378:, who suggested that ancient lifestyles could be understood by studying the traditional lifestyles of contemporary peoples. While this approach was subject to legitimate criticism, Binford's efforts nonetheless inspired further development of the idea that material forms could be informative about lifestyle, and as the product of intelligent behavior, might provide insight into how and perhaps even what their makers had thought. Archaeologists like Binford have also critiqued cognitive archaeology, stating it is only people's actions rather than their thoughts that are preserved in the archaeological record. ECA has responded to this criticism by stressing that it seeks to understand "how" ancient peoples thought using material structures, not "what" they thought.
197:" develop many of the same themes raised in the formative decade of cognitive archaeology: the validity and use of ethnoarchaeological and experimental methods; the question of continuities and discontinuities between humans and non-human species; the selection and application of theoretical frameworks, including the displacement of Piagetian theory by contemporary psychological and neuroscientific approaches to brain function and form; the incorporation of interdisciplinary data; the origin of language; the ability of construing intentionality from artifactual form; the philosophical turn in cognitive archaeology; and the riddle of intergenerational accumulation and transmission."
239:"Archaeologists can tell from which mountain source a stone axe came, what minerals there are in a bronze bracelet, how old a dug-out canoe is. They can work out the probable cereal-yield from the fields of a Late Bronze Age farm. These are objective matters. But the language, laws, morals, religion of dead societies are different. They belong to the minds of man. Unless they were written down, and even then only if they were recorded accurately, we shall find it hard to recapture them."
162:
of this approach. Malafouris does not see the vase as a form created by the potter imposing an internal mental concept on external clay. Instead, the potter’s brain and body interact with his materials, the clay and the wheel; the form assumed by the clay is ultimately produced by the complex interaction between the potter’s perception of the feel of the clay, the pressure of his fingers on it, and its reactions of texture, moisture content, color, balance, and form.
307:. Humans do not behave under the influence of their senses alone but also through their past experiences such as their upbringing. These experiences contribute to each individual's unique view of the world, a kind of cognitive map that guides them. Groups of people living together tend to develop a shared view of the world and similar cognitive maps, which in turn influence their group material culture.
129:
and biological anthropologist Sue Taylor Parker working with evolutionary neurobiologist
Kathleen Gibson. It focuses on understanding human cognitive evolution, either from the artifactual record of forms like stone tools, comparisons of ancestral tool use with that of contemporary species (typically
161:
to describe their approach. ECA is concerned with how humans think through material structures, with the ability to leverage and exploit material structures for cognitive purposes perhaps being what truly sets human cognition apart from that of all other species. Pottery making is a typical example
502:
Harmand, Sonia; Lewis, Jason E; Feibel, Craig S; Lepre, Christopher J; Prat, Sandrine; Lenoble, Arnaud; Boës, Xavier; Quinn, Rhonda L; Brenet, Michel; Arroyo, Adrian; Taylor, Nicholas; Clément, Sophie; Guillaume, Daver; Brugal, Jean-Philippe; Leakey, Louise; Mortlock, Richard A; Wright, James D;
353:
It can also be argued that the material record shows behavioral traces that are the product of human thought, and thus would have been governed by a multitude of experiences and perspectives with the potential to influence behavior. The combination of material culture and actions can be further
370:
that the past be interpreted strictly according to the material evidence. This rigid materialism tended to limit archaeology to finding and describing artifacts, excluding broader interpretations of their possible cognitive and cultural significance as something beyond the reach of inferential
134:), or both. It often involves descriptive pattern analysis: analyzing change in a form like stone tools over millions of years and interpreting that change in terms of its cognitive significance using theories, constructs, and paradigms from cognitive psychology and neuroscience.
266:
and differing organizational approaches would have had on ancient peoples. The way that these abstract ideas are manifested through the remains these peoples have left can be investigated and debated often by drawing inferences and using approaches developed in fields such as
349:
served an unknown purpose, but using ICA to interpret it would involve evaluating all its possible functions using clearly defined procedures and comparisons. By applying logic and experimental evidence, the most likely functions can be isolated.
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has pointed out that this ICA may be problematic in its logical leaps and incomplete use of archaeological sources, demonstrating the care that must be used when attempting to explain deep-time intentionality using archaeological evidence.
94:, as defined by and understood through cognitive psychology and as operationalized to permit their detection in the archaeological record. Other ECA investigations have focused on the development of domain-specific abilities, including
233:
defined ideational cognitive archaeology as the study of prehistoric ideology: the ideals, values, and beliefs that constitute a society's worldview. It is analogous to the category Mithen called postprocessual cognitive archaeology.
371:
reasoning. As social anthropologist Edmund Leach once put it, "all the ingenuity in the world will not replace the evidence that is lost and gone for ever," and "you should recognize your guesses for what they are."
282:
ICA uses the principles of sociocultural anthropology to investigate such diverse things as material symbols, the use of space, political power, and religion. For example, Huffman uses oral history sources from
1812:
The
Explanation of Culture Change: Models in Prehistory. Proceedings of a Meeting of the Research Seminar in Archaeology and Related Subjects Held at the University of Sheffield, December 14–16, 1971
726:
Hodgson, Derek; Helvenston, Patricia A (2006). "The
Emergence of the Representation of Animals in Palaeoart: Insights from Evolution and the Cognitive, Limbic and Visual Systems of the Human Brain".
374:
However, processual archaeology also opened up the possibility of investigating the lifestyle of those who made and used material culture. An initial approach was proposed by
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McGrew, William
Clement; Tutin, Caroline E G; Baldwin, Pamela J (1979). "Chimpanzees, Tools, and Termites: Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Senegal, Tanzania, and Rio Muni".
337:
Archaeologists have always tried to imagine what motivated people, but early efforts to understand how they thought were unstructured and speculative. Since the rise of
1546:
Isaac, Glynn
Llywelyn (1984). "The Archaeology of Human Origins: Studies of the Lower Pleistocene in East Africa 1971–1981". In Wendorf, Fred; Close, Angela E (eds.).
1503:
Isaac, Glynn
Llywelyn (1976). "Stages of Cultural Elaboration in the Pleistocene: Possible Archaeological Indicators of the Development of Language Capabilities".
74:, experimental replication, and hands-on participation in the manufacture and use of traditional technologies. For example, the 3.3-million-year history of
477:
Overmann, Karenleigh A; Coolidge, Frederick L (2019). "Cognitive
Archaeology at the Crossroads". In Overmann, Karenleigh A; Coolidge, Frederick L (eds.).
62:
ECA infers change in ancestral human cognition from the archaeological record, often drawing on the theories, methods, and data of other disciplines:
202:
503:
Lokorodi, Sammy; Kirwa, Christopher; Kent, Dennis V; Roche, Hélène (2015). "3.3-Million-Year-Old Stone Tools from
Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya".
125:
Within ECA, there are two main schools of thought. The North
American ECA school began in the mid-1970s with the pioneering work of archaeologist
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318:
or symbol are affected by the archaeologist's own experiences and ideas as well as those of the distant cultural tradition that created it.
1097:
Parker, Sue Taylor; Gibson, Kathleen R (1979). "A Developmental Model for the
Evolution of Language and Intelligence in Early Hominids".
381:
Several early books helped popularize the idea that the ancient mind could be investigated and characterized, including Merlin Donald's
682:
Cole, James (2019). "Knapping in the Dark: Stone Tools and a Theory of Mind". In Overmann, Karenleigh A; Coolidge, Frederick L (eds.).
1715:
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Malafouris, Lambros (2008). "At the potter's wheel: An argument for material agency". In Malafouris, Lambros; Knappett, Carl (eds.).
295:'s historical association of the right with men and the left with women to the placement of entrances to stone structures. Historian
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Coolidge, Frederick L; Wynn, Thomas (2001). "Executive Functions of the Frontal Lobes and the Evolutionary Ascendancy of
330:. Similarly, it would likely have described activities that were perfectly obvious to the people who created it, but the
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to examine the role of material structures in human cognition more fundamentally. Renfrew and Malafouris coined the term
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Towards an Archaeology of Mind: An Inaugural Lecture Delivered before the University of Cambridge on 30th November 1982
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by retaining the 'scientific' aspects of processual archaeology, while reaching for the higher social levels of ideas.
169:, archaeologist Iain Davidson, and psychologist William Noble. Today, ECA integrates interdisciplinary data from human
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developed into a study of the ideas that drove action and used objects. This method attempts to avoid the pitfalls of
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Between 2018 and 2020, cognitive archaeologists Thomas Wynn and Lambros Malafouris headed a collaboration between the
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Gowlett, John A J (1984). "Mental Abilities of Early Man: A Look at Some Hard Evidence". In Foley, Robert (ed.).
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and evolutionary primatologist William McGrew. Renfrew's work in particular, as well as that of his student,
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McGrew, William Clement; Tutin, Caroline E G (1978). "Evidence for a Social Custom in Wild Chimpanzees?".
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East of the Atlantic, the British ECA school also began in the mid-1970s with the work of archaeologists
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Renfrew, Colin (1994). "Towards a Cognitive Archaeology". In Renfrew, Colin; Zubrow, Ezra B W (eds.).
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149:, has taken a philosophical approach to the study of the ancient mind, drawing on concepts from the
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Putt, Shelby Stackhouse; Wijeakumar, Sobanawartiny; Franciscus, Robert G; Spencer, John P (2017).
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Hodgson, Derek (2000). "Art, Perception and Information Processing: An Evolutionary Perspective".
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Mithen, Stephen J. (1999). "Cognitive archaeology". In Wilson, Robert A.; Keil, Frank C. (eds.).
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Moore, Mark W (2011). "The Design Space of Stone Flaking: Implications for Cognitive Evolution".
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Hominid Evolution and Community Ecology: Prehistoric Human Adaptation in Biological Perspective
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Squeezing Minds from Stones: Cognitive Archaeology and the Evolution of the Human Mind
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Squeezing Minds from Stones: Cognitive Archaeology and the Evolution of the Human Mind
2015:
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Renfrew, Colin; Malafouris, Lambros (2008). "Steps to a 'Neuroarchaeology' of Mind".
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38:), which seeks to understand human cognitive evolution from the material record, and
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Rock Art Research Institute, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Origins of the Modern Mind: Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition
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and Portuguese documents to attempt to explain symbols discovered in the ruins of
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994:"Early writing: A cognitive archaeological perspective on literacy and numeracy"
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The Materiality of Numbers: Emergence and Elaboration from Prehistory to Present
244:
166:
27:
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Human Evolution, Language, and Mind: A Psychological and Archaeological Inquiry
653:"Working Memory, Its Executive Functions, and the Emergence of Modern Thinking"
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841:"The Functional Brain Networks That Underlie Early Stone Age Tool Manufacture"
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341:, these approaches have become more scientific, paying close attention to the
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122:'s categories of cognitive-processual and evolutionary-cognitive archaeology.
75:
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782:"Experimental Insights into the Cognitive Significance of Early Stone Tools"
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Cognitive archaeology began in the 1970s as a reaction to the insistence of
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1989:
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532:
2001:
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The Prehistory of Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion and Science
2002:
University of Colorado, Colorado Springs Center for Cognitive Archaeology
1734:(1998). "Cognitive Archaeology and Imaginary History at Great Zimbabwe".
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Leach, Edmund R (1973). "Concluding Address". In Renfrew, Colin (ed.).
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1405:"Metaplasticity and the Human Becoming: Principles of Neuroarchaeology"
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1174:"Complexities of Cultural Evidence in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene"
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1771:"Archeological Theory and Method: Some Suggestions from the Old World"
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955:"Beyond writing: The development of literacy in the ancient Near East"
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of finds and all possible interpretations. For example, a prehistoric
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employed will be different from that used today or at any other time.
30:
that focuses on the ancient mind. It is divided into two main groups:
1200:
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Wynn, Thomas (1979). "The Intelligence of Later Acheulean Hominids".
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47:
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2006:
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Wynn, Thomas; Overmann, Karenleigh A; Malafouris, Lambros (2021).
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The Cognitive Life of Things: Recasting the Boundaries of the Mind
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use is broadly informative of change in cognitive capacities like
1573:"The Archaeology of Perception: Traces of Depiction and Language"
1679:(1986). "Cognitive studies of the iron age in Southern Africa".
323:
1484:. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 19–36.
1319:. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
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in the modern sense at all, but was perhaps the product of
1953:
The Mind in the Cave: Consciousness and the Origins of Art
1345:
How Things Shape the Mind: A Theory of Material Engagement
1833:
Binford, Lewis R (1962). "Archaeology as Anthropology".
1645:"4E cognition in the Lower Paleolithic: An introduction"
1151:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–12.
1482:
Material Agency: Towards a Non-Anthropocentric Approach
686:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 355–375.
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In The Ancient Mind: Elements of Cognitive Archaeology
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481:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–12.
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1315:Malafouris, Lambros; Renfrew, Colin, eds. (2010).
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50:structures discernable in or inferable from past
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193:. As a vibrant and expanding field of inquiry,
1814:. London: Gerald Duckworth. pp. 761–771.
1074:The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences
1030:Overmann, Karenleigh A; Wynn, Thomas (2019).
599:. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.
8:
1439:"The Material Difference in Human Cognition"
1226:. London: Academic Press. pp. 167–192.
651:Coolidge, Frederick L; Wynn, Thomas (2005).
217:; the results were published in the journal
1905:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
1550:. New York: Academic Press. pp. 1–87.
1036:Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory
303:ICA also works with constructs such as the
1505:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
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1622:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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1128:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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203:University of Colorado, Colorado Springs
1618:Noble, William; Davidson, Iain (1996).
1571:Davidson, Iain; Noble, William (1989).
780:Moore, Mark W; Perston, Yinika (2016).
458:
1990:4E Cognition in the Lower Palaeolithic
1985:AURA Homepage of Cognitive Archaeology
1710:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
7:
1412:Journal of Anthropological Sciences
597:The Evolution of Spatial Competence
310:The multiple interpretations of an
1525:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1976.tb25494.x
880:"Constructing a concept of number"
209:to examine the archaeology of the
58:Evolutionary cognitive archaeology
32:evolutionary cognitive archaeology
14:
1032:"Materiality and human cognition"
322:, for example, may not have been
165:Other early ECA pioneers include
1370:Cambridge Archaeological Journal
959:Cambridge Archaeological Journal
926:Overmann, Karenleigh A. (2023).
657:Cambridge Archaeological Journal
626:Cambridge Archaeological Journal
362:History of cognitive archaeology
225:Ideational cognitive archaeology
40:ideational cognitive archaeology
1955:. London: Thames & Hudson.
1930:. London: Thames & Hudson.
1437:Overmann, Karenleigh A (2021).
1076:. MIT Press. pp. 122–124.
992:Overmann, Karenleigh A (2022).
953:Overmann, Karenleigh A (2016).
878:Overmann, Karenleigh A (2018).
130:but not exclusively, non-human
1951:Lewis-Williams, David (2002).
1134:10.1080/00665983.1984.11077826
932:. Cambridge University Press.
884:Journal of Numerical Cognition
291:, specifically connecting the
118:. ECA is broadly analogous to
1:
2037:Branches of cognitive science
1878:An Archaeological Perspective
1788:10.1525/aa.1954.56.2.02a00020
1693:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979990
1548:Advances in World Archaeology
1099:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
16:Archaeological sub-discipline
1769:Hawkes, Christopher (1954).
1403:Malafouris, Lambros (2010).
1347:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1343:Malafouris, Lambros (2013).
807:10.1371/journal.pone.0158803
759:10.1080/00438243.2011.624778
1880:. New York: Seminar Press.
356:post-processual archaeology
106:, technological reasoning,
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1172:Gowlett, John A J (1979).
383:Origins of the Modern Mind
1926:Mithen, Steven J (1996).
1876:Binford, Lewis R (1972).
1382:10.1017/S0959774308000425
1111:10.1017/S0140525X0006307X
1048:10.1007/s10816-018-9378-y
971:10.1017/S0959774316000019
669:10.1017/S0959774305000016
638:10.1017/S0959774301000142
1662:10.1177/1059712320967184
1456:10.1177/1059712320930738
385:(1991), Steven Mithen's
213:through the lens of the
46:), which focuses on the
1901:Donald, Merlin (1991).
1775:American Anthropologist
1124:Renfrew, Colin (1982).
857:10.1038/s41562-017-0102
191:artificial intelligence
1010:10.34314/vl.v56i1.4934
845:Nature Human Behaviour
432:Karenleigh A. Overmann
387:The Prehistory of Mind
368:processual archaeology
343:archaeological context
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199:
104:visuospatial abilities
2027:Archaeological theory
1980:Cognitive Archaeology
1706:Burl, Aubrey (1981).
595:Wynn, Thomas (1989).
407:Frederick L. Coolidge
347:bâton de commandement
195:
187:comparative cognition
183:physical anthropology
155:ecological psychology
92:executive functioning
68:comparative cognition
20:Cognitive archaeology
1736:Current Anthropology
1577:Current Anthropology
897:10.5964/jnc.v4i2.161
417:David Lewis-Williams
395:The Mind in the Cave
391:David Lewis-Williams
207:University of Oxford
1517:1976NYASA.280..275I
1193:1979Natur.278...14G
798:2016PLoSO..1158803M
525:10.1038/nature14464
517:2015Natur.521..310H
316:archaeological site
258:ICA scholars often
179:social anthropology
1835:American Antiquity
422:Lambros Malafouris
151:philosophy of mind
147:Lambros Malafouris
1708:Rites of the Gods
1681:World Archaeology
1649:Adaptive Behavior
1443:Adaptive Behavior
747:World Archaeology
728:Rock Art Research
709:Rock Art Research
511:(7552): 310–315.
250:Rites of the Gods
219:Adaptive Behavior
211:Lower Paleolithic
100:visual perception
84:spatial reasoning
64:cognitive science
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