845:
837:
576:
31:
232:
385:
712:. Starting at the centre of the fiber, the thickening layers of the secondary wall are deposited one after the other. Growth at both tips of the cell leads to simultaneous elongation. During development the layers of secondary material seem like tubes, of which the outer one is always longer and older than the next. After completion of growth, the missing parts are supplemented, so that the wall is evenly thickened up to the tips of the fibers.
2798:
2425:
770:
747:
exists. During evolution the strength of the tracheid cell walls was enhanced, the ability to conduct water was lost and the size of the pits was reduced. Fibers that do not belong to the xylem are bast (outside the ring of cambium) and such fibers that are arranged in characteristic patterns at
587:
are generally long, slender, so-called prosenchymatous cells, usually occurring in strands or bundles. Such bundles or the totality of a stem's bundles are colloquially called fibers. Their high load-bearing capacity and the ease with which they can be processed has since antiquity made them the
567:), meaning "hard." It is the hard, thick walls that make sclerenchyma cells important strengthening and supporting elements in plant parts that have ceased elongation. The difference between sclereids is not always clear: transitions do exist, sometimes even within the same plant.
874:). Sclereids are variable in shape. The cells can be isodiametric, prosenchymatic, forked or elaborately branched. They can be grouped into bundles, can form complete tubes located at the periphery or can occur as single cells or small groups of cells within
898:). The cell walls fill nearly all the cell's volume. A layering of the walls and the existence of branched pits is clearly visible. Branched pits such as these are called ramiform pits. The shell of many seeds like those of nuts as well as the stones of
352:, form a system of air spaces and chambers that regulate the exchange of gases. In some works, the cells of the leaf epidermis are regarded as specialised parenchymal cells, but the modern preference has long been to classify the epidermis as
412:
made up of cellulose and pectin. Cell wall thickness is strongly affected by mechanical stress upon the plant. The walls of collenchyma in shaken plants (to mimic the effects of wind etc.), may be 40–100% thicker than those not shaken.
536:. Sclerenchyma cells are the principal supporting cells in plant tissues that have ceased elongation. Sclerenchyma fibers are of great economic importance, since they constitute the source material for many fabrics (e.g.
705:
wire (25 kg/ mm²), but the fibre tears as soon as too great a strain is placed upon it, while the wire distorts and does not tear before a strain of 80 kg/mm². The thickening of a cell wall has been studied in
2255:
969:
Jeffree CE, Read N, Smith JAC and Dale JE (1987). Water droplets and ice deposits in leaf intercellular spaces: redistribution of water during cryofixation for scanning electron microscopy. Planta 172,
2260:
257:
and the exchange of gases. These layers are called the palisade parenchyma and spongy mesophyll. Palisade parenchyma cells can be either cuboidal or elongated. Parenchyma cells in the
988:
Evert, Ray F; Eichhorn, Susan E. Esau's Plant
Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development. Publisher: Wiley-Liss 2006.
97:. It can be divided into three types based on the nature of the cell walls. This tissue system is present between the dermal tissue and forms the main bulk of the plant body.
2393:
138:
cells have thin primary walls with some areas of secondary thickening. Collenchyma provides extra mechanical and structural support, particularly in regions of new growth.
261:
of leaves are specialised parenchyma cells called chlorenchyma cells (parenchyma cells with chloroplasts). Parenchyma cells are also found in other parts of the plant.
504:(1839) stated mockingly that the term "collenchyma" could have more easily been used to describe elongated sub-epidermal cells with unevenly thickened cell walls.
2461:
2311:
2127:
231:
175:
Parenchyma is a versatile ground tissue that generally constitutes the "filler" tissue in soft parts of plants. It forms, among other things, the
108:
and usually remain alive after they become mature. Parenchyma forms the "filler" tissue in the soft parts of plants, and is usually present in
1156:
1021:
993:
945:
331:, mutually interconnected with their neighbours at the ends of their arms to form a three-dimensional network, like in the red kidney bean
214:
when close-packed, but can be roughly spherical when isolated from their neighbors. Parenchyma cells are generally large. They have large
2317:
1185:
1174:
817:
2454:
1212:
979:
Hill, J. Ben; Overholts, Lee O; Popp, Henry W. Grove Jr., Alvin R. Botany. A textbook for colleges. Publisher: MacGraw-Hill 1960
1651:
2132:
795:
791:
491:
1064:
327:
of a leaf, parenchyma cells range from near-spherical and loosely arranged with large intercellular spaces, to branched or
1582:
2301:
1888:
1403:
2447:
2383:
2137:
1092:
Leroux O. 2012. Collenchyma: a versatile mechanical tissue with dynamic cell walls. Annals of Botany 110 (6): 1083-98.
780:
2837:
2801:
2117:
799:
784:
2267:
2405:
2250:
1300:
501:
423:
Tangential collenchyma (cells arranged into ordered rows and thickened at the tangential face of the cell wall)
1075:
836:
2827:
2235:
2159:
512:
Sclerenchyma is the tissue which makes the plant hard and stiff. Sclerenchyma is the supporting tissue in
121:
1127:
Abhandlungen der
Mathematisch-Physischen Klasse der Königlich-Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften
2400:
575:
555:
Unlike the collenchyma, mature sclerenchyma is composed of dead cells with extremely thick cell walls (
2832:
2122:
1974:
1646:
1205:
878:
tissues. But compared with most fibres, sclereids are relatively short. Characteristic examples are
30:
2292:
1837:
556:
148:
2550:
2545:
2524:
2230:
2095:
1964:
1873:
1565:
1351:
1247:
353:
342:
333:
90:
76:
1180:
Chrispeels MJ, Sadava DE. (2002) Plants, Genes and Crop
Biotechnology. Jones and Bartlett Inc.,
949:
844:
2486:
2388:
1237:
1232:
1181:
1170:
1152:
1104:
Comparative Wood
Anatomy: Systematic, Ecological, and Evolutionary Aspects of Dicotyledon Wood
1017:
989:
409:
384:
855:
Sclereids are the reduced form of sclerenchyma cells with highly thickened, lignified walls.
2749:
2511:
2478:
2470:
2174:
2080:
2075:
2029:
1922:
1907:
1868:
1793:
1634:
1558:
1455:
1397:
1108:
1005:
720:
443:
434:
160:
1102:
2782:
2763:
2720:
2579:
2428:
2410:
2272:
2101:
2051:
2039:
2019:
2001:
1937:
1764:
1732:
1693:
1666:
1495:
1490:
1381:
1317:
1198:
1042:
215:
176:
151:
and often die when mature. Sclerenchyma provides the main structural support to the plant.
109:
94:
71:
1037:
2625:
2591:
2530:
2501:
2322:
2287:
2240:
2222:
2186:
1942:
1769:
1747:
1713:
1688:
1671:
1661:
1656:
1538:
1356:
1341:
1295:
1290:
879:
683:
648:), are extremely soft and elastic and are especially well suited for the processing to
584:
397:
254:
2821:
2535:
2496:
2358:
2106:
2024:
1996:
1959:
1927:
1863:
1783:
1683:
1485:
1391:
1371:
1312:
1307:
1255:
689:
529:
433:
Collenchyma cells are most often found adjacent to outer growing tissues such as the
328:
200:
2744:
2687:
2662:
2353:
2343:
2245:
1969:
1954:
1463:
1430:
891:
716:
302:
196:
105:
369:
Stellate (found in stem of plants and have well developed air spaces between them)
1130:
2680:
2169:
2154:
2149:
2085:
1947:
1727:
1698:
1597:
1592:
1440:
1280:
1275:
1260:
769:
295:
163:
with large air cavities surrounded by irregular cells which form columns called
1079:
882:
or the stone cells (called stone cells because of their hardness) of pears and
2769:
2725:
2657:
2606:
2596:
2569:
2540:
2491:
2198:
2191:
2181:
2164:
1847:
1842:
1778:
1570:
1417:
1376:
1270:
1112:
1009:
875:
740:
724:
693:
and others. Their cell walls contain, besides cellulose, a high proportion of
645:
345:
313:
253:
cells immediately beneath the epidermis of the leaf, that are responsible for
226:. Tissue specialised for food storage is commonly formed of parenchyma cells.
211:
164:
155:
125:
65:
46:
392:
Collenchyma tissue is composed of elongated cells with irregularly thickened
2806:
2774:
2730:
2667:
2306:
2203:
1932:
1737:
1718:
1629:
1553:
1425:
1366:
1346:
1285:
753:
736:
653:
525:
521:
393:
338:
291:
277:
269:
207:
204:
188:
113:
727:
are their main centers of production. They are usually associated with the
17:
2738:
2714:
2708:
2698:
2620:
2558:
2348:
2338:
2282:
2277:
2044:
1917:
1893:
1810:
1480:
1265:
831:
744:
597:
517:
309:
265:
323:
The shape of parenchyma cells varies with their function. In the spongy
264:
Storage of starch, protein, fats, oils and water in roots, tubers (e.g.
2564:
1533:
1528:
1445:
1435:
664:
660:
649:
593:
500:(Orchidaceae) pollen. Complaining about Link's excessive nomenclature,
2601:
2585:
2439:
1986:
1878:
1832:
1798:
1752:
1742:
1703:
1641:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1221:
1069:
903:
883:
732:
694:
609:
533:
496:
405:
375:
Lobed (found in spongy and pallisade mesophyll tissue of some plants)
285:
281:
273:
145:
56:
2635:
2630:
2614:
2210:
2144:
2066:
2034:
1991:
1883:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1803:
1788:
1757:
1678:
1336:
1327:
899:
863:
859:
843:
835:
748:
different sites of the shoot. The term "sclerenchyma" (originally
743:. Reliable evidence for the fibre cells' evolutionary origin from
728:
708:
702:
677:
672:
637:
625:
613:
574:
549:
513:
383:
349:
223:
192:
51:
29:
1165:
Moore, Randy; Clark, W. Dennis; and
Vodopich, Darrell S. (1998).
319:
Chlorenchyma cells carry out photosynthesis and manufacture food.
2672:
2061:
2056:
1708:
1548:
1523:
1518:
1502:
1473:
1361:
907:
867:
629:
617:
601:
589:
545:
541:
537:
401:
324:
258:
250:
246:
219:
184:
180:
129:
117:
41:
34:
2443:
1194:
437:
and are known for increasing structural support and integrity.
420:
Angular collenchyma (thickened at intercellular contact points)
408:). Collenchyma cells are usually living, and have only a thick
1981:
1543:
763:
516:. Two types of sclerenchyma cells exist: fibers cellular and
159:
cells are found in aquatic plants. They are also known to be
735:
of the vascular bundles. The fibers of the xylem are always
236:
Cross section of a leaf showing various ground tissue types
473:
461:
458:
449:
429:
Lacunar collenchyma (collenchyma with intercellular spaces)
396:. They provide structural support, particularly in growing
1151:(5th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning.
1016:(8th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc. pp. 744–745.
701:
is as high as 20–25 kg/mm², the same as that of good
482:
404:(as seen, for example, the resilient strands in stalks of
1190:
559:) that make up to 90% of the whole cell volume. The term
467:
195:. Parenchyma cells are often living cells and may remain
494:(1837) who used it to describe the sticky substance on
659:
Contrasting are hard fibers that are mostly found in
479:
464:
446:
455:
426:
Annular collenchyma (uniformly thickened cell walls)
183:(central region) of stems, the cortex of roots, the
2510:
2477:
2367:
2331:
2221:
2094:
2010:
1906:
1856:
1581:
1511:
1454:
1416:
1390:
1326:
1246:
470:
452:
316:) provides buoyancy and helps aquatic plants float.
913:These structures are used to protect other cells.
848:Long, tapered sclereids supporting a leaf edge in
372:Elongated (also found in pallisade tissue of leaf)
363:Polyhedral (found in pallisade tissue of the leaf)
858:They are small bundles of sclerenchyma tissue in
294:(e.g. the parenchyma cells lining the inside of
89:of plants includes all tissues that are neither
1125:Mettenius, G. 1865. Über die Hymenophyllaceae.
862:that form durable layers, such as the cores of
1149:Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology
241:Parenchyma cells have a variety of functions:
218:, which allow the cells to store and regulate
2455:
1206:
628:for just as long. These fibers, and those of
588:source material for a number of things, like
8:
2312:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
301:Wound repair and the potential for renewed
798:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
203:if stimulated. They have thin and flexible
2462:
2448:
2440:
1413:
1213:
1199:
1191:
416:There are four main types of collenchyma:
230:
818:Learn how and when to remove this message
663:. Typical examples are the fiber of many
2256:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
940:
938:
652:. Their principal cell wall material is
929:
922:
187:of leaves, the pulp of fruits, and the
7:
796:adding citations to reliable sources
616:for more than 3,000 years, those of
579:Cross section of sclerenchyma fibers
308:Other specialised functions such as
563:is derived from the Greek σκληρός (
356:, and parenchyma as ground tissue.
199:, meaning that they are capable of
388:Cross section of collenchyma cells
25:
2261:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
61:
2797:
2796:
2424:
2423:
890:) and those of the shoot of the
768:
739:, while those of the phloem are
442:
440:The first use of "collenchyma" (
2651:
697:. The load-bearing capacity of
1043:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
715:Fibers usually originate from
341:. These cells, along with the
1:
2302:History of plant systematics
1889:Thorns, spines, and prickles
910:are made up from sclereids.
27:Category of tissue in plants
2693:
2854:
2118:Alternation of generations
1147:Mauseth, James D. (2012).
866:and the gritty texture of
829:
249:, they form two layers of
2792:
2419:
2268:Cultivated plant taxonomy
2231:Biological classification
1228:
1113:10.1007/978-3-662-04578-7
840:Fresh mount of a sclereid
2128:Evolutionary development
1169:(3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
1779:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
1076:Oxford University Press
2394:by author abbreviation
2318:Plant taxonomy systems
2236:Botanical nomenclature
1129:11: 403-504, pl. 1-5.
852:
841:
580:
389:
359:Shapes of parenchyma:
222:, waste products, and
82:
2401:Botanical expeditions
1072:UK English Dictionary
847:
839:
608:) have been known in
578:
387:
33:
2133:Evolutionary history
2123:Double fertilization
1975:Cellular respiration
792:improve this section
752:) was introduced by
634:Corchorus capsularis
37:stem cross-section:
2709:Meristematic tissue
1352:Non-vascular plants
850:Dionysia kossinskyi
606:Linum usitatissimum
354:plant dermal tissue
179:(outer region) and
2471:Biological tissues
1857:Surface structures
1652:Flower development
932:, pp. 98–103.
853:
842:
581:
390:
334:Phaseolus vulgaris
210:and are generally
83:
2838:Tissues (biology)
2815:
2814:
2602:Phloem parenchyma
2437:
2436:
2076:Herbaceous plants
1902:
1901:
1158:978-1-4496-6580-7
1046:. Merriam-Webster
1023:978-0-321-54325-7
1006:Campbell, Neil A.
994:978-0-471-73843-5
828:
827:
820:
410:primary cell wall
144:cells have thick
16:(Redirected from
2845:
2800:
2799:
2750:Vascular cambium
2636:Xylem parenchyma
2464:
2457:
2450:
2441:
2427:
2426:
2406:Individual trees
2081:Secondary growth
2052:Succulent plants
2040:Prostrate shrubs
1923:Apical dominance
1908:Plant physiology
1869:Epicuticular wax
1414:
1407:
1398:Plant morphology
1215:
1208:
1201:
1192:
1162:
1134:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1099:
1093:
1090:
1084:
1083:
1078:. Archived from
1061:
1055:
1054:
1052:
1051:
1034:
1028:
1027:
1002:
996:
986:
980:
977:
971:
967:
961:
960:
958:
957:
948:. Archived from
942:
933:
927:
823:
816:
812:
809:
803:
772:
764:
600:. The fibers of
489:
488:
485:
484:
481:
476:
475:
472:
469:
466:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
448:
435:vascular cambium
234:
216:central vacuoles
161:parenchyma cells
104:cells have thin
21:
2853:
2852:
2848:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2818:
2817:
2816:
2811:
2788:
2721:Ground meristem
2580:Vascular tissue
2551:Subsidiary cell
2506:
2473:
2468:
2438:
2433:
2415:
2384:Botanical terms
2377:
2363:
2327:
2273:Citrus taxonomy
2251:Author citation
2217:
2111:
2090:
2012:
2006:
2002:Turgor pressure
1910:
1898:
1852:
1667:Floral symmetry
1585:
1577:
1507:
1496:Vascular bundle
1491:Vascular tissue
1450:
1410:
1401:
1400:
1386:
1357:Vascular plants
1322:
1318:Plant pathology
1242:
1224:
1219:
1159:
1146:
1143:
1141:Further reading
1138:
1137:
1124:
1120:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1063:
1062:
1058:
1049:
1047:
1036:
1035:
1031:
1024:
1004:
1003:
999:
987:
983:
978:
974:
968:
964:
955:
953:
944:
943:
936:
928:
924:
919:
888:Cydonia oblonga
880:brachysclereids
834:
824:
813:
807:
804:
789:
773:
762:
642:Boehmeria nivea
622:Cannabis sativa
573:
557:secondary walls
510:
478:
445:
441:
382:
239:
238:
237:
173:
149:secondary walls
81:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2851:
2849:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2820:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2809:
2804:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2786:
2779:
2778:
2777:
2772:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2735:
2734:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2696:
2684:
2677:
2676:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2626:Vessel element
2623:
2611:
2610:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2592:Companion cell
2575:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2531:Bulliform cell
2516:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2505:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2483:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2467:
2466:
2459:
2452:
2444:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2431:
2420:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2386:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2374:Related topics
2372:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2323:Taxonomic rank
2320:
2315:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2298:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2275:
2265:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2241:Botanical name
2233:
2227:
2225:
2223:Plant taxonomy
2219:
2218:
2216:
2215:
2214:
2213:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2199:Megasporangium
2196:
2195:
2194:
2187:Microsporangia
2179:
2178:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2109:
2104:
2098:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2048:
2047:
2042:
2032:
2027:
2025:Cushion plants
2016:
2014:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1962:
1960:Plant hormones
1957:
1952:
1951:
1950:
1943:Photosynthesis
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1914:
1912:
1904:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1860:
1858:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1808:
1807:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1781:
1776:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1761:
1760:
1755:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1716:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1676:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1662:Floral formula
1659:
1657:Floral diagram
1654:
1649:
1639:
1638:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1610:
1600:
1595:
1589:
1587:
1586:(incl. Flower)
1579:
1578:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1556:
1546:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1488:
1486:Storage organs
1483:
1478:
1477:
1476:
1466:
1460:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1422:
1420:
1411:
1409:
1408:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1372:Spermatophytes
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1342:Archaeplastida
1339:
1333:
1331:
1324:
1323:
1321:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1296:Phytogeography
1293:
1291:Phytochemistry
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1252:
1250:
1248:Subdisciplines
1244:
1243:
1241:
1240:
1235:
1229:
1226:
1225:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1210:
1203:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1178:
1163:
1157:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1118:
1094:
1085:
1082:on 2020-10-29.
1056:
1029:
1022:
1010:Reece, Jane B.
997:
981:
972:
962:
934:
921:
920:
918:
915:
872:Pyrus communis
830:Main article:
826:
825:
808:September 2015
776:
774:
767:
761:
758:
699:Phormium tenax
684:Phormium tenax
669:Agave sisalana
572:
569:
509:
506:
431:
430:
427:
424:
421:
381:
378:
377:
376:
373:
370:
367:
364:
321:
320:
317:
306:
299:
289:
262:
255:photosynthesis
235:
229:
228:
172:
169:
168:
167:
152:
139:
133:
122:medullary rays
80:
79:
74:
69:
59:
54:
49:
44:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2850:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2828:Plant anatomy
2826:
2825:
2823:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2795:
2794:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2742:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2716:
2711:
2710:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2683:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2647:
2646:Ground tissue
2643:
2642:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2582:
2581:
2577:
2576:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2546:Pavement cell
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2520:Dermal tissue
2518:
2517:
2515:
2513:
2509:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2460:
2458:
2453:
2451:
2446:
2445:
2442:
2430:
2422:
2421:
2418:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2366:
2360:
2359:Phytochemical
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2280:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2266:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2220:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1997:Transpiration
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1945:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1809:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1785:
1784:Inflorescence
1782:
1780:
1777:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1711:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1644:
1643:
1640:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1469:Ground tissue
1467:
1465:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1415:
1412:
1405:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1392:Plant anatomy
1389:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1313:Plant ecology
1311:
1309:
1308:Plant anatomy
1306:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1256:Archaeobotany
1254:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1211:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1197:
1196:
1193:
1187:
1186:0-7637-1586-7
1183:
1179:
1176:
1175:0-697-28623-1
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1144:
1140:
1132:
1128:
1122:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1105:
1098:
1095:
1089:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1071:
1066:
1065:"collenchyma"
1060:
1057:
1045:
1044:
1039:
1038:"collenchyma"
1033:
1030:
1025:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1001:
998:
995:
991:
985:
982:
976:
973:
966:
963:
952:on 2007-10-11
951:
947:
941:
939:
935:
931:
926:
923:
916:
914:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
856:
851:
846:
838:
833:
822:
819:
811:
801:
797:
793:
787:
786:
782:
777:This section
775:
771:
766:
765:
759:
757:
755:
751:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
713:
711:
710:
704:
700:
696:
692:
691:
690:Musa textilis
686:
685:
680:
679:
674:
670:
666:
662:
657:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
586:
577:
570:
568:
566:
562:
558:
553:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
530:hemicellulose
527:
523:
519:
515:
507:
505:
503:
499:
498:
493:
487:
438:
436:
428:
425:
422:
419:
418:
417:
414:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
386:
379:
374:
371:
368:
365:
362:
361:
360:
357:
355:
351:
347:
344:
340:
336:
335:
330:
326:
318:
315:
311:
307:
304:
300:
297:
293:
290:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
243:
242:
233:
227:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
206:
202:
201:cell division
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
170:
166:
162:
158:
157:
153:
150:
147:
143:
140:
137:
134:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
106:primary walls
103:
100:
99:
98:
96:
92:
88:
87:ground tissue
78:
75:
73:
70:
67:
63:
60:
58:
55:
53:
50:
48:
45:
43:
40:
39:
36:
32:
19:
2781:
2762:
2758:
2745:Cork cambium
2737:
2713:
2707:
2688:Sclerenchyma
2686:
2679:
2663:Chlorenchyma
2650:
2645:
2644:
2613:
2597:Phloem fiber
2584:
2578:
2557:
2523:
2519:
2354:Horticulture
2344:Floriculture
2246:Correct name
2096:Reproduction
2086:Woody plants
2011:Plant growth
1970:Gas Exchange
1955:Phytomelanin
1833:Plant embryo
1583:Reproductive
1468:
1431:Phragmoplast
1166:
1148:
1126:
1121:
1103:
1097:
1088:
1080:the original
1068:
1059:
1048:. Retrieved
1041:
1032:
1013:
1000:
984:
975:
965:
954:. Retrieved
950:the original
930:Mauseth 2012
925:
912:
896:Hoya carnosa
895:
887:
871:
857:
854:
849:
814:
805:
790:Please help
778:
750:Sclerenchyma
749:
717:meristematic
714:
707:
698:
688:
682:
676:
668:
658:
641:
633:
621:
605:
582:
564:
561:sclerenchyma
560:
554:
511:
508:Sclerenchyma
495:
439:
432:
415:
391:
358:
332:
322:
303:meristematic
240:
197:meristematic
174:
154:
142:Sclerenchyma
141:
135:
101:
86:
84:
62:Sclerenchyma
2833:Plant cells
2681:Collenchyma
2631:Xylem fiber
2170:Pollen tube
2165:Pollinators
2155:Pollination
2150:Germination
1965:Respiration
1948:Chlorophyll
1794:Pedicellate
1728:Gametophyte
1647:Aestivation
1598:Antheridium
1593:Archegonium
1441:Plasmodesma
1418:Plant cells
1281:Paleobotany
1276:Ethnobotany
1261:Astrobotany
524:consist of
380:Collenchyma
346:guard cells
296:resin ducts
136:Collenchyma
124:in primary
18:Collenchyma
2822:Categories
2770:Endodermis
2726:Procambium
2658:Aerenchyma
2652:Parenchyma
2607:Sieve tube
2570:Phelloderm
2541:Guard cell
2492:Epithelial
2487:Connective
2192:Microspore
2182:Sporangium
2160:Artificial
1848:Sporophyte
1843:Sporophyll
1838:Receptacle
1733:Gynandrium
1603:Androecium
1512:Vegetative
1382:Angiosperm
1377:Gymnosperm
1271:Dendrology
1050:2016-01-21
956:2012-05-18
917:References
876:parenchyma
741:cellulosic
725:procambium
598:mattresses
583:Fibers or
522:cell walls
339:mesophytes
337:and other
314:aerenchyma
278:cotyledons
212:polyhedral
208:cell walls
171:Parenchyma
165:trabeculae
156:Aerenchyma
102:Parenchyma
66:bast fibre
47:Protoxylem
2807:Histology
2775:Exodermis
2739:Secondary
2731:Protoderm
2668:Mesophyll
2525:Epidermis
2389:Botanists
2307:Herbarium
2204:Megaspore
2102:Evolution
2045:Subshrubs
2013:and habit
1938:Nutrition
1933:Cellulose
1928:Bulk flow
1911:Materials
1874:Epidermis
1738:Gynoecium
1719:Endosperm
1714:Dispersal
1630:Staminode
1566:Sessility
1554:Cataphyll
1474:Mesophyll
1426:Cell wall
1367:Lycophyte
1347:Bryophyte
1301:Geobotany
1286:Phycology
892:wax plant
779:does not
760:Sclereids
756:in 1865.
754:Mettenius
745:tracheids
737:lignified
719:tissues.
654:cellulose
526:cellulose
518:sclereids
502:Schleiden
490:) was by
366:Spherical
343:epidermal
325:mesophyll
292:Secretion
270:endosperm
259:mesophyll
251:mesophyll
205:cellulose
189:endosperm
185:mesophyll
146:lignified
114:pericycle
77:Epidermis
2802:Category
2699:Sclereid
2621:Tracheid
2559:Periderm
2497:Muscular
2429:Category
2349:Forestry
2339:Agronomy
2332:Practice
2283:Cultivar
2278:Cultigen
2138:timeline
2030:Rosettes
1918:Aleurone
1894:Trichome
1811:Perianth
1623:Filament
1481:Meristem
1404:glossary
1266:Bryology
1012:(2008).
946:"Leaves"
904:cherries
832:Sclereid
661:monocots
650:textiles
520:. Their
329:stellate
310:aeration
305:activity
268:), seed
266:potatoes
95:vascular
2715:Primary
2565:Phellem
2536:Cuticle
2502:Nervous
2479:Animals
2107:Ecology
1864:Cuticle
1694:Capsule
1684:Anatomy
1635:Tapetum
1559:Petiole
1534:Rhizome
1529:Rhizoid
1456:Tissues
1446:Vacuole
1436:Plastid
1238:Outline
1233:History
1014:Biology
884:quinces
800:removed
785:sources
721:Cambium
665:grasses
594:fabrics
565:sklērós
348:of the
286:peanuts
274:cereals
2764:Cortex
2586:Phloem
2512:Plants
2411:Plants
2314:(IAPT)
2067:Lianas
2035:Shrubs
1987:Starch
1879:Nectar
1799:Raceme
1765:Stigma
1753:Locule
1743:Carpel
1704:Pyrena
1642:Flower
1618:Anther
1613:Stamen
1608:Pollen
1330:groups
1222:Botany
1184:
1173:
1167:Botany
1155:
1070:Lexico
1020:
992:
900:drupes
864:apples
860:plants
733:phloem
695:lignin
646:nettle
636:) and
610:Europe
571:Fibers
548:, and
534:lignin
532:, and
514:plants
497:Bletia
406:celery
402:leaves
398:shoots
282:pulses
280:(e.g.
276:) and
272:(e.g.
247:leaves
177:cortex
120:, and
110:cortex
91:dermal
72:Cortex
57:Phloem
2783:Stele
2759:Mixed
2694:Fiber
2615:Xylem
2371:Lists
2288:Group
2211:Spore
2145:Flora
2062:Vines
2057:Trees
2020:Habit
1992:Sugar
1884:Stoma
1826:Sepal
1821:Petal
1816:Tepal
1804:Umbel
1789:Bract
1770:Style
1758:Ovule
1748:Ovary
1689:Berry
1679:Fruit
1672:Whorl
1539:Shoot
1337:Algae
1328:Plant
970:20-37
908:plums
902:like
868:pears
729:xylem
709:Linum
703:steel
678:Yucca
673:sisal
638:ramie
626:China
624:) in
614:Egypt
590:ropes
550:ramie
394:walls
350:stoma
224:water
193:seeds
52:Xylem
2673:Pith
2293:Grex
2175:Self
1709:Seed
1571:Stem
1549:Leaf
1524:Root
1519:Bulb
1503:Wood
1464:Cork
1362:Fern
1182:ISBN
1171:ISBN
1153:ISBN
1131:link
1018:ISBN
990:ISBN
906:and
783:any
781:cite
731:and
723:and
644:, a
630:jute
618:hemp
612:and
602:flax
596:and
585:bast
546:jute
542:hemp
538:flax
492:Link
400:and
284:and
220:ions
181:pith
130:root
128:and
126:stem
118:pith
93:nor
85:The
42:Pith
35:Flax
1982:Sap
1699:Nut
1544:Bud
1109:doi
794:by
681:or
675:),
552:).
245:In
191:of
2824::
2761::
2712::
2649::
2583::
2522::
1107:.
1074:.
1067:.
1040:.
1008:;
937:^
687:,
667:,
656:.
592:,
544:,
540:,
528:,
486:-/
116:,
112:,
2463:e
2456:t
2449:v
1406:)
1402:(
1214:e
1207:t
1200:v
1177:.
1161:.
1133:.
1115:.
1111::
1053:.
1026:.
959:.
894:(
886:(
870:(
821:)
815:(
810:)
806:(
802:.
788:.
671:(
640:(
632:(
620:(
604:(
483:ɒ
480:k
477:,
474:ə
471:m
468:ɪ
465:k
462:ŋ
459:ɛ
456:l
453:ˈ
450:ə
447:k
444:/
312:(
298:)
288:)
132:.
68:)
64:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
