221:, governing body of the Comintern. Zetkin singled out for particular praise the Communist women's movements in Bulgaria and Germany, which had established special women's committees for work among women, claiming that these groups had "become a force" in those nations. In Poland and Great Britain, on the other hand, no such organizations had been established, with these parties instead insisting on integration of their female members into regular party organizations. Work among women had consequently suffered, Zetkin charged.
228:(March 8) as on the chief activities of the Communist women's movement, characterizing the day of international demonstrations as "a party campaign, a declaration of war by communism against capitalism, a beginning of the struggle for which an army of millions of exploited and oppressed must be gathered, armed, and made ready." Zetkin also noted the important place played by female activists in the International Workers' Aid for Soviet Russia campaign of fundraising for famine relief. Echoing Zetkin,
19:
80:
354:
women's delegate meetings seems to have been made in advance of the conference. Despite the lack of conviction of the concept's applicability outside of the specific conditions of the USSR, no formal challenge was made to the resolution calling for the system's implementation. Similarly, approval of the formation of
334:
Late in the spring of 1926 a fourth international of the communist women's movement was held in Moscow. Whereas the previous gatherings had been known somewhat grandiosely as "Conferences of
Communist Women," the 1926 session was to be known as the 4th "International Conference on Work Among Women" —
322:
On May 15, 1925, the
Executive Committee of the Communist International decided to reorganize the Communist women's movement. The International Women's Secretariat was henceforth to be formally known as the Women's Section of the Executive Committee, according to this ECCI resolution. This change was
235:
The 4th World
Congress officially endorsed Zetkin's views in the resolution which it adopted, lauding the efficacy of "special structures" for female communist party members, such as national women's secretariats, and remarking that "unfortunately, some sections have failed partially or completely to
405:
Elimination of the All-Union
Communist Party's Zhenotdel also took place in 1930. Despite the termination of the Soviet and international organizations, Women's Sections remained in some Communist Parties for several years after this date, but the scope of activity of these organizations was reduced
353:
The Soviet system of "women's delegate meetings" — agitational gatherings of non-party women — was again a matter of emphasis, as well as the question of whether communist parties should found new women's organizations with largely non-communist memberships. A decision to impose the Soviet model of
65:
had some success in mobilizing Soviet women for administrative tasks in Soviet Russia, the
Communist Women's International and the Communist Women's Secretariat ultimately proved a failure outside the borders of the Soviet Union. The Women's Section of the Executive Committee was terminated by ECCI
381:
A final conference was organized by the Women's
Secretariat in August 1930 which brought together the chiefs of Women's Sections of the Communist Parties of Europe and the United States. The conference was chaired by Ruth Overlakh, head of the Women's Section of the Communist Party of Germany. In
323:
to be unpublicized, however, with the same decision cravenly declaring that "in presentations to a general audience it is good, for tactical reasons, to preserve the name
International Women's Secretariat." At the same time ECCI suspended publication of the official organ of the Women's Section,
401:
and Boris
Vassiliev. Vassiliev announced that the Women's Section had proven itself incapable of locating and training female strike leaders and activists or developing women for physical resistance to police violence or strikebreakers and must therefore be dissolved immediately without further
350:, "dominated the debates and confidently laid down the line for others to follow and imitate." The ultimate purpose of the gathering, in Carr's estimation, was to "establish the authority" of ECCI and the Women's Secretariat over the activities of communist women outside the USSR.
254:
included articles dealing with the women's movement from around the world as well as coverage of the handling of women's issues in Soviet Russia. Chief on the agenda for the publication and for the organization behind it was an ongoing effort to promote
49:
Operations of the
Communist Women's International was directed by a body known as the International Communist Women's Secretariat. This body was renamed the Women's Section of the Executive Committee and made a subordinate department of the
248:(The Communist International of Women). A total of 25 issues of the journal were produced during its five years of existence, running from 1921 to 1925. In all, some 1300 pages of content were published in the pages of this magazine.
146:
women of Europe and
America. This took the form of the Communist Women's International, headed by an institution known as International Communist Women's Secretariat, established in Moscow by the Comintern in April 1920.
189:
which brought together assemblies of elected female representatives of factories and villages in an effort to mobilize them on government administrative tasks and to build female participation in village and factory
330:
Headquarters for the reorganized Communist women's movement were moved from Berlin to Moscow in 1926 as part of the decision to downgrade the semi-autonomous status of the former International Women's Secretariat.
150:
The International Women's Secretariat was conceived as a small directing circle of half a dozen members or fewer. Ultimately eight women were named to the body, including six Russians — Kollontai, Lenin's wife
358:
including non-party women was endorsed despite the report of German delegates of negative experience in this regard, in which the new organizations stood in opposition to the regular women's section of the
217:, held in Moscow in the fall of 1922, delivering her report on Monday, May 27, 1922. Zetkin acknowledged that the Secretariat conducted its work under the "immediate direction and leadership" of the
346:, who chaired the opening and closing of the proceedings. Also determining the course of the proceedings were the disciplined body of delegates from the Soviet Union who, in the words of historian
378:(Zhenotdel), organization of women workers in other parties around the world was frequently given short shrift relative to other activities of the communist parties affiliated with the Comintern.
397:
ECCI was determined to further lessen the place of specific appeals to women at this time, however, and two plenipotentiaries were dispatched to the meeting — exiled Finnish Communist leader
232:
of Germany called for increased organization of women workers in factories and trade unions and again singled out the Bulgarian organization for special praise in this regard.
218:
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was made an important programmatic goal of the late 19th Century and early 20th Century radical movement. A special conference of socialist women was convened in
1021:
1016:
987:
Elizabeth Waters, "In the Shadow of the Comintern: The Communist Women's Movement, 1920–43", in Sonia Kruks, Rayna Rapp, and Marilyn B. Young (eds.),
338:
The 4th Conference was attended by just 18 voting and 47 non-voting delegates. The gathering tightly controlled by the representatives of ECCI
87:
was a leading figure at the 1915 and 1920 International Women's Conferences of the Second and Third Internationals, respectively. (1916 photo)
38:
ideas among women. The Communist Women's International was intended to play the same role for the international women's movement that the
66:
in August 1930, as was the Russian Party's Zhenotdel, ending the Comintern's employment of a specific structure for propaganda to women.
372:
214:
195:
179:
62:
295:
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by nearly three decades, was founded upon the principles of political and social equality between men and women. The various national
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carry out their duty to systematically promote Communist work among women" by failing to create such "indispensable" institutions.
178:
An International Conference of Communist Women was convened from July 30 to August 2, 1920 in Moscow, concurrent with the ongoing
1051:
282:
Member parties of the Communist International also issued magazines targeted to a female readership in this period, including
335:
an alteration meant to further reflect the reduced stature of the Women's Section in the Comintern's bureaucratic hierarchy.
789:
How Soviet Russia Liberated Women: The Soviet Model in Clara Zetkin's Periodical 'Die Kommunistische Fraueninternationale'.
597:
562:
386:, Overlakh emphasized the need for women to engage in "special tasks" such as physically intervening in the transport of
582:
256:
225:
360:
1056:
287:
980:
Jean-Jacques Marie, "The Women's Section of the Comintern, from Lenin to Stalin," in Christine Fauré (ed.),
656:
Jean-Jacques Marie, "The Women's Section of the Comintern, from Lenin to Stalin," in Christine Fauré (ed.),
143:
131:
103:
parties included the participation of women despite their being denied the right to vote in many places and
96:
31:
164:
260:
206:
At the beginning of 1922 headquarters of the Communist Women's International was moved from Moscow to
138:
in an attempt to supersede the moribund Second International, which had been effectively shattered by
878:
A History of Soviet Russia (Volume 12): Foundations of a Planned Economy, 1926–1929: Volume 3—Part 1.
213:
Clara Zetkin represented the International Women's Secretariat for Communist work among women at the
160:
92:
22:
Veteran German Marxist Clara Zetkin (left) was the first head of the Communist Women's International.
276:
156:
112:
104:
1026:
642:
Toward the United Front: Proceedings of the Fourth Congress of the Communist International, 1922.
152:
127:
477:
Delegates from 9 countries and representatives of International Women's Secretariat. Account in
624:
A History of Soviet Communism (Volume 8): Socialism in One Country, 1924–1926: Volume 3—Part 2.
528:
Characterized by historian Jean-Jacques Marie as a "purely ornamental conference" of tourists.
355:
339:
298:. Czechoslovakia had no fewer than three periodicals targeted to women — the Czech-language
343:
387:
259:
as a worldwide revolutionary holiday as well as to build multinational support for the
371:
While in the USSR a numerically powerful communist women's movement emerged under the
185:
Delegates heard details of the system of so-called "delegates' meetings" conducted in
1010:
398:
186:
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from Switzerland. Secretary of the organization was the veteran German revolutionary
116:
111:, Switzerland in 1915, bringing together such key international socialist leaders as
84:
18:
391:
383:
229:
172:
120:
834:
Marie, "The Women's Section of the Comintern, from Lenin to Stalin," pp. 280–281.
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39:
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264:
168:
43:
968:
Marie, "The Women's Section of the Comintern, from Lenin to Stalin," pg. 282.
846:
Marie, "The Women's Section of the Comintern, from Lenin to Stalin," pg. 281.
382:
accord with the return to the radical rhetoric and policies of the so-called
773:"Work of the International Communist Women's Secretariat" in Riddell (ed.),
572:
375:
347:
272:
100:
58:
35:
787:
79:
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The Communist Women's International published a bimonthly magazine called
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163:, and a woman known to history only as Similova — as well as the Dutch
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449:
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organization. Other matters of emphasis included agitation against
78:
17:
1001:
108:
792:
Masters thesis. Brigham Young University, August 2008; pg. 31.
501:
4th International Conference for Communist Work Among Women
808:
John Riddell, "The Communist Women's Movement, 1921–1926,"
517:
Conference of Women Attending 10th Anniversary Festivities
457:
Attended by 82 delegates from 28 countries. Resolutions in
539:
Conference of Heads of Communist Party Women's Sections
989:
Promissory Notes: Women in the Transition to Socialism.
644:
Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012, pp. 589–590 (fn. 20).
481:
vol. 2, no. 3/4 (March–April 1922), pp. 477–487.
302:(Woman Communist), the similarly named German organ
123:
to share common experiences and set common agendas.
550:Final conference organized by Women's Secretariat.
413:
860:Riddell, "The Communist Women's Movement," pg. 38.
512:Total of 18 voting and 47 consultative delegates.
219:Executive Committee of the Communist International
52:Executive Committee of the Communist International
466:Conference of International Women Correspondents
486:3rd International Conference of Communist Women
431:1st International Conference of Communist Women
54:(ECCI) and its magazine terminated in May 1925.
982:Political and Historical Encyclopedia of Women.
658:Political and Historical Encyclopedia of Women.
142:. A parallel effort was made to reorganize the
682:The complete report appears in Riddell (ed.),
530:(Marie, "The Women's Section of the Comintern,
30:was launched as an autonomous offshoot of the
1002:The Communist Women’s International (1921–26)
914:
912:
872:
870:
868:
866:
446:2nd International Communist Women's Congress
275:, as well as education in support of women's
46:played for the international labor movement.
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984:New York: Routledge, 2003; pp. 275–285.
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964:
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958:
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842:
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593:Women's International Democratic Federation
588:International Socialist Women's Conferences
410:International Communist Women's Conventions
34:in April 1920 for the purpose of advancing
652:
650:
461:vol. 1, no. 5/6 (1921), pp. 203–212.
294:(The Herald), a periodical issued by the
856:
854:
852:
804:
802:
800:
798:
479:Die Kommunistische Fraueninternationale,
459:Die Kommunistische Fraueninternationale,
325:Die Kommunistische Fraueninternationale,
608:
252:Die Kommunistische Fraueninternationale
246:Die Kommunistische Fraueninternationale
812:whole no. 87 (Jan.–Feb. 2013), pg. 36.
286:(Woman Comrade), a publication of the
1047:Women's organizations based in Russia
1032:Foreign relations of the Soviet Union
991:New York: Monthly Review Press, 1989.
7:
1022:Organizations disestablished in 1930
1037:International women's organizations
660:New York: Routledge, 2003; pg. 278.
215:4th World Congress of the Comintern
180:2nd World Congress of the Comintern
1042:Women's wings of communist parties
406:and their existence deemphasized.
327:ostensibly for financial reasons.
296:Communist Party of the Netherlands
42:played for poor agrarians and the
14:
1017:Organizations established in 1920
946:Foundations of a Planned Economy,
933:Foundations of a Planned Economy,
920:Foundations of a Planned Economy,
904:Foundations of a Planned Economy,
891:Foundations of a Planned Economy,
880:London: Macmillan, 1976; pg. 290.
626:London: Macmillan, 1964; pg. 976.
44:Red International of Labor Unions
810:International Socialist Review,
695:Clara Zetkin in Riddell (ed.),
669:Hertha Strum in Riddell (ed.),
310:, and the regional publication
134:(Comintern) was established in
28:Communist Women's International
126:Less than 18 months after the
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598:Socialist International Women
563:Young Communist International
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906:vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 290–291.
893:vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 292–293.
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1073:
361:Communist Party of Germany
786:Liberty Peterson Sproat,
747:Zetkin in Riddell (ed.),
734:Zetkin in Riddell (ed.),
721:Zetkin in Riddell (ed.),
708:Zetkin in Riddell (ed.),
583:International Women's Day
439:July 30 – August 2, 1920
422:
419:
416:
373:Russian Communist Party's
257:International Women's Day
226:International Women's Day
40:Red Peasant International
823:Toward the United Front,
821:Strum in Riddell (ed.),
775:Toward the United Front,
762:Toward the United Front,
760:Strum in Riddell (ed.),
749:Toward the United Front,
736:Toward the United Front,
723:Toward the United Front,
710:Toward the United Front,
697:Toward the United Front,
684:Toward the United Front,
671:Toward the United Front,
288:Communist Party of Italy
130:of November 1917, a new
948:vol. 3, pt. 1, pg. 293.
935:vol. 3, pt. 1, pg. 292.
922:vol. 3, pt. 1, pg. 291.
509:May 29 – June 10, 1926
196:Russian Communist Party
144:revolutionary socialist
132:Communist International
97:Communist International
63:Russian Communist Party
32:Communist International
165:Henriëtte Roland-Holst
88:
70:Organizational history
23:
261:International Red Aid
95:, which predated the
82:
21:
640:John Riddell (ed.),
93:Second International
1052:Women's conferences
277:reproductive rights
224:Zetkin highlighted
161:Konkordia Samoilova
113:Alexandra Kollontai
61:(Zhenotdel) of the
376:Women's Department
356:mass organizations
153:Nadezhda Krupskaya
128:Russian Revolution
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59:Women's Department
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340:Palmiro Togliatti
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392:picket lines
384:Third Period
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121:Clara Zetkin
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15:
876:E.H. Carr,
622:E.H. Carr,
578:Kommunistka
417:Convention
367:Dissolution
308:Sudetenland
300:Kommunistka
292:De Voorbode
202:Development
140:World War I
1011:Categories
568:Profintern
454:June 1921
265:militarism
169:Rosa Bloch
57:While the
1027:Comintern
604:Footnotes
573:Zhenotdel
532:pg. 281.)
426:Comments
420:Location
348:E.H. Carr
314:(Woman).
101:socialist
36:communist
751:pg. 846.
699:pg. 838.
673:pg. 854.
557:See also
284:Compagna
390:across
269:fascism
192:soviets
944:Carr,
931:Carr,
918:Carr,
902:Carr,
889:Carr,
543:Moscow
521:Moscow
505:Moscow
490:Moscow
470:Berlin
450:Moscow
435:Moscow
290:, and
271:, and
208:Berlin
136:Moscow
119:, and
494:1924
423:Date
342:and
312:Žena
167:and
109:Bern
91:The
26:The
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