Commentarii de Bello Gallico

1132:, indicating that the practice was not always effective. Cities often moved to rebel against Rome, even though hostages were in Roman custody. Occasionally, hostages would be entrusted to a neutral or mediating party during a rebellion, such as the time one hundred hostages surrendered by the Senones were placed in the custody of the Aedui who helped negotiate between the dissidents and Caesar. Some sources say there is not much evidence that hostages were even harmed, at least severely, in retribution of the broken agreements. It is commonly noted that Caesar never mentions penalties being dealt to hostages. Taking hostages did benefit Rome in one particular way: since hostages were commonly the sons of political figures and would typically be under Roman watch for a year or more, Romans had ample time to introduce those hostages to the Roman customs in hopes that when they were freed, they would go on to become influential political leaders themselves and favor Rome in subsequent foreign relations. 988:, united the Gallic tribes against Caesar during the winter of 53–52 BC. This appears in Book VII, chapters 1–13. Vercingetorix's father, Celtillus, was killed after attempting to seize power amongst the Arverni; for that reason, Vercingetorix was a social outcast and had much to gain from a rebellion. When it was clear that Caesar had defeated the Gallic rebellion, Vercingetorix offered to sacrifice himself, and put himself at the mercy of Caesar, in order to ensure that his kinsmen were spared. After the defeat, Vercingetorix was brought to Rome and imprisoned for six years before being brought out to adorn Caesar's triumph over Gaul and then publicly executed. Today, Vercingetorix is seen in the same light as others who opposed Roman conquest; he is now considered a national hero in France and a model patriot. 1026:. In chapter 13, he mentions the importance of Druids in the culture and social structure of Gaul at the time of his conquest. Chapter 14 addresses the education of the Druids and the high social standing that comes with their position. He first comments on the role of sacrificial practices in their daily lives in chapter 16. Caesar highlights the sacrificial practices of the Druids containing innocent people and the large sacrificial ceremony where hundreds of people were burnt alive at one time to protect the whole from famine, plague, and war (6.16). Chapter 17 and 18 focuses on the divinities the Gauls believed in and Dis, the god which they claim they were descended from. This account of the Druids highlights Caesar's interest in the order and importance of the Druids in Gaul. 1072:. They showed their prowess during this siege by jumping from the wall and directly into the enemy despite being completely outnumbered. During the fighting, they both find themselves in difficult positions and are forced to save each other, first Vorenus saving Pullo and then Pullo saving Vorenus. Through great bravery they are both able to make it back alive slaying many enemies in the process. They return to the camp showered in praise and honors by their fellow soldiers. Though they started out in competition, they both showed themselves to be worthy of the highest praise and equal to each other in bravery (5.44). 1400:

quarter (92,000) were combatants. But Henige points out that such a census would have been difficult to achieve by the Gauls, that it would make no sense to be written in Greek by non-Greek tribes, and that carrying such a large quantity of stone or wood tablets on their migration would have been a monumental feat. Henige finds it oddly convenient that exactly one quarter were combatants, suggesting that the numbers were more likely ginned up by Caesar than outright counted by census. Even contemporary authors estimated that the population of the Helvetii and their allies were lower,

970: 1038:

movements, the size of the cosmos and the earth, the nature of the world, and the powers of immortal deities," signifying to the Roman people that the Druids were also versed in astrology, cosmology, and theology. Although Caesar is one of the few primary sources on the Druids, many believe that he had used his influence to portray the Druids to the Roman people as both barbaric, as they performed human sacrifices, and civilized in order to depict the Druids as a society worth assimilating to Rome (6.16).

1141: 1423:, writing in 1876, suggested (in what Henige considers to be very charitable on Desjardins part) that the error in numbers in the Usipetes campaign was the result of a mis-transcription of "CCCCXXX" instead of "XXXXIII", which would mean that the real size of the Gaulic force was actually just 43,000. But even Henige suggests that it is possible the numbers have not always been accurately written down, and that the earliest surviving manuscripts are only from the ninth to twelfth centuries. 1439:

against the barbarity of the Gauls (which was important, as Caesar had actually been the aggressor contrary to his claims). By making it appear that he had won against overwhelming odds and suffered minimal casualties, he further increased the belief that he and the Romans were godly and destined to win against the godless barbarians of Gaul. Overall, Henige concludes that "Julius Caesar must be considered one of history's earliest – and most durably successful – 'spin doctors'".

1419:, who served under Caesar, noted that the account had been put together without much care or regard for the truth. Still, Pollio attributed this to mistakes by Caesar's lieutenants, or even that Caesar intended to rewrite the text more accurately. Up until the 20th century authors tended to follow Pollio's thinking, attributing mistakes not to Caesar but to the process, such as errors in translation and transcription throughout time. 136: 788: 1001:

reportedly wear small cloaks of deer hides and bathe in the river naked with their fellow men, yet their culture celebrates men who abstain from sex for as long as possible (6.21). Caesar concludes in chapters 25–28 by describing the Germans living in the almost-mythological Hercynian forest full of oxen with horns in the middle of their foreheads, elks without joints or ligatures, and uri who kill every man they come across.

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ancient Rome. The idea of the practice was that important people from each side were given to ensure that both sides kept their word; a type of contract. Two examples of this: Caesar demanding the children of chieftains (2.5) and accepting the two sons of King Galba (2.13). However, as seen by Caesar, sometimes it was only a one-way exchange, with Caesar taking hostages but not giving any.

883:

successful, setting up a friendly king and bringing his rival to terms. However, tribes rose up on the continent, and the Romans suffered a humiliating defeat. 53 BC saw a draconian campaign against the Gauls in an attempt to pacify them. This failed, and the Gauls staged a mass revolt under the leadership of Vercingetorix in 52 BC. Gallic forces won a notable victory at the

1374:

the work. Even if the works were published after the wars, it was clear that Caesar was waging a propaganda campaign during the war, including writing copious letters to his political allies back in Rome. Because of the questionable nature of the war, and threats by his enemies to have him essentially tried for war crimes, winning the public relations battle was critical for Caesar.

40: 2220: 576: 1448:

overwhelming hand in creating the work, but believes much of the grammar and clarity of the work to be the result of the scribe or scribes involved. Breindal also considers the main point of the work to be as a propaganda piece to protect Caesar's reputation in the vicious politics of Rome. Book eight was written after Caesar's death in 44 BC by consul

1034:

successful war campaign. Caesar provides a detailed account of the manner in which the supposed human sacrifices occurred in chapter 16, claiming that "they have images of immense size, the limbs of which are framed with twisted twigs and filled with living persons. These being set on fire, those within are encompassed by the flames" (6.16).

1030:

from the hearsay of others, and is regarded as anachronistic. Caesar based some of his account on that of Posidonius, who wrote a clear and well-known account of the Druids in Gaul. Caesar provides his account of the Druids as a means of sharing his knowledge and educating the Roman people on the foreign conquests.

957:

the life of his brother, and Caesar saw an opportunity to not only fix his major problem with Dumnorix, but also to strengthen the relationship between Rome and one of its small allies. Another major action taken by Diviciacus was his imploring of Caesar to take action against the Germans and their leader,

1430:

revolves around modern authors trying to use it to estimate the pre-Roman population of Gaul. In the 18th century, authors extrapolated from the text populations of 40–200 million. Authors in the 19th century guessed in the 15–20 million range based on the text. 20th century authors guessed as low as

956:

had committed several acts against the Romans because he wanted to become king (1.18); thus Caesar was able to make his alliance with Diviciacus even stronger by sparing Dumnorix from punishment while also forcing Diviciacus to control his own brother. Diviciacus had, in tears, begged Caesar to spare

738:

Although most contemporaries and subsequent historians considered the account truthful, 20th-century historians have questioned the outlandish claims made in the work. Of particular note are Caesar's claims that the Romans fought Gallic forces of up to 430,000 (a size believed to be impossible for an

1407:

During the campaign against the Usipetes and the Tenceri, Caesar makes the incredible claim that the Romans faced an army of 430,000 Gauls, that the Roman victory was overwhelming, that the Romans lost not a single soldier, and that upon their loss the Gauls committed mass suicide. Henige finds this

1399:

takes particular issue with the supposed population and warrior counts. Caesar claims that he was able to estimate the population of the Helvetii because in their camp there was a census, written in Greek on tablets, which would have indicated 263,000 Helvetii and 105,000 allies, of whom exactly one

1124:

has a different connotation than it did for the Ancient Romans, which is shown in the examples above. Where the Romans did take prisoners of war, hostages could also be given or exchanged in times of peace. The taking of hostages as collateral during political arrangements was a common practice in

1075:

Caesar uses this anecdote to illustrate the courage and bravery of his soldiers. Since his forces had already been humiliated and defeated in previous engagements, he needed to report a success story to Rome that would lift the spirits of the people. Furthermore, the tale of unity on the battlefield

1009:

described at the beginning of chapter six. For example, Caesar writes that robberies committed outside of the state are legalized in hopes of teaching young people discipline and caution, an idea nearly offensive to the judicial practices of the Romans (6.23). Caesar's generalizations, alongside the

1005:

greatest political power resides in the wartime magistrates, who have power over life and death (6.23). While Caesar certainly respects the warring instincts of the Germans, he wants his readers to see that their cultures are simply too barbaric, especially when contrasted with the high-class Gallic

899:

led to the withdrawal of Caesar's troops in 50 BC. Caesar's wild successes in the war had made him extremely wealthy and provided a legendary reputation. The Gallic Wars were a key factor in Caesar's ability to win the Civil War and declare himself dictator, in what would eventually lead to the

839:

were an effort by Caesar to directly communicate with the plebeians – thereby circumventing the usual channels of communication that passed through the Senate – to propagandize his activities as efforts to increase the glory and influence of Rome. By winning the support of the people, Caesar sought

830:

intended to prosecute Caesar for abuse of his authority upon his return, when he would lay down his imperium. Such prosecution would not only see Caesar stripped of his wealth and citizenship, but also negate all of the laws he enacted during his term as Consul and his dispositions as pro-consul of

1373:

believed they were written and published yearly, as Caesar would have gained enormous utility from keeping the public informed about his exploits. The debate as to the time and nature of publication continues, with critical examination of the evolution of the writing style the chief tool for dating

1004:

However, the distinguishing characteristic of the Germans for Caesar, as described in chapters 23 and 24, is their warring nature, which they believe is a sign of true valour (6.23). The Germans have no neighbors, because they have driven everyone out from their surrounding territory (6.23). Their

1029:

Caesar spent a great amount of time in Gaul and his book is one of the best preserved accounts of the Druids from an author who was in Gaul. However, although Caesar provides what is seemingly a first-hand account, much of his knowledge of the Druids comes not from personal experience, but rather

1387:

Caesar's account was largely taken as truthful and accurate until the 20th century. Nipperdey's manuscript in 1847 was considered "monumental", and was the first critical examination of the text, which considered Caesar to be infallible. Nipperdey even chose to modify his translation of the text

1000:

6.21–28, Julius Caesar provides his audience with a picture of Germanic lifestyle and culture. He depicts the Germans as primitive hunter gatherers with diets mostly consisting of meat and dairy products who only celebrate earthly gods such as the sun, fire, and the moon (6.21–22). German women

1438:

as a very clever piece of propaganda written by Caesar, built to make Caesar appear far grander than he was. Henige notes that Caesar's matter of fact tone and easy to read writing made it all the easier to accept his outlandish claims. Caesar sought to portray his fight as a justified defense

1037:

Caesar, however, also observes and mentions a civil Druid culture. In chapter 13, he claims that they selected a single leader who ruled until his death, and a successor would be chosen by a vote or through violence. Also in chapter 13, he mentions that the Druids studied "the stars and their

1033:

There is no doubt that the Druids offered sacrifices to their god. However, scholars are still uncertain about what kind of offerings they made. Caesar and other Roman authors assert that the Druids would offer human sacrifices on numerous occasions for relief from disease and famine or for a

894:

In 51 BC and 50 BC, there was little resistance, and Caesar's troops were mostly mopping up. Gaul was conquered, although it would not become a Roman province until 27 BC, and resistance would continue until as late as 70 AD. There is no clear end-date for the war, but the

882:

that were the first of their kind. Upon his return from Britain, Caesar was hailed as a hero, though he had achieved little beyond landing because his army had been too small and he was unable to land his cavalry. The next year, he went back with a larger army, including cavalry, and was more

1116:

offered Caesar hostages in their surrender (2.3, 2.5). Later in the book Caesar receives 600 hostages from the Aedui (2.15) and other hostages from most of Gaul (2.35). This practice of exchanging hostages continues to be used throughout Caesar's campaigns in diplomacy and foreign policy.

1084:, which resulted in the destruction of an entire legion. He relates this particular account to illustrate that, despite the losses against Ambiorix and his army, Rome is still able to trust in the valor of its soldiers. Thus, Caesar turns a military blunder into a positive propaganda story. 2223: 1447:

Classicist Ruth Breindal believes it likely that Caesar did not directly write the work, but instead dictated most of it to a scribe at one time and the scribe wrote as Caesar spoke, or that the scribe took notes and wrote the account afterwards. Still, she does believe that Caesar had an

1364:

is uncertain. It had been definitely published by 46 BC, when Cicero reviewed it and gave it great praise. It is unclear whether the books were released individually, or all at once. Nipperdey's 1847 account believed that they had been mostly all composed at once in 50 BC.

719:

made inroads deeper into Celtic territory and conquered more land, the definition of "Gaul" shifted. Concurrently, "Gaul" was also used in common parlance as a synonym for "uncouth" or "unsophisticated" as Romans saw Celtic peoples as uncivilized compared with themselves.

1455:

The author portrays Caesar's thoughts frequently, with an emphasis on making Caesar seem efficient, decisive, and straightforward, and that his view on how war should be waged is the same. The work paints the conflict as inevitable and necessary.

1174:

The books are valuable for the many geographical and historical claims that can be retrieved from the work. Notable chapters describe Gaulish custom (6.13), their religion (6.17), and a comparison between Gauls and Germanic peoples (6.24).

1064:. They were bitter rivals who both sought to achieve the greatest honors "and every year used to contend for promotion with the utmost animosity" (5.44). Their garrison had come under siege during a rebellion by the tribes of the 1851:: "Nous sommes en 50 avant Jésus-Christ. Toute la Gaule est occupée par les Romains… Toute ? Non ! Car un village peuplé d’irréductibles Gaulois résiste encore et toujours à l’envahisseur." English translation on the 1788:

37, Frankfurt 1963, p. 214. "Hauptquellen : Caesars eigene, wenn auch leicht tendenziöse Darstellungen des Gallischen und des Bürgerkrieges, die Musterbeispiele sachgemäßer Berichterstattung und stilistischer Klarheit sind"

1206:

begin with the prelude: "The year is 50 BC. Gaul is entirely occupied by the Romans. Well not entirely! One small village of indomitable Gauls still holds out against the invaders." In the 36th book of the Asterix series,

731:, meaning "Gaul is a whole divided into three parts". The full work is split into eight sections, Book 1 to Book 8, varying in size from approximately 5,000 to 15,000 words. Book 8 was written by 1157:; in particular, German historian Hans Herzfeld describes the work as "a paradigm of proper reporting and stylistic clarity". It is traditionally the first authentic text assigned to students of Latin, as 682:

The "Gaul" that Caesar refers to is ambiguous, as the term had various connotations in Roman writing and discourse during Caesar's time. Generally, Gaul included all of the regions primarily inhabited by

1287:. D'Indy was adapting Caesar's title to the situation of the current struggle in France against the German army, in which he had a son and nephew fighting, and which the music illustrates to some extent. 1412:, writing in 1947. Lot was one of the first modern authors who directly questioned the validity of Caesar's numbers, finding a fighting force of 430,000 to have been unbelievable for the time. 2549: 1171:; they are both autobiographical tales of military adventure told in the third person. It contains many details and employs many stylistic devices to promote Caesar's political interests. 961:. His fear of Ariovistus and the general outcry from the Gallic people led Caesar to launch a campaign against the Germans, even though they had been considered friends of the Republic. 1202:

as a textbook, even though Latin was then disappearing from French schools. One example is having Caesar talk about himself in the third person as in the book. Most English editions of

604: 952:(Aedui), which lies mainly in the friendly relationship between Caesar and Diviciacus, said to be "the one person in whom Caesar had absolute confidence" (1.41). His brother, 1791:

Main sources : Caesar's own, even though slightly tendentious depictions of the Gallic and the Civil Wars, which are paradigms of pertinent information and stylistic clarity

1844: 2070: 1981: 2040: 1392:

wrote a comprehensive history of Gaul and took Caesar's account as unerring. But after World War II historians began to question if Caesar's claims stood up.

597: 382: 278: 194: 3015: 170: 1340:, always in that order. The oldest manuscript in this class is MS Paris lat. 3864, written at Corbie in the last quarter of the ninth century. For 878:

and took most of northwest Gaul. In 55 BC, Caesar sought to boost his public image, and undertook expeditions across the Rhine river and the

2823: 2579: 2305: 336: 2431: 3010: 2328: 1887: 590: 256: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2838: 2104: 1957: 1826: 2866: 50: 3005: 2365: 2165: 1855: 1464:

From the 1970s, some critics began to regard the work less as history than literature, in the tradition of poets following the model of

743:

regards the entire account as clever propaganda meant to boost Caesar's image, and suggests that it is of minimal historical accuracy.

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Webster, Jane (1999). "At the End of the World: Druidic and Other Revitalization Movements in Post-Conquest Gaul and Britain".

1257: 238: 1841: 2833: 2355: 1209: 352: 313: 264: 1300:

in 1847, the existing manuscripts have been divided into two classes. The first (α) encompasses manuscripts containing only

2489: 1100:

as a promise that the Sequani will let the Helveti pass and that the Helveti will not cause mischief (1.9 and 1.19). The

468: 401: 189: 2245: 1265: 2922: 2674: 2617: 2504: 2298: 1483: 1318: 121: 2238: 2037: 2828: 2797: 2781: 2509: 287: 2858: 2771: 2710: 2373: 1081: 1312:

in the later ninth century. The second (β) encompasses manuscripts containing all of the related works—not only

2776: 2705: 2401: 1077: 624: 497: 152: 1747:

Moscovich, M.J. (December 1979 – January 1980). "Obsidibus Traditis: Hostages in Caesar's De Bello Gallico".

835:, particularly the Tribunes of the Plebs, on whom he chiefly relied for help in carrying out his agenda. The 969: 827: 823: 1580: 1545:, the Roman province in Southern Gaul, where the inhabitants had been "civilised" enough to cut their hair. 663:. In it Caesar describes the battles and intrigues that took place in the nine years he spent fighting the 2953: 2886: 2637: 2603: 2566: 2291: 1586: 1565: 1168: 1053: 739:

army at that time), and that the Romans suffered no deaths against this incredibly large force. Historian

660: 364: 213: 1785: 2416: 1876: 1354: 1261: 463: 199: 2466: 2343: 2249: 896: 1687:

Brown, Robert (2004). "Virtus Consili Expers: An Interpretation of the Centurions' Contest in Caesar,

866:. By 57 BC, Caesar had resolved to conquer all of Gaul, and led campaigns in the east, where the 2980: 2927: 2456: 2436: 2348: 1504: 1490: 1416: 1336: 1324: 1022:

and the "superstitions" of the Gallic nations are documented in Book 6, chapters 13, 14 and 16–18 of

696: 453: 395: 2494: 2479: 2421: 2411: 2406: 2065: 1769: 1163: 580: 304: 858:

cover the Gallic Wars over a period of 8 years, beginning with conflict over the migration of the

2731: 2474: 2446: 2426: 2396: 2391: 2008:"He came, he saw, we counted : the historiography and demography of Caesar's gallic numbers" 1975: 1700: 1669: 1661: 1537: 929: 884: 875: 688: 549: 699:), which had already been conquered in Caesar's time; therefore encompassing the rest of modern 2189:, English translation by W. A. MacDevitt, introduction by Thomas de Quincey (1915) (incomplete) 2153: 2007: 1096:, there are seven examples of hostage exchanges. First, the Helveti exchange hostages with the 2876: 2726: 2585: 2531: 2521: 2333: 2178: 2128: 2100: 1963: 1953: 1822: 1816: 1420: 1280: 1269: 1244: 1195: 1140: 1047: 556: 422: 411: 17: 1852: 755:, is often retained in English translations of the book, and the title is also translated to 727:

instruction because of its simple, direct prose. It begins with the frequently quoted phrase

2871: 2661: 2526: 2484: 2451: 2092: 2019: 1653: 1620:

Guzman, Armario; Javier, Francisco (2002). "El Barbaro: La Gran Innovacion De Julio Cesar".

1404:

surmised that there were 157,000 overall. But Henige still believes this number inaccurate.

1247: 1191: 888: 818:

The victories in Gaul won by Caesar had increased the alarm and hostility of his enemies at

668: 533: 522: 437: 156: 92: 1369:

suggested in 1956 that they had been written in stages, but then published simultaneously.

1104:

also give Caesar hostages to ensure that the Helveti keep their promises (1.14). Then the

2932: 2690: 2536: 2499: 2172: 2149: 2044: 1859: 1848: 1510: 1497: 1389: 1349: 1330: 879: 527: 505: 448: 78: 1108:

gave hostages to the Sequani, during the Sequani's rise to power (1.31). In Book 2, the

831:

Gaul. To defend himself against these threats, Caesar knew he needed the support of the

2891: 2751: 2700: 2654: 2516: 1297: 1233: 1225: 716: 664: 630: 542: 512: 473: 2212: 1010:

writings of Tacitus, form the barbaric identity of the Germans for the ancient world.

787: 2969: 2314: 1880: 1673: 1531: 1452:; Hirtius must have written the book before his own death in the civil war in 43 BC. 1449: 1409: 1388:

where it contradicted itself, giving Caesar the benefit of any doubts. Even in 1908,

1370: 981: 974: 933: 925: 871: 732: 652: 517: 489: 417: 67: 63: 2203: 1818:

The Reception of Ancient Greece and Rome in Children's Literature: Heroes and Eagles

1579: 2736: 2162:, English translation by W. A. MacDevitt and W. S. Bohn (1869); Latin text edition. 1723:

Lee, A. D. (1991). "The Role of Hostages in Roman Diplomacy with Sasanian Persia".

1396: 1366: 1309: 1253: 901: 819: 740: 676: 2912: 2695: 2631: 2383: 2338: 1276: 1229: 849: 712: 656: 427: 318: 2907: 2741: 2573: 2260: 2234: 1967: 1915: 1477: 1431:

4 million, with Henige giving a modern range of 4–48 million between authors.

958: 826:, were spreading rumors about his intentions once he returned from Gaul. The 637: 458: 233: 223: 179: 39: 2215:

Selections in Latin with notes, audio, and resources for the study of Caesar.

1415:

Not all contemporaries of Caesar believed the account to have been accurate.

2917: 2881: 2802: 1236: 443: 2086: 1947: 1112:

were exchanging hostages to create an alliance against Rome (2.1) and the

2264: 2096: 2023: 1806:(History of Roman Literature, Volume 1). Munich 1994, 2nd ed., p. 332–334. 2807: 2766: 2610: 2441: 2229: 2184: 1872: 1240: 1158: 1101: 1069: 953: 859: 832: 692: 2192: 1704: 1186: 1121: 1097: 1076:

between two personal rivals is in direct opposition to the disunity of

985: 948:

Book 1 and Book 6 detail the importance of Diviciacus, a leader of the

708: 704: 208: 88: 1665: 1308:. The oldest manuscript in this class is MS. Amsterdam 73, written at 1052:

Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo were two centurions in the garrison of

1109: 1065: 1057: 1019: 867: 700: 298: 1657: 1252:

gives a fictionalized account of Caesar's rise and fall, featuring

2270: 1465: 1154: 1139: 1105: 1006: 968: 949: 863: 724: 684: 862:

in 58 BC, which drew in neighboring tribes and the Germanic

2283: 1401: 1113: 937: 672: 2287: 1304:

and characterized by colophons with allusions to late antique

782: 1871:

Prior to its demobilization and subsequent remobilization by

1213:, a fictitious and supposedly censored chapter from Caesar's 928:

mentions several leaders of the Gallic tribes. Among these,

2071:

Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities

1949:

The Cambridge companion to the writings of Julius Caesar

1601:

Polito, Robert (2012). "Caesar, the Germani, and Rome".

870:

nearly defeated him. In 56 BC, Caesar defeated the

2186:

Caesar's Commentaries (The War in Gaul – The Civil War)

2074:. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, Inc. p. 248. 900:

end of the Roman Republic and the establishment of the

799: 1903:

Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics

2900: 2851: 2816: 2790: 2759: 2750: 2719: 2683: 2646: 2595: 2558: 2465: 2382: 2364: 2321: 2127:. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 1426:Part of the dispute over the historiography of the 1344:, the readings of α are considered better than β. 1128:There is evidence though, particularly in Caesar's 116: 106: 98: 84: 74: 59: 1946:Grillo, Luca; Krebs, Christopher B., eds. (2018). 1897: 1895: 1153:This book is often lauded for its polished, clear 887:, but the Romans' indomitable siege works at the 631:[kɔm.mɛnˈtaː.ɾi.iːdeːˈbɛl.loːˈɡal.lɪ.koː] 1283:wrote his Third Symphony, which bears the title 2299: 1184:Since Caesar is one of the characters in the 977:, erected in 1903 in Clermont-Ferrand, France 598: 8: 840:to make himself unassailable from the boni. 30: 1821:. BRILL. 17 September 2015. pp. 301–. 936:are notable for their contributions to the 2756: 2379: 2306: 2292: 2284: 2088:Speech and Thought in Latin War Narratives 1980:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 605: 591: 387: 357: 283: 175: 130: 38: 29: 1804:Geschichte der römischen Literatur Band 1 1725:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 1529:For example, Caesar called northern Gaul 729:"Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres" 2550:Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire 2068:, ed. (1963) . "Caesar, Gaius Iulius". 1557: 1522: 891:utterly defeated the Gallic coalition. 286: 222: 178: 151: 27:Account of Gallic wars by Julius Caesar 1973: 1905:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), p. 35 1564:As translated by H. J. Edwards in the 1198:for French schoolchildren who had the 2001: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1993: 1991: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1535:or "long-haired Gaul", as opposed to 1360:The original publication time of the 629: 54:of Sweynheym and Pannartz, Rome, 1469 7: 2867:Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar 1742: 1740: 1738: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1639: 1637: 1635: 1060:, and are mentioned in Book 5.44 of 822:, and his aristocratic enemies, the 1901:Michael Winterbottom, "Caesar", in 1877:Republican and Imperatorial legions 1292:Manuscripts and publication history 1144:C. Iulii Caesaris quae extant, 1678 1916:"Cicero: Brutus – translation (4)" 25: 2669:Ut est rerum omnium magister usus 2012:Annales de Démographie Historique 1578:Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). 33:(Commentaries on the Gallic War) 3016:History books about ancient Rome 2947: 2946: 2218: 2213:"Dickinson College Commentaries" 2125:Caesar: Bellum Gallicum book VII 2085:M. Adema, Suzanne (2017-06-21). 1408:entire story impossible, as did 786: 723:The work has been a mainstay in 574: 134: 2169:, translated by W. A. MacDevitt 2240:Commentaries on the Gallic War 2225:Commentaries on the Gallic War 2167:Commentaries on the Gallic War 2123:Krebs, Christopher B. (2023). 1217:forms the basis for the story. 1215:Commentaries on the Gallic War 1210:Asterix and the Missing Scroll 753:Commentaries on the Gallic War 18:Commentaries on the Gallic War 1: 3011:1st-century BC books in Latin 2194:De Bello Gallico (Books I–IV) 2049:New England Classical Journal 1952:. 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(2016). 1266:character of Titus Pullo 1018:Caesar's account of the 897:imminent Roman Civil War 735:, after Caesar's death. 498:Claustra Alpium Iuliarum 483:Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes 153:Military of ancient Rome 2976:Military books in Latin 2206:COMMENTARIORVM DE BELLO 2202:At The Latin Library: " 1774:Geschichte in Gestalten 581:Ancient Rome portal 3001:Works by Julius Caesar 2887:Julio-Claudian dynasty 2711:Caesar's Rhine bridges 2638:Poems by Julius Caesar 2604:Laudatio Iuliae amitae 2580:Constitutional reforms 2567:Lex Julia de maiestate 2006:Henige, David (1998). 1587:Encyclopedia Americana 1566:Loeb Classical Library 1145: 1054:Quintus Tullius Cicero 978: 661:third-person narrative 648: 635: 2329:Early life and career 2197:, Latin text edition. 2097:10.1163/9789004347120 2024:10.3406/adh.1998.2162 1749:The Classical Journal 1355:Giovanni Andrea Bussi 1143: 1058:Marcus Tullius Cicero 972: 464:Neckar-Odenwald Limes 279:Technological history 2928:Marcus Junius Brutus 2839:Julia Minor (sister) 2834:Julia Major (sister) 2432:Invasions of Britain 2349:Crossing the Rubicon 2209:", Latin only, 2008. 2066:Peck, Harry Thurston 1505:De Bello Hispaniensi 1491:De Bello Alexandrino 1417:Gaius Asinius Pollio 1337:De Bello Hispaniensi 1325:De Bello Alexandrino 1279:the French composer 992:The Germanic peoples 769:The Conquest of Gaul 757:About the Gallic War 697:Languedoc-Roussillon 636:Commentaries on the 454:Lower Germanic Limes 353:Strategy and tactics 288:Military engineering 190:Unit types and ranks 2767:Cossutia (disputed) 2155:Caesar's Gallic War 1786:Das Fischer Lexikon 1167:is for students of 449:Lauter Valley Limes 34: 2808:Augustus (adopted) 2732:Chiaramonti Caesar 2510:Battle of the Nile 2366:Military campaigns 2344:Caesar's civil war 2043:2021-01-23 at the 1858:2020-08-07 at the 1847:2020-06-05 at the 1778:History in figures 1538:Gallia Narbonensis 1296:Since the work of 1187:Astérix and Obélix 1146: 979: 885:Battle of Gergovia 798:. 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S. Bohn 2235:Wikisource 1968:1010620484 1925:2022-08-22 1875:—see also 1755:: 122–128. 1731:: 366–374. 1553:References 1478:Roman Army 1443:Authorship 1395:Historian 1237:centurions 1014:The Druids 973:Statue of 959:Ariovistus 944:Diviciacus 930:Diviciacus 707:, Western 679:conquest. 649:Gallic War 647:(English: 638:Gallic War 459:Main Limes 2918:Cleopatra 2882:Caesarism 2803:Caesarion 2782:Calpurnia 2720:Portraits 2684:Buildings 2495:Pharsalus 2475:Corfinium 2467:Civil War 2422:Octodurus 2254:Books 1–8 2091:. BRILL. 1976:cite book 1674:162214983 1646:Britannia 1543:Provincia 1194:included 833:plebeians 828:optimates 824:Optimates 715:. 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