (MTG for "Methanol To Gasoline"), was developed by
237:
A number of carbonization processes exist. The carbonization conversion typically occurs through
145:
2198:
to provide hydrogen to drive the process. This program ended in 1985 and the plant was scrapped.
336:
One of the main methods of direct conversion of coal to liquids by hydrogenation process is the
140:
2315:
Rosenthal, et al., 1982. The Chevron coal liquefaction process (CCLP). Fuel 61 (10): 1045-1050.
3115:
2990:
2843:
2092:
2082:
2050:
2020:
1934:
1845:
1809:
1722:
1671:
324:
117:
826:
technologies needed for production of oxygen (e.g. ceramic membrane-based oxygen separation).
659:(JAMG) in Shanxi, China. Based on this methanol synthesis, China has also developed a strong
116:
in the 1920s. The FT synthesis is the basis for indirect coal liquefaction (ICL) technology.
3105:
2858:
2469:
2150:
2123:
2040:
1924:
1900:
1837:
1776:
1714:
1441:(BOE), 2) expand to 5.3 million BOE (3) expand to 8.0 million BOE (47 billion cf/y), 516 MW
784:
282:
254:
1373:
Not specified. Coal to methanol and other chemicals (over 100 million tons of coal supply)
521:
produced in a separate gasifier. The process ultimately yielded a synthetic crude product,
2803:
2727:
2574:
2446:
2279:
2243:
2194:
1452:
Australian-American Energy Co. (Terra Nova Minerals or Great Western Energy), Crow Nation
668:
586:
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to supply Germany with fuel and lubricants. The Kohleoel Process, developed in Germany by
337:
331:
273:
261:
204:
164:
160:
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technologies. There are technically feasible low-emission configurations of CTL plants.
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823:
727:
672:
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603:
203:
Indirect liquefaction processes generally involve gasification of coal to a mixture of
169:
2127:
1904:
3157:
2742:
2378:
2170:
1644:
833:
Advanced Fuels Synthesis R&D area in the Coal and Coal-Biomass to Liquids Program
625:
560:
345:
298:
277:
265:
250:
197:
189:
120:, also a German chemist, invented direct coal liquefaction (DCL) as a way to convert
89:
1790:
3130:
783:, such as enacted in the State of California, reflect an increasing demand for low
554:
483:
456:
132:
128:
109:
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1718:
690:
131:'s four-year plan of 1936, and became an integral part of German industry during
17:
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3000:
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2925:
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1930:
1652:
686:
682:
629:
499:
1963, mixes pulverized coal with recycled liquids, hydrogen and catalyst in the
452:
85:
2493:. China Shenhua Coal to Liquid & Chemical Engineering Company. July 9, 2012
2379:"Gasification Technologies Council Resource Center World Gasification Database"
1249:
30.6 mm bbls/year of synthetic crude (or 182 billion cubic feet per year)
2823:
2808:
1841:
1634:
1200:
American Lignite Energy LLC (North American Coal, Headwaters Energy Services)
514:
2212:
510:
and implemented as pilot plants in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s.
3135:
3120:
3068:
3018:
3008:
2088:
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757:
564:
238:
193:
156:
136:
2054:
2045:
2019:
Höök, Mikael; Fantazzini, Dean; Angelantoni, André; Snowden, Simon (2013).
917:
20,000 BPD; primary products diesel fuel, liquefied petroleum gas, naphtha
35:
772:
had been injected since 2010, which reached or exceeded the design value.
517:
catalysts. Hydrogenation occurred by use of high temperature and pressure
3085:
3033:
2940:
2918:
2883:
2863:
2838:
2813:
1621:
300 tons of coal into 525 BPD liquid fuels including diesel and jet fuel
676:
640:
621:
617:
507:
348:
341:
306:
246:
208:
177:
734:. This is especially true if coal liquefaction is conducted without any
722:
Typically coal liquefaction processes are associated with significant CO
557:; and the Brown Coal Liquefaction Process of Japan have been developed.
506:
The SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes were developed by
441:{\displaystyle n{\ce {C}}+(n+1){\ce {H2 -> C}}{}_{n}{\ce {H}}_{2n+2}}
2945:
2793:
2021:"Hydrocarbon liquefaction: viability as a peak oil mitigation strategy"
839:
697:
693:
plants are in operation or in project in China, South Korea and India.
664:
648:
522:
468:
312:
In summary, the economic viability of this technology is questionable.
121:
2616:
2162:
2930:
2848:
2629:
Coal Conversion to Higher Value Hydrocarbons: A Tangible Acceleration
644:
636:
609:
518:
302:
212:
2488:"The Progress of the CCS Demonstration Project in the Shenhua Group"
1781:
1413:
4.3 million TPY coal/biomass to 400 million GPY diesel and jet fuel
1333:
4.2-11.4 million TPY Healy-mined coal; ~40k BPD liquid fuels; 110MW
655:
in the early 1970s, and is being tested at a demonstration plant by
2154:
897:
160,000 BPD; primary products gasoline and light olefins (alkenes)
320:
309:
species, after which they are finally processed into liquid fuels.
2783:
652:
476:
319:
152:
3028:
2980:
2868:
2788:
2765:
701:
464:
81:
2738:
2713:
Coal and Coal-Biomass to Liquids Program, NETL official website
1589:
Tyonek Coal-to-Liquids (formerly Alaska Accelergy CTL Project)
180:
made planners rethink existing supply chains for liquid fuels.
2975:
1926:
Synthetic Fuels Handbook: Properties, Process, and Performance
1209:
11.5 million TPY lignite coal to 32,000 BPD of undefined fuel
29:
2401:"Affordable Low Carbon Diesel from Domestic Coal and Biomass"
27:
Chemical process of converting coal into liquid hydrocarbons
1763:"A review on coal to liquid fuels and its coal consumption"
1269:
16 million TPY coal to 80,000 BPD of diesel and naphtha; CO
567:), with barrel capacity of 20 thousand barrels per day (3.2
2720:
Research Programme of the Research Fund for Coal and Steel
2514:"Shenhua Group's Carbon Capture and Storage Demonstration"
977:
3,960,000 (Nm/d) syngas capacity; Fischer–Tropsch liquids
1189:
7,500 TPD of coal to 18,000 BPD gasoline and 300 BPD LPG
885:
Sasol Synfuels II (West) & Sasol Synfuels III (East)
398:
2734:
2646:"World (Non-U.S.) Proposed Gasification Plant Database"
1989:. National Energy Technology Laboratory. Archived from
1963:. National Energy Technology Laboratory. Archived from
1313:
1,000 tpd ammonia; 2,000 BPD clean fuels and chemicals
2704:
Indirect Liquefaction Processes, NETL official website
2552:
T., Bartis, James; Lawrence, Van Bibber (2011-01-01).
632:. Fischer–Tropsch is the oldest of the ICL processes.
1393:
Bitumen crude oil to 340,000 BPD jet and diesel fuel
1150:
858:
700:. Ammonia then reacts with carbon dioxide to produce
360:
351:
pressure. The reaction can be summarized as follows:
3091:
Health and environmental impact of the coal industry
2695:
Direct Liquefaction Processes, NETL official website
1257:
Cook Inlet Coal-to Liquids Project (aka Beluga CTL)
577: m/d) of liquid products including diesel oil,
172:) using its expertise in Fischer–Tropsch synthesis.
3081:
Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia
2999:
2831:
2772:
2728:
Coal To Liquids on World Coal-To-X official website
1756:
1754:
1752:
2670:. National Energy Technology Laboratory. June 2014
2648:. National Energy Technology Laboratory. June 2014
2294:"China Shenhua coal-to-liquids project profitable"
2200:Cleaner Coal Technology Programme (October 1999).
1529:Rentech/Peabody Joint Development Agreement (JDA)
440:
293:, uses hot recycled solids for the heat transfer.
2202:"Technology Status Report 010: Coal Liquefaction"
2025:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A
1197:American Lignite Energy (aka Coal Creek Project)
1137:30,000 BPD Phase I 45,000 BPD + 840 MW Phase II
541:) suitable for use as fuels, small amounts of NH
1229:Petcoke to up to 30,000 BPD ultra-clean diesel
860:World (Non-U.S.) Coal to Liquid Fuels Projects
482:During the 1970s and 1980s, Japanese companies
1710:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
1260:AIDEA and Alaska Natural Resources to Liquids
1097:4 million tonnes/year of diesel & naphtha
855:World (Non-U.S.) Coal to Liquid Fuels Projects
219:syngas is converted into liquid hydrocarbons.
2750:
2554:"Alternative Fuels for Military Applications"
2296:. American Fuels Coalition. September 8, 2011
1481:3 million TPY coal to 11,700 BPD of gasoline
1008:Industrial Corporation of Mongolia LLC (ICM)
795:Research and development of coal liquefaction
8:
1834:Germany's synthetic fuel industry, 1927–1945
1832:Stranges, A.N. (2000). Lesch, John E (ed.).
1741:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1324:Fairbanks Economic Development Corp. (FEDC)
1017:13,200,000 (Nm/d) syngas capacity; gasoline
764:demonstration project, involves injecting CO
260:One typical example of carbonization is the
2668:"U.S. Proposed Gasification Plant Database"
1918:
1916:
1914:
1592:Accelergy, Tyonek Native Corporation (TNC)
127:Coal liquefaction was an important part of
2757:
2743:
2735:
1827:
1825:
1512:Rentech Energy Midwest Corporation (REMC)
1304:Rentech Energy Midwest Corporation (REMC)
1217:Belwood Coal-to-Liquids Project (Natchez)
2580:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2044:
1836:. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 147–216.
1780:
1615:Perry County/Muhlenberg County, Kentucky
749:is another adverse environmental effect.
718:Environmental impact of the coal industry
643:, which is subsequently polymerized into
423:
418:
411:
409:
397:
392:
387:
364:
359:
211:, often known as synthesis gas or simply
2259:American Society of Mechanical Engineers
1768:International Journal of Energy Research
1364:Future Fuels, Kentucky River Properties
620:synthesis with subsequent conversion to
269:semi-coke - a solid and smokeless fuel.
60:of all important aspects of the article.
2329:. National Energy Technology Laboratory
2076:
2074:
2072:
2070:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
1699:
1584:Active (no new information since 2011)
1464:Active (no new information since 2011)
928:Yitai Coal Oil Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
905:Shenhua Direct Coal Liquefaction Plant
685:reaction converts syngas to substitute
249:, oil and water vapor, non-condensable
159:years for its contribution to domestic
135:. During the mid-1930s, companies like
2570:
2559:
2442:
2431:
2373:
2371:
2369:
2275:
2264:
2239:
2228:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2180:
1761:Höök, Mikael; Aleklett, Kjell (2010).
1734:
1688:Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir
1273:for EOR; 380 MW electrical generation
957:300,000 t/a methanol from MTG process
56:Please consider expanding the lead to
3049:mining disasters in the United States
2412:National Energy Technology Laboratory
1569:Secure Energy CTL (aka MidAmericaC2L
997:160,000 mt/a Fischer–Tropsch liquids
948:Jincheng Anthracite Mining Co., Ltd.
937:160,000 mt/a Fischer–Tropsch liquids
850:Coal liquefaction plants and projects
233:Pyrolysis and carbonization processes
7:
1469:Medicine Bow Fuel and Power Project
1180:TransGas Development Systems (TGDS)
1177:Adams Fork Energy - TransGas WV CTL
283:TOSCO II oil shale retorting process
1804:Davis, B.H.; Occelli, M.L. (2006).
1152:U.S. Coal to Liquid Fuels Projects
1077:46,000 BPD Fischer–Tropsch liquids
1057:46,000 BPD Fischer–Tropsch liquids
1037:30,000 BPD Fischer–Tropsch liquids
533:gas, light-medium weight liquids (C
3076:Environmental issues in Appalachia
2408:United States Department of Energy
1893:Energy for Sustainable Development
1147:U.S. Coal to Liquid Fuels Projects
760:, an Inner Mongolian plant with a
25:
1961:"Indirect Liquefaction Processes"
1424:USA Synthetic Fuel Corp. (USASF)
1240:USA Synthetic Fuel Corp. (USASF)
2822:
2209:Department of Trade and Industry
1651:
1637:
1509:Rentech Energy Midwest Facility
657:Jincheng Anthracite Mining Group
635:In methanol synthesis processes
104:(FT), named after the inventors
34:
2512:Wu Xiuzhang (January 7, 2014).
1987:"Direct Liquefaction Processes"
1461:First phase: 8,000 BPD liquids
1252:Planning/financing not secured
1045:Yitai Ordos CTL Plant Phase II
663:industry, with outputs such as
612:(a purified mixture of CO and H
272:The COED Process, developed by
48:may be too short to adequately
1683:Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program
1679:, defunct US state corporation
1492:North American Biofuels Group
1088:Shenhua Group Corporation Ltd
741:High water consumption in the
401:
384:
372:
58:provide an accessible overview
1:
2327:"Great Plains Synfuels Plant"
2128:10.1016/S0378-3820(02)00056-5
1905:10.1016/S0973-0826(08)60259-8
1719:10.1002/14356007.a07_197.pub2
1437:Three Phases: 1) 2.7 million
1401:Illinois Clean Fuels Project
1203:MacLean County, North Dakota
911:Erdos, Inner Mongolia, China
594:Indirect conversion processes
545:and significant amounts of CO
289:, which is also used for the
1381:Hunton "Green Refinery" CTL
1183:Mingo County, West Virginia
1085:Shenhua Ningxia CTL Project
1051:Ordos, Zhungeer-Dalu, China
732:anthropogenic global warming
712:Environmental considerations
124:into synthetic oil in 1913.
3179:Synthetic fuel technologies
2474:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.02.053
1677:Synthetic Fuels Corporation
1575:McCracken County, Kentucky
1281:Decatur Gasification Plant
1071:Guanquanbao, Urunqi, China
492:Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
80:is a process of converting
3195:
3096:Health effects of coal ash
2904:power in the United States
2120:Fuel Processing Technology
1923:Speight, James G. (2008).
1549:Rentech/Peabody Minemouth
1404:American Clean Coal Fuels
1361:Future Fuels Kentucky CTL
1344:Freedom Energy Diesel LLC
1341:Freedom Energy Diesel CTL
1111:Mozambique, Tete province
1005:ICM Coal to Liquids Plant
914:CTL (direct liquefaction)
805:Carbon capture and storage
775:In the United States, the
762:carbon capture and storage
736:carbon capture and storage
715:
597:
329:
264:. In this low-temperature
245:. It produces condensable
84:into liquid hydrocarbons:
3144:
2820:
1842:10.1007/978-94-015-9377-9
1806:Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
1455:Big Horn County, Montana
1439:barrels of oil equivalent
1237:CleanTech Energy Project
1192:Operations 2016 or later
1091:China, Yinchuan, Ningxia
488:Sumitomo Metal Industries
102:Fischer–Tropsch synthesis
2966:Greenhouse gas emissions
1931:McGraw-Hill Professional
1572:MidAmericaC2L / Siemens
1108:Clean Carbon Industries
1105:Clean Carbon Industries
781:low-carbon fuel standard
743:water-gas shift reaction
253:, and a solid residue -
243:destructive distillation
114:Kaiser Wilhelm Institute
3126:Problems in coal mining
2617:Homepage of Carbon to X
2349:"Carbon to X Processes"
1867:"Historical Milestones"
1713:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
1659:Renewable energy portal
1515:East Dubuque, Illinois
1495:Weirton, West Virginia
1475:Carbon County, Wyoming
1407:Coles County, Illinois
1367:Perry County, Kentucky
1307:East Dubuque, Illinois
1065:Yitai ĂśrĂĽmqi CTL Plant
985:Shanxi Lu'an CTL Plant
931:Ordos, Zhungeer, China
840:World Carbon To X Award
777:Renewable Fuel Standard
747:steam methane reforming
730:that can contribute to
600:Fischer–Tropsch process
579:liquefied petroleum gas
525:, a limited amount of C
316:Hydrogenation processes
217:Fischer–Tropsch process
3101:History of coal mining
2569:Cite journal requires
2516:. Cornerstone Magazine
2441:Cite journal requires
2274:Cite journal requires
2238:Cite journal requires
2046:10.1098/rsta.2012.0319
1667:Coal-water slurry fuel
1561:10,000 and 30,000 BPD
1541:10,000 and 30,000 BPD
1347:Morristown, Tennessee
1114:Coal waste-to-liquids
1028:Yitai Yili Energy Co.
1011:Tugrug Nuur, Mongolia
988:Shanxi Lu'an Co. Ltd.
971:Secunda, South Africa
891:Secunda, South Africa
442:
327:
224:hydrogen-donor solvent
2956:Fossil fuel phase-out
2854:Black coal equivalent
2081:Lee, Sunggyu (1996).
1871:Sasol Company Profile
1552:Rentech/Peabody Coal
1532:Rentech/Peabody Coal
1223:Natchez, Mississippi
1025:Yitai Yili CTL Plant
809:enhanced oil recovery
501:ebullated bed reactor
443:
323:
287:Lurgi–Ruhrgas process
96:Historical background
2961:Great Smog of London
2894:pollution mitigation
2633:Cornerstone Magazine
2414:: 21. Archived from
2091:. pp. 166–198.
1612:US Fuel Corporation
1581:10,200 BPD gasoline
1472:DKRW Advanced Fuels
1421:Lima Energy Project
1310:CTL, polygeneration
880:Start of Operations
756:emission control at
358:
291:shale oil extraction
2879:fired power station
2874:combustion products
2799:Sub-bituminous coal
2776:(lowest to highest)
2773:Coal types by grade
2354:. World Carbon To X
2037:2013RSPTA.37220319H
1595:Cook Inlet, Alaska
1301:East Dubuque Plant
1263:Cook Inlet, Alaska
1153:
1125:Arckaringa Project
945:Jincheng MTG Plant
900:1977(II)/1983(III)
861:
400:
3014:Black lung disease
2991:Toxic heavy metals
2971:Metallurgical coal
2635:, 11 October 2013.
2598:. January 31, 2014
2122:. 77–78: 309–315.
2031:(2006): 20120319.
1564:Delayed/Cancelled
1544:Delayed/Cancelled
1524:Delayed/Cancelled
1504:Delayed/Cancelled
1489:NABFG Weirton CTL
1484:Delayed/Cancelled
1416:Delayed/Cancelled
1396:Delayed/Cancelled
1356:Delayed/Cancelled
1327:Fairbanks, Alaska
1316:Delayed/Cancelled
1296:Delayed/Cancelled
1287:Decatur, Illinois
1276:Delayed/Cancelled
1232:Delayed/Cancelled
1212:Delayed/Cancelled
1151:
859:
819:gasification), and
438:
388:
328:
146:Potsdam conference
3169:German inventions
3151:
3150:
2909:preparation plant
2844:Asian brown cloud
2777:
2098:978-1-56032-361-7
2084:Alternative fuels
1940:978-0-07-149023-8
1933:. pp. 9–10.
1851:978-94-015-9377-9
1737:cite encyclopedia
1672:Biomass to liquid
1628:
1627:
1521:1,250 BPD diesel
1434:, polygeneration
1144:
1143:
1131:Australia, South
968:Sasol (Pty) Ltd.
888:Sasol (Pty) Ltd.
661:coal-to-chemicals
479:in South Africa.
421:
406:
391:
367:
325:Friedrich Bergius
118:Friedrich Bergius
78:Coal liquefaction
75:
74:
18:Coal liquifaction
16:(Redirected from
3186:
3106:Hydrogen sulfide
2826:
2775:
2759:
2752:
2745:
2736:
2731:
2730:
2716:
2715:
2707:
2706:
2698:
2697:
2680:
2679:
2677:
2675:
2664:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2642:
2636:
2625:
2619:
2614:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2603:
2592:
2586:
2585:
2578:
2572:
2567:
2565:
2557:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2536:"Pub.L. 110-140"
2532:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2521:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2492:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2468:(5): 2808–2816.
2457:
2451:
2450:
2444:
2439:
2437:
2429:
2427:
2426:
2420:
2405:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2375:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2353:
2345:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2334:
2323:
2317:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2277:
2272:
2270:
2262:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2241:
2236:
2234:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2217:
2211:. Archived from
2206:
2190:
2175:
2174:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2106:
2105:
2078:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2061:
2048:
2016:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1947:
1920:
1909:
1908:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1862:
1856:
1855:
1829:
1820:
1819:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1784:
1758:
1747:
1746:
1740:
1732:
1704:
1661:
1656:
1655:
1647:
1642:
1641:
1387:Freeport, Texas
1246:Synthetic crude
1154:
1117:65,000 BPD fuel
951:Jincheng, China
925:Yitai CTL Plant
862:
785:carbon footprint
728:greenhouse gases
639:is converted to
573:
572:
447:
445:
444:
439:
437:
436:
422:
419:
416:
415:
410:
407:
404:
399:
396:
389:
368:
365:
281:analogue to the
70:
67:
61:
38:
30:
21:
3194:
3193:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3164:Coal technology
3154:
3153:
3152:
3147:
3140:
2995:
2832:Coal combustion
2827:
2818:
2804:Bituminous coal
2774:
2768:
2763:
2726:
2725:
2711:
2710:
2702:
2701:
2693:
2692:
2689:
2684:
2683:
2673:
2671:
2666:
2665:
2661:
2651:
2649:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2627:Serge Perineau
2626:
2622:
2615:
2611:
2601:
2599:
2594:
2593:
2589:
2579:
2568:
2558:
2551:
2550:
2546:
2538:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2519:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2485:
2481:
2459:
2458:
2454:
2440:
2430:
2424:
2422:
2418:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2376:
2367:
2357:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2346:
2342:
2332:
2330:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2313:
2309:
2299:
2297:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2273:
2263:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2237:
2227:
2221:
2219:
2215:
2204:
2199:
2195:synthetic crude
2191:
2178:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2080:
2079:
2068:
2059:
2057:
2018:
2017:
2006:
1996:
1994:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1970:
1968:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1922:
1921:
1912:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1876:
1874:
1864:
1863:
1859:
1852:
1831:
1830:
1823:
1816:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1782:10.1002/er.1596
1775:(10): 848–864.
1760:
1759:
1750:
1733:
1729:
1706:
1705:
1701:
1696:
1657:
1650:
1643:
1636:
1633:
1449:Many Stars CTL
1433:
1321:FEDC Healy CTL
1272:
1149:
965:Sasol Synfuels
857:
852:
797:
771:
767:
755:
725:
720:
714:
615:
606:
596:
587:hydroprocessing
570:
568:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
497:
474:
417:
408:
356:
355:
338:Bergius process
334:
332:Bergius process
318:
274:FMC Corporation
262:Karrick process
235:
205:carbon monoxide
186:
165:democratization
161:energy security
98:
71:
65:
62:
55:
43:This article's
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3192:
3190:
3182:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3156:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3145:
3142:
3141:
3139:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3111:Mining regions
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3039:homogenization
3036:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3005:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2986:Sulfur dioxide
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2922:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2899:power in China
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2835:
2833:
2829:
2828:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2780:
2778:
2770:
2769:
2764:
2762:
2761:
2754:
2747:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2723:
2717:
2708:
2699:
2688:
2687:External links
2685:
2682:
2681:
2659:
2637:
2620:
2609:
2587:
2571:|journal=
2544:
2527:
2504:
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2443:|journal=
2391:
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2276:|journal=
2249:
2240:|journal=
2176:
2155:10.1086/353647
2149:(4): 643–667.
2133:
2110:
2097:
2066:
2004:
1993:on 24 May 2014
1978:
1967:on 25 May 2014
1952:
1939:
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1728:978-3527306732
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1384:Hunton Energy
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1284:Secure Energy
1282:
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1128:Altona Energy
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949:
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941:
938:
935:
932:
929:
926:
922:
921:
918:
915:
912:
909:
908:Shenhua Group
906:
902:
901:
898:
895:
892:
889:
886:
882:
881:
878:
875:
872:
869:
866:
856:
853:
851:
848:
828:
827:
824:air separation
820:
816:
812:
796:
793:
769:
765:
753:
723:
716:Main article:
713:
710:
626:petrochemicals
613:
604:Gas to liquids
595:
592:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
495:
472:
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448:
435:
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377:
374:
371:
363:
317:
314:
234:
231:
185:
182:
97:
94:
90:petrochemicals
73:
72:
52:the key points
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3191:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3161:
3159:
3143:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3054:mining region
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3031:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3006:
3004:
3002:
2998:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
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2967:
2964:
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2959:
2957:
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2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2871:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2825:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2771:
2767:
2760:
2755:
2753:
2748:
2746:
2741:
2740:
2737:
2729:
2724:
2721:
2718:
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2709:
2705:
2700:
2696:
2691:
2690:
2686:
2669:
2663:
2660:
2647:
2641:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2624:
2621:
2618:
2613:
2610:
2597:
2591:
2588:
2583:
2576:
2563:
2555:
2548:
2545:
2537:
2531:
2528:
2515:
2508:
2505:
2489:
2483:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2462:Energy Policy
2456:
2453:
2448:
2435:
2421:on 2013-02-20
2417:
2413:
2409:
2402:
2395:
2392:
2380:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2366:
2350:
2344:
2341:
2328:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2311:
2308:
2295:
2289:
2286:
2281:
2268:
2260:
2253:
2250:
2245:
2232:
2218:on 2009-06-09
2214:
2210:
2203:
2196:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2137:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2114:
2111:
2100:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2085:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2005:
1992:
1988:
1982:
1979:
1966:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1942:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1927:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1887:
1884:
1872:
1868:
1861:
1858:
1853:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1817:
1815:9780080466750
1811:
1807:
1800:
1797:
1792:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1738:
1730:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1711:
1703:
1700:
1693:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1649:
1646:
1645:Energy portal
1640:
1635:
1630:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1503:
1501:Undetermined
1500:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1443:
1440:
1436:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1420:
1419:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1353:Undetermined
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1146:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1103:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1003:
999:
996:
993:
991:Lu'an, China
990:
987:
984:
983:
979:
976:
973:
970:
967:
964:
963:
959:
956:
953:
950:
947:
944:
943:
939:
936:
933:
930:
927:
924:
923:
919:
916:
913:
910:
907:
904:
903:
899:
896:
893:
890:
887:
884:
883:
879:
876:
873:
870:
867:
864:
863:
854:
849:
847:
843:
841:
836:
834:
825:
821:
817:
813:
810:
806:
803:
802:
801:
794:
792:
790:
789:GHG emissions
786:
782:
778:
773:
763:
759:
750:
748:
744:
739:
737:
733:
729:
719:
711:
709:
705:
703:
699:
694:
692:
688:
684:
680:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
633:
631:
627:
623:
619:
611:
605:
601:
593:
591:
588:
582:
580:
576:
566:
562:
558:
556:
550:
524:
520:
519:synthesis gas
516:
511:
509:
504:
502:
493:
489:
485:
480:
478:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
433:
430:
427:
424:
412:
393:
381:
378:
375:
369:
361:
354:
353:
352:
350:
347:
343:
339:
333:
326:
322:
315:
313:
310:
308:
304:
300:
299:hydrotreating
294:
292:
288:
284:
279:
278:fluidized bed
275:
270:
267:
266:carbonization
263:
258:
256:
252:
251:synthetic gas
248:
244:
240:
232:
230:
227:
225:
220:
218:
214:
210:
206:
201:
199:
198:hydrogenation
195:
191:
190:carbonization
183:
181:
179:
173:
171:
166:
162:
158:
154:
149:
147:
142:
138:
134:
130:
125:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
106:Franz Fischer
103:
95:
93:
91:
87:
83:
79:
69:
59:
53:
51:
46:
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3131:Refined coal
3044:liquefaction
3043:
2936:Energy value
2672:. Retrieved
2662:
2650:. Retrieved
2640:
2632:
2623:
2612:
2600:. Retrieved
2590:
2562:cite journal
2547:
2530:
2518:. Retrieved
2507:
2495:. Retrieved
2482:
2465:
2461:
2455:
2434:cite journal
2423:. Retrieved
2416:the original
2394:
2382:. Retrieved
2356:. Retrieved
2343:
2331:. Retrieved
2321:
2310:
2298:. Retrieved
2288:
2267:cite journal
2252:
2231:cite journal
2220:. Retrieved
2213:the original
2146:
2142:
2136:
2119:
2113:
2102:. Retrieved
2083:
2058:. Retrieved
2028:
2024:
1995:. Retrieved
1991:the original
1981:
1969:. Retrieved
1965:the original
1955:
1944:. Retrieved
1925:
1896:
1892:
1886:
1875:. Retrieved
1870:
1860:
1833:
1808:. Elsevier.
1805:
1799:
1772:
1766:
1708:
1702:
1609:US Fuel CTL
1031:Yili, China
844:
837:
829:
798:
774:
751:
740:
721:
706:
695:
681:
634:
607:
583:
574:
559:
555:British Coal
551:
512:
505:
484:Nippon Kokan
481:
457:World War II
450:
335:
311:
295:
271:
259:
236:
228:
221:
215:. Using the
202:
187:
174:
150:
133:World War II
129:Adolf Hitler
126:
110:Hans Tropsch
99:
86:liquid fuels
77:
76:
63:
47:
45:lead section
3001:Coal mining
2951:Fossil fuel
2358:27 November
1899:(4): 8–17.
1427:Lima, Ohio
691:coal-to-SNG
687:natural gas
683:Methanation
630:methanation
453:World War I
3158:Categories
3024:Coalfields
2809:Anthracite
2425:2016-05-10
2222:2010-10-23
2104:2009-06-27
2060:2009-06-03
1946:2009-06-03
1877:2017-10-05
1694:References
1430:IGCC/SNG/H
807:including
598:See also:
515:molybdenum
330:See also:
301:to remove
141:Ruhrchemie
66:April 2021
3174:Pyrolysis
3136:Whitedamp
3121:Peak coal
3116:Outbursts
3019:Coal dust
3009:Blackdamp
2914:seam fire
2889:phase-out
2171:143962648
2089:CRC Press
1604:Planning
1535:Kentucky
1336:Planning
1163:Locations
1160:Developer
871:Locations
868:Developer
758:Erdos CTL
677:aromatics
565:Erdos CTL
461:Ruhrkohle
402:⟶
276:, uses a
239:pyrolysis
194:pyrolysis
157:apartheid
148:in 1945.
137:IG Farben
112:from the
50:summarize
3086:Firedamp
2941:Flue gas
2864:Charcoal
2839:Ash pond
2814:Graphite
2055:24298075
1791:52037679
1631:See also
1555:Montana
1330:CTL/GTL
1243:Wyoming
1220:Rentech
1169:Products
877:Products
641:methanol
622:gasoline
618:methanol
508:Gulf Oil
349:hydrogen
342:catalyst
307:nitrogen
247:coal tar
209:hydrogen
178:peak oil
2946:Fly ash
2794:Lignite
2674:30 June
2652:30 June
2602:30 June
2520:24 June
2497:24 June
2384:24 June
2333:24 June
2300:24 June
2033:Bibcode
1997:24 June
1971:24 June
1873:. Sasol
1865:Sasol.
1624:Active
1444:Active
1376:Active
1172:Status
1157:Project
865:Project
815:ranges,
698:ammonia
665:olefins
649:zeolite
647:over a
645:alkanes
561:Shenhua
523:naphtha
469:Bottrop
184:Methods
122:lignite
3064:slurry
3059:refuse
2931:Coking
2849:Asthma
2169:
2163:232411
2161:
2095:
2053:
1937:
1848:
1812:
1789:
1725:
1068:Yitai
1048:Yitai
637:syngas
628:, and
610:syngas
490:, and
451:After
303:sulfur
213:syngas
196:, and
2784:Xylit
2539:(PDF)
2491:(PDF)
2419:(PDF)
2404:(PDF)
2352:(PDF)
2261:: 35.
2216:(PDF)
2205:(PDF)
2167:S2CID
2159:JSTOR
1787:S2CID
1598:CBTL
1120:2020
1100:2016
1080:2016
1060:2016
1040:2015
1020:2015
1000:2014
980:2011
960:2009
940:2009
920:2008
846:oil.
653:Mobil
477:SASOL
153:Sasol
3069:town
3029:Coal
2981:Smog
2926:Coke
2869:Coal
2859:Char
2789:Peat
2766:Coal
2676:2014
2654:2014
2604:2014
2582:link
2575:help
2522:2014
2499:2014
2447:help
2386:2014
2360:2020
2335:2014
2302:2014
2280:help
2244:help
2143:Isis
2093:ISBN
2051:PMID
1999:2014
1973:2014
1935:ISBN
1846:ISBN
1810:ISBN
1743:link
1723:ISBN
1618:CTL
1578:CTL
1558:CTL
1538:CTL
1518:CTL
1498:CTL
1478:CTL
1458:CTL
1410:CTL
1390:CTL
1370:CTL
1350:GTL
1290:CTL
1266:CTL
1226:CTL
1206:CTL
1186:CTL
1166:Type
1140:TBD
1134:CTL
1094:CTL
1074:CTL
1054:CTL
1034:CTL
1014:CTL
994:CTL
974:CTL
954:CTL
934:CTL
894:CTL
874:Type
779:and
702:urea
675:and
602:and
465:VEBA
463:and
305:and
285:and
255:char
207:and
139:and
108:and
88:and
82:coal
3034:gas
2976:NOx
2919:tar
2884:gas
2470:doi
2151:doi
2124:doi
2041:doi
2029:372
1901:doi
1838:doi
1777:doi
1715:doi
745:or
673:DME
669:MEG
624:or
346:MPa
241:or
170:GTL
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