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never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions.
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learning", but excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that can be observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of "learning" (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are also capable of communication, accurately computing their circumstances, using sophisticated
53:
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3340:, historian of computing, writes (in what might be called "Dyson's Law") that "Any system simple enough to be understandable will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system complicated enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand." (p. 197.) Computer scientist
1048:"Intelligence is a force, F, that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action. It acts to maximize future freedom of action, or keep options open, with some strength T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, τ. In short, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped".
1133:. Learning refers to the act of retaining facts and information or abilities and being able to recall them for future use. Intelligence, on the other hand, is the cognitive ability of someone to perform these and other processes. There have been various attempts to quantify intelligence via testing, such as the
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Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, S., Falik, L & Rand, Y. (1979; 2002). Dynamic assessments of cognitive modifiability. ICELP Press, Jerusalem: Israel; Feuerstein, R. (1990). The theory of structural modifiability. In B. Presseisen (Ed.), Learning and thinking styles: Classroom interaction. Washington,
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A counter argument is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories as opposed to computation that does not involve learning. If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence, then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of "machine
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and motivations of others and oneself in social situations. It is thought to be distinct to other types of intelligence, but has relations to emotional intelligence. Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus on how we make judgements of others, the accuracy with which we do so,
3283:' we mean realistic videos produced using artificial intelligence that actually deceive people, then they barely exist. The fakes aren't deep, and the deeps aren't fake. A.I.-generated videos are not, in general, operating in our media as counterfeited evidence. Their role better resembles that of
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Concepts of "book smarts" and "street smart" are contrasting views based on the premise that some people have knowledge gained through academic study, but may lack the experience to sensibly apply that knowledge, while others have knowledge gained through practical experience, but may lack accurate
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to others in an understandable way as well as to read the emotions of others accurately. Some theories imply that a heightened emotional intelligence could also lead to faster generating and processing of emotions in addition to the accuracy. In addition, higher emotional intelligence is thought to
882:
A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a
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Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are
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Given the importance of learning through text in our own personal lives and in our culture, it is perhaps surprising how utterly dismissive we tend to be of it. It is sometimes derided as being merely "book knowledge", and having it is being "book smart". In contrast, knowledge acquired through
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factors. Hereditary intelligence is the theory that intelligence is fixed upon birth and does not grow. Environmental intelligence is the theory that intelligence is developed throughout life depending on the environment around the person. An environment that cultivates intelligence is one that
971:—enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product—and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems—and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.
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Scholars studying artificial intelligence have proposed definitions of intelligence that include the intelligence demonstrated by machines. Some of these definitions are meant to be general enough to encompass human and other animal intelligence as well. An
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Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular
1532:, after surveying the literature, define intelligence as "an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments". While cognitive ability is sometimes measured as a one-dimensional parameter, it could also be represented as a "
1268:, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges include defining intelligence so it has the same meaning across species, and
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Moral intelligence is the capacity to understand right from wrong and to behave based on the value that is believed to be right. It is considered a distinct form of intelligence, independent to both emotional and cognitive intelligence.
707:, and across numerous disciplines. It has also been observed in both non-human animals and plants despite controversy as to whether some of these forms of life exhibit intelligence. Intelligence in computers or other machines is called
995:
The theory of
Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation".
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Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on
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fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning or an understanding of the physical and social world.... ChatGPT seemed unable to reason logically and tried to rely on its vast database of... facts derived from online
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and
Haenlein define artificial intelligence as "a system's ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation".
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A synthesis of 70+ definitions from psychology, philosophy, and AI researchers: "Intelligence measures an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments", which has been mathematically formalized.
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in a multidimensional space" to compare systems that are good at different intellectual tasks. Some skeptics believe that there is no meaningful way to define intelligence, aside from "just pointing to ourselves".
2982:"Kaplan Andreas and Haelein Michael (2019) Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence, Business Horizons, 62(1)"
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and can easily make errors that a human never would... They are also liable to take our instructions too literally, giving us precisely what we asked for instead of what we actually wanted." (p. 93.)
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of the world according to the agent's preferences, or more simply the ability to "steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering". In this optimization framework,
1195:. There is debate as to whether or not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction between them, and they are generally thought to be of two different
821:. "Intelligence" has therefore become less common in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories that it now implies) in more contemporary
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Beheshtifar, M., Esmaeli, Z., & Moghadam, M. N. (2011). Effect of moral intelligence on leadership. European
Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences, 43, 6-11.
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come from acting in the world and experiencing the consequences. Artificial intelligences – disembodied, strangers to blood, sweat, and tears – have no occasion for that." (p. 30.)
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and the
Unified Cattell-Horn-Carroll model, which contains abilities like fluid reasoning, perceptual speed, verbal abilities, and others. Intelligence enables humans to
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It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their
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957:"...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills".
1695:"Stress memory in plants: A negative regulation of stomatal response and transient induction of rd22 gene to light in abscisic acid-entrained Arabidopsis plants"
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3383:, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 61–63. Marcus points out a so far insuperable stumbling block to artificial intelligence: an incapacity for reliable
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3679:. Publications of the Training School at Vineland New Jersey Department of Research No. 11. E. S. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. p.
1078:. Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It gives humans the cognitive abilities to
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that we do not usually notice." A prominent example is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a
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1504:. Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence, which is sometimes defined as the "capacity to learn how to carry out a huge range of tasks".
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878:. It was signed by fifty-two researchers, out of 131 total invited to sign, with 48 explicitly refusing to sign. The op-ed described intelligence thus:
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2294:"Taxonomies and Compendia of Cognitive Ability and Personality Constructs and Measures Relevant to Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology"
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Judgment, otherwise called "good sense", "practical sense", "initiative", the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.
1944:; Boodoo, Gwyneth; Bouchard, Thomas J.; Boykin, A. Wade; Brody, Nathan; Ceci, Stephen J.; Halpern, Diane F.; Loehlin, John C.; Perloff, Robert;
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The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.
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The Limits of
Intelligence: The laws of physics may well prevent the human brain from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine
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broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.
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originally published as Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L'Année
Psychologique, 11, 191–244
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1137:(IQ) test. However, many people disagree with the validity of IQ tests; stating that they cannot accurately measure intelligence.
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https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-intelligence/animal-intelligence/82F839242F36A27D8B31D6AC0FE8B92F
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has the power to "steer a chessboard's future into a subspace of possibility which it labels as 'winning', despite attempts by
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3273:, "Your Lying Eyes: People now use A.I. to generate fake videos indistinguishable from real ones. How much does it matter?",
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Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. The general factor of intelligence, or
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2006:
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1804:"Opera philosophica quæ latine scripsit omnia, in unum corpus nunc primum collecta studio et labore Gulielmi Molesworth ."
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help us manage emotions, which is beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Emotional intelligence is important to our
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3247:, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp. 81–82. "This murder mystery competition has revealed that although NLP (
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Reader, S. M., Hager, Y., & Laland, K. N. (2011). "The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence".
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can be defined as a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success.
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The SAGE Handbook of
Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology: Personnel Psychology and Employee Performance
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Legg, Shane; Hutter, Marcus (30 November 2007). "Universal
Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence".
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3293:, "In Front of Their Faces: Does facial-recognition technology lead police to ignore contradictory evidence?",
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Measuring intelligence: A guide to the administration of the new revised
Stanford-Binet tests of intelligence
817:", translated in the English version as "the understanding understandeth", as a typical example of a logical
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3241:, which has stumped humans for decades, reveals the limitations of natural-language-processing algorithms",
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1278:'s research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area, as is Stanley Coren's book,
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of intelligence is controversial, varying in what its abilities are and whether or not it is quantifiable.
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Emotional
Intelligence from 17th Century to 21st Century: Perspectives and Directions for Future Research.
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have shown a fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with
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3377:, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind",
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direct experience and apprenticeship is called "street knowledge", and having it is being "street smart".
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became the scholarly technical term for understanding and a translation for the Greek philosophical term
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783:(also known as the active intelligence). This approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by
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3152:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. "Chapter 4: The Kinetics of an Intelligence Explosion", footnote 9.
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defines intelligence in terms of "optimization power", an agent's capacity for efficient cross-domain
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construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a wide range of
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Volkov, A. G.; Carrell, H.; Baldwin, A.; Markin, V. S. (2009). "Electrical memory in Venus flytrap".
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3635:. consulting editors: Douglas K. Detterman, Alan S. Kaufman, Joseph D. Matarazzo. New York: Wiley.
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they receive. This could cause for researchers who hope to use them to do things such as analyze
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and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control the diverse environmental stressors.
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3251:) models are capable of incredible feats, their abilities are very much limited by the amount of
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are, at their core, dead simple stupid. They work, but they work by brute force." (p. 198.)
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What exactly is intelligence? How could an external observer prove that an agent is intelligent?
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2996:"How did a company best known for playing games just crack one of science's toughest puzzles?"
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807:" or "intelligence") in their English philosophical works. Hobbes for example, in his Latin
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S. Legg; M. Hutter (2007). "Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence".
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Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts
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2300:, 1 Oliver's Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP: SAGE Publications Ltd, pp. 366–407,
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2013:. E.S. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. pp. 37–90. Archived from
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information usually gained through study by which to effectively apply that knowledge.
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Advances in Artificial General Intelligence: Concepts, Architectures and Algorithms
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is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in
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Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans, which is marked by complex
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researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as the following:
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1284:. Non-human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include
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can be demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to practical tasks such as
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a measure that accurately compares mental ability across species and contexts.
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believe that intelligence can be divided into various domains or competencies.
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Trewavas, Anthony (September 2005). "Green plants as intelligent organisms".
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Influences in Psychology: Points of View in the Modern History of Psychology.
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History of Influences in the Development of Intelligence Theory and Testing
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To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of
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S. Legg; M. Hutter (2007). "A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence".
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1426:(Locurto, Locurto). These values are similar to the accepted variance in
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appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their
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3586:. Novartis Foundation Symposium 233. Vol. 233. Chichester: Wiley.
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3319:, vol. 329, no. 1 (July/August 2023), p. 7. "Despite its high IQ,
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2007:"New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals"
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to be applied to adaptive behaviors within an environment or context.
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differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as
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Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education
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893:(1995), a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the
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which proposed policy changes based on purported connections between
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3357:, "Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it",
3077:"The Struggle To Define What Artificial Intelligence Actually Means"
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3657:. Riverside textbooks in education. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin.
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factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species.
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The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale
3363:, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 88–93. "AIs are like
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is what distinguishes us from machines. For biological creatures,
3115:
2236:"TED Speaker: Alex Wissner-Gross: A new equation for intelligence"
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Humphreys, L. G. (1979). "The construct of general intelligence".
2011:
The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale
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Goldstein, Sam; Princiotta, Dana; Naglieri, Jack A., eds. (2015).
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1114:. These cognitive abilities can be organized into frameworks like
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Ability to perceive, infer, acquire, retain and apply information.
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What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought
3391:, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so good at comprehending
3309:
aced a test but showed that intelligence cannot be measured by
1826:. New York, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London: Springer. p. 3.
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3259:. In some cases, there are few historical records on long-gone
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Here be dragons: science, technology and the future of humanity
2981:
3711:
2711:"Convergent evolution of complex brains and high intelligence"
1191:
and why people would be viewed as having positive or negative
1163:
Emotional intelligence is thought to be the ability to convey
3367:
and will remain so for the foreseeable future.... AIs lack
3330:, "Ready for Robots? How to Think about the Future of AI",
3310:
1427:
1667:
Phi Delta Kappa International. Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 210-216
1464:
accordingly to ensure self-preservation and reproduction.
685:. It can be described as the ability to perceive or infer
2267:. Moral Development and Citizenship Education. Springer.
696:
The term rose to prominence during the early 1900s. Most
19:
For the human faculty of thinking and understanding, see
2777:
Clinical assessment of child and adolescent intelligence
2624:
Common Sense, the Turing Test, and the Quest for Real AI
1802:
Hobbes, Thomas; Molesworth, William (15 February 1839).
1140:
There is debate about if human intelligence is based on
3582:
Bock, Gregory; Goode, Jamie; Webb, Kate, eds. (2000).
3336:, vol. 98, no. 4 (July/August 2019), pp. 192–98.
3217:, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (18 January 2024), pp. 27–28, 30. "
3054:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 103, 104.
803:, all of whom preferred "understanding" (in place of "
2547:
Walker, Ronald E.; Foley, Jeanne M. (December 1973).
1186:
Social intelligence is the ability to understand the
1027:
3448:(second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3174:"Superintelligence: The Idea That Eats Smart People"
2595:
The Step-By-Step Plan to Building Moral Intelligence
2104:
Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences
1444:
Plant perception (physiology) § Plant cognition
4695:
4522:
4392:
4122:
3997:
3956:
3847:
3796:
3552:
2549:"Social Intelligence: Its History and Measurement"
1039:
3399:in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers.
2508:Mayer, John D.; Salovey, Peter (1 October 1993).
1845:
1843:
1663:White, Margaret B. & Hall, Alfred E. (1980).
764:. This term, however, was strongly linked to the
3235:, "A Murder Mystery Puzzle: The literary puzzle
1894:"Mainstream Science on Intelligence (editorial)"
1810:on 5 November 2013 – via Internet Archive.
641:has been defined in many ways: the capacity for
3489:"What Is Intelligence? Beyond the Flynn Effect"
2764:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
1233:
903:
880:
3211:, Princeton University Press, 2023, 333 pp.),
4100:
3771:
3465:What Is Intelligence: Beyond the Flynn Effect
3149:Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies
2766:B: Biological Sciences, 366(1567), 1017–1027.
2451:Salovey, Peter; Mayer, John D. (March 1990).
2143:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1149:challenges the person's cognitive abilities.
868:, as a response to controversy over the book
619:
8:
3279:, 20 November 2023, pp. 54–59. "If by '
3209:Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will
2510:"The intelligence of emotional intelligence"
1856:. Vol. 157. IOS Press. pp. 17–24.
1693:Goh, C. H.; Nam, H. G.; Park, Y. S. (2003).
1590:, also referred to as Non-Human Intelligence
3751:A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence
1876:
1422:and between 55% and 60% of the variance in
4107:
4093:
4085:
3778:
3764:
3756:
3467:(expanded paperback ed.). Cambridge:
3023:"What is artificial general intelligence?"
2949:Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach
2946:Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003).
2889:Rensing, L.; Koch, M.; Becker, A. (2009).
1806:Londoni, apud Joannem Bohn. Archived from
626:
612:
35:
3512:. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press.
3410:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3114:
2952:. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
2914:
2857:
2758:
2756:
2736:
2726:
2476:
2374:
2292:Stanek, Kevin C.; Ones, Deniz S. (2018),
2195:
1710:
1326:provides an important comparative study.
1031:
1026:
3610:William D. Casebeer (30 November 2001).
3287:, especially smutty ones." (p. 59.)
2779:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2403:"Review of The Intelligence Controversy"
1791:. Oxford University Press. p. xxii.
920:
2351:"Human intelligence and brain networks"
1789:An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
1643:
897:, also in response to controversy over
43:
3408:The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence
2457:Imagination, Cognition and Personality
2327:
1930:from the original on 22 December 2014.
844:(more unsolved problems in philosophy)
703:Intelligence has been long-studied in
4708:Philosophy of artificial intelligence
3406:; Kaufman, Scott Barry, eds. (2011).
3203:, "The Fate of Free Will" (review of
2446:
2444:
2396:
2394:
2242:from the original on 4 September 2016
2046:. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
2044:The measurement of adult intelligence
1172:and has ties to social intelligence.
7:
1820:This paragraph almost verbatim from
1732:
1730:
1688:
1686:
1665:An overview of intelligence testing.
752:, to comprehend or perceive. In the
3969:Fluid and crystallized intelligence
3880:Fluid and crystallized intelligence
3299:, 20 November 2023, pp. 20–26.
2281:from the original on 2 August 2017.
2172:DC: National Education Associations
1950:"Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns"
1498:Progress in artificial intelligence
746:, which in turn stem from the verb
3267:for such a purpose." (p. 82.)
2715:Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci
2709:Roth, Gerhard (19 December 2015).
2407:The American Journal of Psychology
1986:from the original on 28 March 2016
895:American Psychological Association
858:Mainstream Science on Intelligence
14:
3629:Wolman, Benjamin B., ed. (1985).
890:Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
4064:
2349:Colom, Roberto (December 2010).
1751:10.1016/j.bioelechem.2009.03.005
1712:10.1046/j.1365-313X.2003.01872.x
1561:
1547:
1524:to steer the future elsewhere."
593:
51:
4065:
4005:Evolution of human intelligence
3387:. "irtually every sentence is
2107:. New York: Basic Books. 1993.
1129:Intelligence is different from
3530:"What Intelligence Tests Miss"
2682:Childs, Casper (27 May 2020).
2367:10.31887/DCNS.2010.12.4/rcolom
2141:Handbook of human intelligence
1094:, including the capacities to
835:Unsolved problem in philosophy
23:. For human intelligence, see
1:
4565:Hard problem of consciousness
4070:Outline of human intelligence
3974:Multiple-intelligences theory
2811:10.1016/j.tplants.2005.07.005
1913:10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90011-8
1787:Nidditch, Peter. "Foreword".
1617:Outline of human intelligence
1612:Neuroscience and intelligence
1588:Extraterrestrial intelligence
1144:factors or if it is based on
336:Industrial and organizational
29:Intelligence (disambiguation)
4020:Intelligence and environment
3653:; Merrill, Maude A. (1937).
3612:"The Nature of Intelligence"
3214:The New York Review of Books
2526:10.1016/0160-2896(93)90010-3
2401:Bouchard, Thomas J. (1982).
2238:. TED.com. 6 February 2014.
2089:10.1016/0160-2896(79)90009-6
1292:(notably the language-using
491:Human factors and ergonomics
3964:Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
3487:C Shalizi (27 April 2009).
3249:natural-language processing
2469:10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG
1583:Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
1218:Book smart and street smart
910:Besides those definitions,
4800:
3584:The Nature of Intelligence
3469:Cambridge University Press
2261:Tirri, Nokelainen (2011).
1676:Buxton, Claude E. (1985).
1479:
1441:
1414:. Studies have shown that
1364:
1244:
1206:
1179:
1156:
1059:
718:
18:
4728:
4287:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
4277:David Lewis (philosopher)
4060:
3559:. New York: Times Books.
3506:Stanovich, Keith (2009).
3446:IQ and Human Intelligence
3233:Hughes-Castleberry, Kenna
3125:10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x
2916:10.1007/s00114-009-0591-0
2684:"Words With An Astronaut"
2565:10.2466/pr0.1973.33.3.839
2306:10.4135/9781473914940.n14
2214:10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x
1969:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77
1948:; Urbina, Susana (1996).
1776:. Blackwell. p. 305.
1650:Sharma, Radha R. (2008).
1070:feats and high levels of
785:early modern philosophers
266:Applied behavior analysis
4774:Developmental psychology
3723:11 November 2007 at the
3632:Handbook of Intelligence
3618:(Review). Archived from
3536:(Review). Archived from
3495:(Review). Archived from
3463:Flynn, James R. (2009).
2775:Kamphaus, R. W. (2005).
2650:The Intelligence of Dogs
2601:Retrieved 28 April 2016.
2453:"Emotional Intelligence"
2355:Dialogues Clin. Neurosci
2334:: CS1 maint: location (
1772:Maich, Aloysius (1995).
1281:The Intelligence of Dogs
1040:{\displaystyle _{\tau }}
4784:Differential psychology
4415:Eliminative materialism
2791:Trends in Plant Science
2647:Coren, Stanley (1995).
2005:Binet, Alfred (1916) .
1654:Sage Journals. Vol. 12.
1482:Artificial intelligence
1324:Cephalopod intelligence
1225:Artificial intelligence
1017:Alexander Wissner-Gross
860:" was published, as an
731:derives from the Latin
709:artificial intelligence
456:Behavioral neuroscience
113:Behavioral neuroscience
4667:Propositional attitude
4662:Problem of other minds
4570:Hypostatic abstraction
3493:University of Michigan
3146:Bostrom, Nick (2014).
2728:10.1098/rstb.2015.0049
1367:g Factor in Non-Humans
1260:
1238:
1159:Emotional intelligence
1116:fluid vs. crystallized
1041:
908:
885:
815:intellectus intelligit
689:; and to retain it as
506:Psychology of religion
446:Behavioral engineering
132:Cognitive neuroscience
98:Affective neuroscience
27:. For other uses, see
4779:Psychological testing
4738:Philosophers category
4642:Mental representation
4405:Biological naturalism
4292:Maurice Merleau-Ponty
4267:Frank Cameron Jackson
3898:Intelligence quotient
3673:; Simon, Th. (1916).
3651:Terman, Lewis Madison
3416:10.1017/9781108770422
2832:Trewavas, A. (2002).
2553:Psychological Reports
1957:American Psychologist
1890:Gottfredson, Linda S.
1470:cost–benefit analysis
1386:. First described in
1254:
1135:Intelligence Quotient
1042:
979:& William Salter
876:race and intelligence
600:Psychology portal
4420:Emergent materialism
3984:Three-stratum theory
3741:. By Douglas Fox in
3540:on 24 December 2013.
3404:Sternberg, Robert J.
3021:Heath, Nick (2018).
1946:Sternberg, Robert J.
1434:in humans (40–50%).
1361:factor in non-humans
1025:
4617:Language of thought
4367:Ludwig Wittgenstein
4197:Patricia Churchland
3957:Models and theories
3744:Scientific American
3547:Blakeslee, Sandra;
3380:Scientific American
3360:Scientific American
3346:AI machine-learning
3316:Scientific American
3244:Scientific American
2907:2009NW.....96.1373R
2895:Naturwissenschaften
2850:2002Natur.415..841T
2803:2005TPS....10..413T
2206:2007arXiv0712.3329L
2139:; Salter W (1982).
1774:A Hobbes Dictionary
1739:Bioelectrochemistry
1410:, and responses to
1384:cognitive abilities
1308:and to some extent
1257:crab-eating macaque
1182:Social intelligence
985:adaptive behavior.
866:Wall Street Journal
663:emotional knowledge
451:Behavioral genetics
366:Occupational health
108:Behavioral genetics
39:Part of a series on
4445:Neurophenomenology
4116:Philosophy of mind
4010:Heritability of IQ
3787:Human intelligence
3733:Indiana University
3592:10.1002/0470870850
3103:Minds and Machines
2834:"Mindless mastery"
2721:(1684): 20150049.
2620:Hector J. Levesque
2184:Minds and Machines
1261:
1209:Moral intelligence
1197:schools of thought
1096:recognize patterns
1062:Human intelligence
1037:
568:Schools of thought
406:Sport and exercise
252:Applied psychology
25:Human intelligence
4756:
4755:
4652:Mind–body problem
4550:Cognitive closure
4514:Substance dualism
4132:G. E. M. Anscombe
4082:
4081:
3998:Areas of research
3948:Visual processing
3865:Cognitive liberty
3642:978-0-471-89738-5
3566:978-0-8050-7456-7
3519:978-0-300-12385-2
3478:978-0-521-74147-7
3455:978-0-19-958559-5
3442:Mackintosh, N. J.
3344:writes: "Current
3271:Immerwahr, Daniel
3257:ancient languages
3205:Kevin J. Mitchell
3159:978-0-19-967811-2
3075:Gary Lea (2015).
2959:978-0-13-790395-5
2901:(12): 1373–1384.
2660:978-0-553-37452-0
2315:978-1-4462-0721-5
2274:978-94-6091-758-5
2150:978-0-521-29687-8
2114:978-0-465-02510-7
2053:978-0-19-502296-4
1833:978-1-4939-1561-3
1699:The Plant Journal
1627:Superintelligence
1622:Passive intellect
1569:Psychology portal
1555:Philosophy portal
1489:intelligent agent
1053:
1052:
991:Reuven Feuerstein
864:statement in the
679:critical thinking
636:
635:
533:Counseling topics
476:Consumer behavior
217:Psycholinguistics
103:Affective science
4791:
4504:Representational
4499:Property dualism
4492:Type physicalism
4457:New mysterianism
4425:Epiphenomenalism
4247:Martin Heidegger
4109:
4102:
4095:
4086:
4068:
4067:
3989:Triarchic theory
3780:
3773:
3766:
3757:
3729:Jonathan Plucker
3691:
3689:
3687:
3666:
3646:
3623:
3608:Lay summary in:
3605:
3578:
3558:
3541:
3526:Lay summary in:
3523:
3500:
3499:on 14 June 2010.
3485:Lay summary in:
3482:
3459:
3437:
3365:autistic savants
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2699:
2697:
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2679:
2673:
2672:
2653:. Bantam Books.
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1996:
1995:
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1991:
1985:
1954:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1929:
1898:
1886:
1880:
1879:, pp. 17–20
1877:Gottfredson 1997
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1655:
1648:
1578:Active intellect
1571:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1557:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1270:operationalizing
1247:Animal cognition
1231:has noted that:
1193:social character
1046:
1044:
1043:
1038:
1036:
1035:
977:Robert Sternberg
921:
836:
781:active intellect
628:
621:
614:
598:
597:
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563:Research methods
222:Psychophysiology
84:Basic psychology
55:
36:
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4790:
4789:
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4759:
4758:
4757:
4752:
4724:
4691:
4637:Mental property
4530:Abstract object
4518:
4388:
4342:Wilfrid Sellars
4217:Donald Davidson
4202:Paul Churchland
4162:George Berkeley
4118:
4113:
4083:
4078:
4056:
3993:
3952:
3918:Problem solving
3852:
3843:
3792:
3784:
3747:, 14 June 2011.
3727:. Developed by
3725:Wayback Machine
3698:
3685:
3683:
3669:
3649:
3643:
3628:
3622:on 26 May 2013.
3609:
3602:
3581:
3567:
3555:On intelligence
3546:
3527:
3520:
3505:
3486:
3479:
3462:
3456:
3440:
3426:
3402:
3355:Domingos, Pedro
3333:Foreign Affairs
3328:Cukier, Kenneth
3197:
3195:Further reading
3192:
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3171:
3167:
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3145:
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3140:
3100:
3099:
3095:
3085:
3083:
3081:Popular Science
3074:
3073:
3069:
3062:
3048:Häggström, Olle
3046:
3045:
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2989:
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2887:
2883:
2859:10.1038/415841a
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2054:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2020:
2018:
2017:on 19 June 2010
2004:
2003:
1999:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1952:
1942:Neisser, Ulrich
1940:
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1785:
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1736:
1735:
1728:
1692:
1691:
1684:
1680:Academic Press.
1675:
1671:
1662:
1658:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1553:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1502:protein folding
1484:
1478:
1450:
1448:Plant cognition
1442:Main articles:
1440:
1408:social learning
1369:
1363:
1332:nervous systems
1276:Wolfgang Köhler
1249:
1243:
1241:Nonhuman animal
1229:Hector Levesque
1220:
1211:
1205:
1184:
1178:
1161:
1155:
1064:
1058:
1028:
1023:
1022:
969:problem solving
953:Lloyd Humphreys
847:
846:
841:
838:
834:
831:
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717:
683:problem-solving
632:
594:
592:
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558:Psychotherapies
526:
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202:Neuropsychology
86:
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4602:Intentionality
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4454:
4452:Neutral monism
4449:
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4447:
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4435:Interactionism
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4347:Baruch Spinoza
4344:
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4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4257:Edmund Husserl
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4227:René Descartes
4224:
4222:Daniel Dennett
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4192:David Chalmers
4189:
4184:
4179:
4177:Franz Brentano
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4157:Alexander Bain
4154:
4149:
4147:Thomas Aquinas
4144:
4139:
4134:
4128:
4126:
4120:
4119:
4114:
4112:
4111:
4104:
4097:
4089:
4080:
4079:
4077:
4076:
4061:
4058:
4057:
4055:
4054:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4001:
3999:
3995:
3994:
3992:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3960:
3958:
3954:
3953:
3951:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3856:
3854:
3853:and constructs
3845:
3844:
3842:
3841:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3800:
3798:
3794:
3793:
3785:
3783:
3782:
3775:
3768:
3760:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3736:
3714:
3697:
3696:External links
3694:
3693:
3692:
3667:
3647:
3641:
3626:
3625:
3624:
3601:978-0471494348
3600:
3579:
3565:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3518:
3503:
3502:
3501:
3477:
3460:
3454:
3438:
3425:978-0521739115
3424:
3400:
3385:disambiguation
3372:
3352:
3325:
3303:Roivainen, Eka
3300:
3296:The New Yorker
3288:
3276:The New Yorker
3268:
3238:Cain's Jawbone
3230:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3190:
3165:
3158:
3138:
3109:(4): 391–444.
3093:
3067:
3061:978-0191035395
3060:
3039:
3013:
2987:
2973:
2958:
2938:
2881:
2824:
2797:(9): 413–419.
2781:
2768:
2752:
2701:
2674:
2659:
2639:
2628:
2626:(2017), p. 80.
2612:
2603:
2586:
2559:(3): 839–864.
2539:
2520:(4): 433–442.
2500:
2463:(3): 185–211.
2440:
2413:(2): 346–349.
2390:
2361:(4): 489–501.
2341:
2314:
2284:
2273:
2253:
2227:
2190:(4): 391–444.
2174:
2164:
2149:
2128:
2113:
2094:
2083:(2): 105–120.
2067:
2052:
2031:
1997:
1933:
1881:
1869:
1863:978-1586037581
1862:
1839:
1832:
1813:
1794:
1779:
1764:
1745:(2): 142–147.
1726:
1705:(2): 240–255.
1682:
1669:
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1642:
1640:
1637:
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1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1596:
1591:
1585:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1558:
1542:
1539:
1522:Garry Kasparov
1509:Olle Häggström
1507:Mathematician
1480:Main article:
1477:
1474:
1439:
1436:
1365:Main article:
1362:
1356:
1245:Main article:
1242:
1239:
1219:
1216:
1207:Main article:
1204:
1201:
1180:Main article:
1177:
1174:
1157:Main article:
1154:
1151:
1104:solve problems
1076:self-awareness
1060:Main article:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1034:
1030:
1019:
1013:
1012:
1008:
998:
997:
993:
987:
986:
980:
973:
972:
965:
963:Howard Gardner
959:
958:
955:
949:
948:
945:
943:David Wechsler
939:
938:
935:
929:
928:
925:
899:The Bell Curve
871:The Bell Curve
842:
839:
833:
830:
827:
719:Main article:
716:
713:
655:self-awareness
634:
633:
631:
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623:
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608:
605:
604:
603:
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587:
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581:
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434:
433:
430:
429:
424:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
257:
256:
255:
250:
249:
246:
245:
240:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
149:Cross-cultural
146:
141:
140:
139:
129:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
89:
88:
87:
82:
81:
78:
77:
76:
75:
70:
65:
57:
56:
48:
47:
41:
40:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4796:
4785:
4782:
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4775:
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4770:
4767:
4766:
4764:
4749:
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4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4730:
4727:
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4717:
4713:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4700:
4698:
4694:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4682:Understanding
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4607:Introspection
4605:
4603:
4600:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4587:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4560:Consciousness
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4527:
4525:
4521:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4493:
4490:
4489:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4482:Phenomenology
4480:
4478:
4477:Phenomenalism
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4467:Occasionalism
4465:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4446:
4443:
4442:
4441:
4440:Naïve realism
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4430:Functionalism
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4397:
4395:
4391:
4385:
4384:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4372:Stephen Yablo
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4327:Richard Rorty
4325:
4323:
4322:Hilary Putnam
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4297:Marvin Minsky
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4272:Immanuel Kant
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4262:William James
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4167:Henri Bergson
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4125:
4121:
4117:
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4103:
4098:
4096:
4091:
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4087:
4075:
4071:
4063:
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4059:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4015:Psychometrics
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4002:
4000:
3996:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3955:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3943:Understanding
3941:
3938:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3887:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3870:Communication
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3850:
3846:
3839:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3788:
3781:
3776:
3774:
3769:
3767:
3762:
3761:
3758:
3752:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3740:
3737:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3695:
3682:
3678:
3677:
3672:
3671:Binet, Alfred
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3638:
3634:
3633:
3627:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3607:
3606:
3603:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3562:
3557:
3556:
3550:
3549:Hawkins, Jeff
3545:
3539:
3535:
3534:Psych Central
3531:
3525:
3524:
3521:
3515:
3511:
3510:
3504:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3484:
3483:
3480:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3461:
3457:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3381:
3376:
3373:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3361:
3356:
3353:
3350:
3347:
3343:
3342:Alex Pentland
3339:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3317:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3277:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3265:training data
3262:
3261:civilizations
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3231:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3215:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3201:Gleick, James
3199:
3198:
3194:
3179:
3178:idlewords.com
3175:
3169:
3166:
3161:
3155:
3151:
3150:
3142:
3139:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3097:
3094:
3082:
3078:
3071:
3068:
3063:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3043:
3040:
3028:
3024:
3017:
3014:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2988:
2983:
2977:
2974:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2955:
2951:
2950:
2942:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2885:
2882:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2844:(6874): 841.
2843:
2839:
2835:
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2820:
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2808:
2804:
2800:
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2178:
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2110:
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2090:
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2071:
2068:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2049:
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2041:
2035:
2032:
2028:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2001:
1998:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1963:(2): 77–101.
1962:
1958:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1937:
1934:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
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1885:
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1780:
1775:
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1430:explained by
1429:
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1267:
1259:using a stone
1258:
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1232:
1230:
1226:
1217:
1215:
1210:
1202:
1200:
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1183:
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1173:
1171:
1170:mental health
1166:
1160:
1152:
1150:
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1146:environmental
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1138:
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1127:
1125:
1121:
1117:
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1109:
1106:, and employ
1105:
1101:
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1084:form concepts
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1018:
1015:
1014:
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1006:Marcus Hutter
1003:
1000:
999:
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992:
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983:Goal-directed
981:
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856:In 1994 the "
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824:
820:
816:
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806:
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794:
793:Thomas Hobbes
790:
789:Francis Bacon
786:
782:
778:
777:scholasticism
775:
771:
767:
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759:
755:
751:
750:
745:
744:
739:
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4044:personality
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2478:10654/36316
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538:Disciplines
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