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piping system. Those limitations also influence the fast start-up capability of the gas turbine by requiring waiting times. And waiting gas turbines consume gas. The solar component, if the plant is started after sunshine, or before, if there is heat storage, allows the preheat of the steam to the required conditions. That is, the plant is started faster and with less consumption of gas before achieving operating conditions. Economic benefits are that the solar components costs are 25% to 75% those of a
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MW (for 50 Hz applications). Combined cycle units are made up of one or more such gas turbines, each with a waste heat steam generator arranged to supply steam to a single or multiple steam turbines, thus forming a combined cycle block or unit. Combined cycle block sizes offered by three major manufacturers (Alstom, General
Electric and Siemens) can range anywhere from 50 MW to well over 1300 MW with costs approaching $ 670/kW.
1797:, with steam plants for the low temperature "bottoming" cycle. Very low temperature bottoming cycles have been too costly due to the very large sizes of equipment needed to handle the large mass flows and small temperature differences. However, in cold climates it is common to sell hot power plant water for hot water and space heating. Vacuum-insulated piping can let this utility reach as far as 90 km. The approach is called "
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aircraft, is to pressurise hot-stage turbine blades with coolant. This is also bled-off in proprietary ways to improve the aerodynamic efficiencies of the turbine blades. Different vendors have experimented with different coolants. Air is common but steam is increasingly used. Some vendors might now utilize single-crystal turbine blades in the hot section, a technique already common in military aircraft engines.
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2421:. The latter has the advantage of greater improvements due to the lower temperatures available. Furthermore, ice storage can be used as a means of load control or load shifting since ice can be made during periods of low power demand and, potentially in the future the anticipated high availability of other resources such as renewables during certain periods.
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disconnected with a synchro-self-shifting (SSS) clutch, for start up or for simple cycle operation of the gas turbine. Another less common set of options enable more heat or standalone operation of the steam turbine to increase reliability: Duct burning, perhaps with a fresh air blower in the duct and a clutch on the gas turbine side of the shaft.
2310:
firing can provide a wider range of temperatures or heat to electric power. Systems burning low quality fuels such as brown coal or peat might use relatively expensive closed-cycle helium turbines as the topping cycle to avoid even more expensive fuel processing and gasification that would be needed by a conventional gas turbine.
2093:. Feed water comes in through the economizer and then exits after having attained saturation temperature in the water or steam circuit. Finally it flows through the evaporator and super heater. If the temperature of the gases entering the heat recovery boiler is higher, then the temperature of the exiting gases is also high.
2030:. For gas turbines the amount of metal that must withstand the high temperatures and pressures is small, and lower quantities of expensive materials can be used. In this type of cycle, the input temperature to the turbine (the firing temperature), is relatively high (900 to 1,400 °C). The output temperature of the
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The efficiency of CCGT and GT can also be boosted by pre-cooling combustion air. This increases its density, also increasing the expansion ratio of the turbine. This is practised in hot climates and also has the effect of increasing power output. This is achieved by evaporative cooling of water using
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Multiple-pressure reheat steam cycles are applied to combined-cycle systems with gas turbines with exhaust gas temperatures near 600 °C. Single- and multiple-pressure non-reheat steam cycles are applied to combined-cycle systems with gas turbines that have exhaust gas temperatures of 540 °C
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ratio to burn the fuel. Often in gas turbine designs part of the compressed air flow bypasses the burner in order to cool the turbine blades. The turbine exhaust is already hot, so a regenerative air preheater is not required as in a conventional steam plant. However, a fresh air fan blowing directly
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Major factors limiting the load output of a combined cycle power plant are the allowed pressure and temperature transients of the steam turbine and the heat recovery steam generator waiting times to establish required steam chemistry conditions and warm-up times for the balance of plant and the main
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Supplementary-fired and multishaft combined-cycle systems are usually selected for specific fuels, applications or situations. For example, cogeneration combined-cycle systems sometimes need more heat, or higher temperatures, and electricity is a lower priority. Multishaft systems with supplementary
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Duct burning raises the flue temperature, which increases the quantity or temperature of the steam (e.g. to 84 bar, 525 degree
Celsius). This improves the efficiency of the steam cycle. Supplementary firing lets the plant respond to fluctuations of electrical load, because duct burners can have very
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drums. The low-pressure drum is connected to the low-pressure economizer or evaporator. The low-pressure steam is generated in the low temperature zone of the turbine exhaust gasses. The low-pressure steam is supplied to the low-temperature turbine. A super heater can be provided in the low-pressure
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Gas turbines for large-scale power generation are manufactured by at least four separate groups – General
Electric, Siemens, Mitsubishi-Hitachi, and Ansaldo Energia. These groups are also developing, testing and/or marketing gas turbine sizes in excess of 300 MW (for 60 Hz applications) and 400
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Another active area of research is the steam generator for the
Rankine cycle. Typical plants already use a two-stage steam turbine, reheating the steam between the two stages. When the heat-exchangers' thermal conductivity can be improved, efficiency improves. As in nuclear reactors, tubes might be
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Combustion technology is a proprietary but very active area of research, because fuels, gasification and carburation all affect fuel efficiency. A typical focus is to combine aerodynamic and chemical computer simulations to find combustor designs that assure complete fuel burn up, yet minimize both
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By combining both gas and steam cycles, high input temperatures and low output temperatures can be achieved. The efficiency of the cycles add, because they are powered by the same fuel source. So, a combined cycle plant has a thermodynamic cycle that operates between the gas-turbine's high firing
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Gas turbines burn mainly natural gas and light oil. Crude oil, residual, and some distillates contain corrosive components and as such require fuel treatment equipment. In addition, ash deposits from these fuels result in gas turbine deratings of up to 15%. They may still be economically attractive
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is a simplified form of combined cycle where the steam turbine is eliminated by injecting steam directly into the combustion turbine. This has been used since the mid 1970s and allows recovery of waste heat with less total complexity, but at the loss of the additional power and redundancy of a true
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The overall plant size and the associated number of gas turbines required can also determine which type of plant is more economical. A collection of single shaft combined cycle power plants can be more costly to operate and maintain, because there are more pieces of equipment. However, it can save
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A typical single-shaft system has one gas turbine, one steam turbine, one generator and one heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). The gas turbine and steam turbine are both coupled in tandem to a single electrical generator on a single shaft. This arrangement is simpler to operate, smaller, with a
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A multi-shaft system usually has only one steam system for up to three gas turbines. Having only one large steam turbine and heat sink has economies of scale and can have lower cost operations and maintenance. A larger steam turbine can also use higher pressures, for a more efficient steam cycle.
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Modern CCGT plants also need software that is precisely tuned to every choice of fuel, equipment, temperature, humidity and pressure. When a plant is improved, the software becomes a moving target. CCGT software is also expensive to test, because actual time is limited on the multimillion-dollar
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Sodium and potassium are removed from residual, crude and heavy distillates by a water washing procedure. A simpler and less expensive purification system will do the same job for light crude and light distillates. A magnesium additive system may also be needed to reduce the corrosive effects if
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Efficiency of the turbine is increased when combustion can run hotter, so the working fluid expands more. Therefore efficiency is limited by whether the first stage of turbine blades can survive higher temperatures. Cooling and materials research are continuing. A common technique, adopted from
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Supplementary firing can raise exhaust temperatures from 600 °C (GT exhaust) to 800 or even 1000 °C. Supplemental firing does not raise the efficiency of most combined cycles. For single boilers it can raise the efficiency if fired to 700–750 °C; for multiple boilers however, the
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Bottoming cycles producing electricity from the steam condenser's heat exhaust are theoretically possible, but conventional turbines are uneconomically large. The small temperature differences between condensing steam and outside air or water require very large movements of mass to drive the
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Single-shaft arrangements can have less flexibility and reliability than multi-shaft systems. With some expense, there are ways to add operational flexibility: Most often, the operator desires to operate the gas turbine as a peaking plant. In these plants, the steam turbine's shaft can be
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The most fuel-efficient power generation cycles use an unfired heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) with modular pre-engineered components. These unfired steam cycles are also the lowest in initial cost, and they are often part of a single shaft system that is installed as a unit.
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By generating power from multiple streams of work, the overall efficiency can be increased by 50–60%. That is, from an overall efficiency of the system of say 34% for a simple cycle, to as much as 64% net for the turbine alone in specified conditions for a combined cycle.
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A limitation of combined cycles is that efficiency is reduced when not running at continuous output. During start up, the second cycle can take time to start up. Thus efficiency is initially much lower until the second cycle is running, which can take an hour or more.
2529:). Syngas can be produced from a number of sources, including coal and biomass. The system uses gas and steam turbines, the steam turbine operating from the heat left over from the gas turbine. This process can raise electricity generation efficiency to around 50%.
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Multiple stage turbine or steam cycles can also be used, but CCGT plants have advantages for both electricity generation and marine power. The gas turbine cycle can often start very quickly, which gives immediate power. This avoids the need for separate expensive
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9HA, that claimed 41.5% simple cycle efficiency and 61.4% in combined cycle mode, with a gas turbine output of 397 MW to 470 MW and a combined output of 592 MW to 701 MW. Its firing temperature is between 2,600 and 2,900 °F (1,430 and 1,590 °C), its
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or less. Selection of the steam cycle for a specific application is determined by an economic evaluation that considers a plant's installed cost, fuel cost and quality, duty cycle, and the costs of interest, business risks, and operations and maintenance.
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For large-scale power generation, a typical set would be a 270 MW primary gas turbine coupled to a 130 MW secondary steam turbine, giving a total output of 400 MW. A typical power station might consist of between 1 and 6 such sets.
1871:. They gave costs of between 78 and 100 €/MWh for CCGT plants powered by natural gas. In addition the capital costs of combined cycle power is relatively low, at around $ 1000/kW, making it one of the cheapest types of generation to install.
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2015:. These alloys limit practical steam temperatures to 655 °C while the lower temperature of a steam plant is fixed by the temperature of the cooling water. With these limits, a steam plant has a fixed upper efficiency of 35–42%.
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field is integrated within a combined cycle plant. In ISCC plants, solar energy is used as an auxiliary heat supply, supporting the steam cycle, which results in increased generation capacity or a reduction of fossil fuel use.
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Where the extension of a gas pipeline is impractical or cannot be economically justified, electricity needs in remote areas can be met with small-scale combined cycle plants using renewable fuels. Instead of natural gas, these
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The efficiency of a heat engine, the fraction of input heat energy that can be converted to useful work, is limited by the temperature difference between the heat entering the engine and the exhaust heat leaving the engine.
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combined cycle system. It has no additional steam turbine or generator, and therefore it cannot be used as a backup or supplementary power. It is named after
American professor D. Y. Cheng who patented the design in 1976.
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good efficiency with partial loads. It can enable higher steam production to compensate for the failure of another unit. Also, coal can be burned in the steam generator as an economical supplementary fuel.
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vanadium is present. Fuels requiring such treatment must have a separate fuel-treatment plant and a system of accurate fuel monitoring to assure reliable, low-maintenance operation of gas turbines.
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of a combined cycle power plant is higher. But more flexible plant operations make a marine CCGT safer by permitting a ship to operate with equipment failures. A flexible stationary plant can
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of around 64% in base-load operation. In contrast, a single cycle steam power plant is limited to efficiencies from 35 to 42%. Many new power plants utilize CCGTs. Stationary CCGTs burn
1976:
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There is active competition to reach higher efficiencies. Research aimed at 1,370 °C (2,500 °F) turbine inlet temperature has led to even more efficient combined cycles.
2957:"The difference between LCV and HCV (or Lower and Higher Heating Value, or Net and Gross) is clearly understood by all energy engineers. There is no 'right' or 'wrong' definition"
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pollution and dilution of the hot exhaust gases. Some combustors inject other materials, such air or steam, to reduce pollution by reducing the formation of nitrates and ozone.
1914:
The cycle a-b-c-d-e-f-a which is the
Rankine steam cycle takes place at a lower temperature and is known as the bottoming cycle. Transfer of heat energy from high temperature
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prototypes of new CCGT plants. Testing usually simulates unusual fuels and conditions, but validates the simulations with selected data points measured on actual equipment.
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There is also some development of modified
Rankine cycles. Two promising areas are ammonia/water mixtures, and turbines that utilize supercritical carbon dioxide.
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Wagar, W.R.; Zamfirescu, C.; Dincer, I. (December 2010). "Thermodynamic performance assessment of an ammonia–water
Rankine cycle for power and heat production".
2451:, using a GE H-technology gas turbine with a NEM 3 pressure reheat boiler, using steam from the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) to cool the turbine blades.
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Working principle of a combined cycle power plant (Legend: 1-Electric generators, 2-Steam turbine, 3-Condenser, 4-Pump, 5-Boiler/heat exchanger, 6-Gas turbine)
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power plants can use the higher temperature range of a
Brayton top cycle, as well as the increase in thermal efficiency offered by a Rankine bottoming cycle.
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1769:(the exhaust) is still hot enough that a second subsequent heat engine can extract energy from the heat in the exhaust. Usually the heat passes through a
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In order to remove the maximum amount of heat from the gasses exiting the high temperature cycle, a dual pressure boiler is often employed. It has two
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and Gross Output basis. Most combined cycle units, especially the larger units, have peak, steady-state efficiencies on the LHV basis of 55 to 59%.
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is being retrofitted to a natural gas/hydrogen power plant that can run on 30% hydrogen as well, and is scheduled to run on pure hydrogen by 2045.
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combined cycle power stations combine the energy harvested from solar radiation with another fuel to cut fuel costs and environmental impact (See:
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made thinner (e.g. from stronger or more corrosion-resistant steel). Another approach might use silicon carbide sandwiches, which do not corrode.
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https://www.startribune.com/xcel-energy-long-term-plan-prairie-island-nuclear-gas-plants-wind-solar-large-scale-battery/600340390/?refresh=true
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is also high (450 to 650 °C). This is therefore high enough to provide heat for a second cycle which uses steam as the working fluid (a
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of the cycle is high. The actual efficiency, while lower than the Carnot efficiency, is still higher than that of either plant on its own.
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2003:, water is the working medium. High pressure steam requires strong, bulky components. High temperatures require expensive alloys made from
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Steam & Gas
Turbines And Power Plant Engineering ISBN C039000000001, R Yadav., Sanjay., Rajay, Central Publishing House, Allahabad
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2864:"US Patent for Parallel-compound dual-fluid heat engine Patent (Patent # 3,978,661 issued September 7, 1976) - Justia Patents Search"
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Combined-cycle systems can have single-shaft or multi-shaft configurations. Also, there are several configurations of steam systems.
2203:"Maximum supplementary firing" is the condition when the maximum fuel is fired with the oxygen available in the gas turbine exhaust.
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359:
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Sanjay, Y; Singh, Onkar; Prasad, BN (December 2007). "Energy and exergy analysis of steam cooled reheat gas-steam combined cycle".
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Although not reduced to practice, a vortex of air can concentrate the mass flows for a bottoming cycle. Theoretical studies of the
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temperature between 420 and 580 °C. The condenser of the Rankine cycle is usually cooled by water from a lake, river, sea or
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As with single cycle thermal units, combined cycle units may also deliver low temperature heat energy for industrial processes,
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Sanjay; Singh, Onkar; Prasad, B. N. (2003). "Thermodynamic Evaluation of Advanced Combined Cycle Using Latest Gas Turbine".
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of the fuel consumed, can be over 60% when operating new, i.e. unaged, and at continuous output which are ideal conditions.
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The electric efficiency of a combined cycle power station, if calculated as electric energy produced as a percentage of the
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In a combined cycle power plant, the heat of the gas turbine's exhaust is used to generate steam by passing it through a
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cycle is the topping cycle. It depicts the heat and work transfer process taking place in the high temperature region.
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In December 2017, GE claimed 64% in its latest 826 MW HA plant, up from 63.7%. They said this was due to advances in
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was certified by Guinness World Records as the worlds most efficient combined cycle power plant at 62.22%. It uses a
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is 55.50 MJ/kg (23,860 BTU/lb), compared to a 50.00 MJ/kg (21,500 BTU/lb) LHV: a 11% increase.
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Some part of the feed water from the low-pressure zone is transferred to the high-pressure economizer by a booster
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reject heat. The feed water, wet and super heated steam absorb some of this heat in the process a-b, b-c and c-d.
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1762:(COGAS) plant. Combining two or more thermodynamic cycles improves overall efficiency, which reduces fuel costs.
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Polyzakis, A.L.; Koroneos, C.; Xydis, G. (2008). "Optimum gas turbine cycle for combined cycle power plant".
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show that if built at scale it is an economical bottoming cycle for a large steam Rankine cycle power plant.
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Dostal, Vaclav. "A Supercritical Carbondioxide Cycle for Next Generation Nuclear Reactors" (Document). MIT.
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can be designed to burn supplementary fuel after the gas turbine. Supplementary burners are also called
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The heat recovery boiler is item 5 in the COGAS figure shown above. Hot gas turbine exhaust enters the
2878:"Combined-cycle, gas-fired unit costs coming in below expectations: Duke | S&P Global Platts"
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3047:"Siemens pushes world record in efficiency to over 60% while achieving maximum operating flexibility"
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2179:. Temperature limits at the gas turbine inlet force the turbine to use excess air, above the optimal
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boiler in the bottoming cycle. During the constant pressure process 4-1 the exhaust gases from the
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3091:"Here's Why The Latest Guinness World Record Will Keep France Lit Up Long After Soccer Fans Leave"
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announced they had achieved a 60.75% efficiency with a 578 megawatt SGT5-8000H gas turbine at the
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2818:"Cost and Performance Characteristics of New Generating Technologies, Annual Energy Outlook 2019"
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1950:. The Waste Heat Recovery Boiler (WHRB) has 3 sections: Economiser, evaporator and superheater.
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and combustion. Their press release said that they planned to achieve 65% by the early 2020s.
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into the duct permits a duct-burning steam plant to operate even when the gas turbine cannot.
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2972:"Experimental investigation of compact silicon carbide heat exchangers for high temperatures"
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https://www.utilitydive.com/news/chevron-mitsubishi-hydrogen-storage-aces-delata-utah/693782/
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and burn agricultural and forestry waste, which is often readily available in rural areas.
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In most successful combined cycles, the bottoming cycle for power is a conventional steam
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or other fuels can be used. The supplementary fuel may be natural gas, fuel oil, or coal.
2175:. Duct burning is possible because the turbine exhaust gas (flue gas) still contains some
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The steam power plant takes its input heat from the high temperature exhaust gases from a
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claimed a LHV efficiency of greater than 63% for some members of its J Series turbines.
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and such power plants are often referred to as a combined heat and power (CHP) plant.
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Plant size is important in the cost of the plant. The larger plant sizes benefit from
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2639:) to drive community heating systems from a steam power plant's condenser heat. Such
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temperature from the condensers of the steam cycle. This large range means that the
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of the basic combined cycle consists of two power plant cycles. One is the Joule or
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Thermodynamic benefits are that daily steam turbine startup losses are eliminated.
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power plant 405 MW 7HA is expected to have 62% gross combined cycle efficiency.
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In stationary and marine power plants, a widely used combined cycle has a large
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1758:. The same principle is also used for marine propulsion, where it is called a
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1983:
Explanation of the layout and principle of a combined cycle power generator.
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The principle is that after completing its cycle in the first engine, the
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interest costs by letting a business add plant capacity as it is needed.
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66:
Assembly of heat engines that work in tandem from the same source of heat
3109:"MHPS Enables the Power Plant of the Future for Dominion Virginia Power"
3892:
3882:
3643:
3329:
3161:
Operational Flexibility Enhancements of Combined Cycle Power Plants p.3
2636:
2605:
2597:
2577:
2401:
2229:
2156:
2106:
2027:
455:
2620:
boost section (44 MW and 9 MW), but the projects never became active.
3887:
3090:
2736:"HA technology now available at industry-first 64 percent efficiency"
2526:
2368:
In general, combined cycle efficiencies in service are over 50% on a
2249:
2176:
2152:
2151:. This saturated water goes through the high-temperature zone of the
2090:
2008:
2004:
1738:
that work in tandem from the same source of heat, converting it into
76:"Combined cycle gas turbine" redirects here. Not to be confused with
3141:"Fossil Fuels + Solar Energy = The Future of Electricity Generation"
2089:
and finally through the economiser section as it flows out from the
2112:
Steam turbine plant lay out with dual pressure heat recovery boiler
2581:
2569:
2447:
Nearly 60% LHV efficiency (54% HHV efficiency) was reached in the
2322:
However, a multi-shaft system is about 5% higher in initial cost.
2136:
2132:
2012:
1986:
1970:
1933:
1878:
1706:
3842:
3265:, R Yadav., Sanjay., Rajay, Central Publishing House, Allahabad.
3065:"Air-cooled 7HA and 9HA designs rated at over 61% CC efficiency"
2589:
2144:
1837:
431:
3647:
3333:
3111:(Press release). Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems. 2016-12-07.
26:
2750:"Levelized cost of electricity renewable energy technologies"
1946:
power plant. The steam thus generated can be used to drive a
1824:(CCGT) plant. These achieve a best-of-class real (see below)
3235:"Iran - Yazd integrated solar combined cycle power station"
2065:(lower initial cost per kilowatt) and improved efficiency.
2417:
a moist matrix placed in the turbine's inlet, or by using
1773:
so that the two engines can use different working fluids.
2200:
flexibility of the plant should be the major attraction.
3209:"Yazd Solar Energy Power Plant 1st in its kind in world"
2207:
Combined cycle advanced Rankine subatmospheric reheating
2643:
systems can yield theoretical efficiencies above 95%.
2286:
is going to build two natural gas power plants in the
2261:
fuels however, particularly in combined-cycle plants.
3143:. POWER magazine. 2009-01-04. p. 1 (paragraph 7)
1177:
1122:
1067:
1027:
901:
880:
854:
833:
805:
769:
748:
722:
701:
670:
634:
613:
587:
566:
538:
4362:
4272:
4209:
4171:
4025:
3962:
3873:
3828:
3821:
3681:
3578:
3552:
3477:
3437:
3378:
3367:
2124:
Heat exchange in dual pressure heat recovery boiler
3211:. Payvand Iran news. 13 April 2007. Archived from
2580:, and in 2011 by the Kuraymat ISCC Power Plant in
1785:Historically successful combined cycles have used
1213:
1158:
1103:
1048:
910:
886:
863:
839:
814:
778:
754:
731:
707:
682:
643:
619:
596:
572:
547:
2525:, or IGCC, is a power plant using synthesis gas (
1861:Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE
3191:"ENEL a Priolo inaugura la centrale "Archimede""
2384:Heat engine efficiency can be based on the fuel
2290:that can mix 30% hydrogen with the natural gas.
2053:. This temperature can be as low as 15 °C.
69:"NGCC" redirects here. For the ship prefix, see
3067:. Gas Turbine World. April 2014. Archived from
2979:International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
2635:It is already common in cold climates (such as
1938:Heat transfer from hot gases to water and steam
2823:. U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2019
3659:
3345:
2564:The first such system to come online was the
2511:Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC)
2216:Combined cycle plants are usually powered by
1688:
8:
2738:(Press release). GE Power. December 4, 2017.
2147:. This economizer heats up the water to its
3825:
3666:
3652:
3644:
3375:
3352:
3338:
3330:
2574:Martin Next Generation Solar Energy Center
1695:
1681:
1244:
396:
215:
93:
82:
3237:. Helios CSP. 21 May 2011. Archived from
2689:Combined cycle powered railway locomotive
1176:
1121:
1066:
1026:
900:
879:
853:
832:
804:
768:
747:
721:
700:
669:
633:
612:
586:
565:
537:
2852:. Tata Mc Graw Hill. pp. chapter 5.
2730:
2728:
2018:An open circuit gas turbine cycle has a
1907:cycle. The cycle 1-2-3-4-1 which is the
3514:Homogeneous charge compression ignition
3172:Integrated Solar Combined Cycle Systems
2843:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2724:
1441:
1418:
1372:
1332:
1282:
1247:
440:
415:
344:
271:
218:
85:
3122:Integrated solar combined cycle plants
2709:Integrated gasification combined cycle
2533:Integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC)
2523:integrated gasification combined cycle
2517:integrated gasification combined cycle
1812:). The turbine's hot exhaust powers a
2561:plant of the same collector surface.
2155:and is supplied to the high-pressure
7:
3318:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2007.03.011
3193:. ENEL. 14 July 2010. Archived from
2566:Archimede combined cycle power plant
2545:) is a hybrid technology in which a
2476:On April 28, 2016, the plant run by
2256:Managing low-grade fuels in turbines
2212:Fuel for combined cycle power plants
1918:to water and steam takes place in a
1867:for newly built power plants in the
2919:. SSS Gears Limited. Archived from
2684:Combined cycle hydrogen power plant
43:Combined cycle hydrogen power plant
4344:Renewable energy commercialization
2959:. Claverton Energy Research Group.
2187:Without supplementary firing, the
902:
855:
770:
723:
635:
588:
408:Intensive and extensive properties
25:
1746:the most common type is called a
4392:
4391:
3812:
3002:Energy Conversion and Management
2914:"SSS Clutch Operating Principle"
2776:Energy Conversion and Management
2400:(LHV), excluding it. The HHV of
2117:
2105:
1714:, a 530-megawatt combined cycle
1664:
1663:
983:Table of thermodynamic equations
31:
2704:Hydrogen-cooled turbo generator
2559:Solar Energy Generating Systems
2539:Integrated Solar Combined Cycle
2361:and other uses. This is called
1716:natural gas-fired power station
1459:Maxwell's thermodynamic surface
3022:10.1016/j.enconman.2010.05.014
2850:Turbines, compressors and fans
2796:10.1016/j.enconman.2007.08.002
1791:magnetohydrodynamic generators
1193:
1181:
1138:
1126:
1083:
1071:
1043:
1031:
1:
4339:Renewable Energy Certificates
4299:Cost of electricity by source
4221:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
4097:High-voltage shore connection
3089:Tomas Kellner (17 Jun 2016).
2699:Heat recovery steam generator
2694:Cost of electricity by source
2392:that would be recuperated in
2232:can also be used. Integrated
2043:heat recovery steam generator
1856:and providing further power.
1360:Mechanical equivalent of heat
57:Proposed since February 2024.
4354:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
4152:Transmission system operator
4112:Mains electricity by country
3689:Automatic generation control
2419:Ice storage air conditioning
1899:cycle and the other is the
1883:Topping and bottoming cycles
1754:) plant, which is a kind of
972:Onsager reciprocal relations
4379:List of electricity sectors
4374:Electric energy consumption
4092:High-voltage direct current
4067:Electric power transmission
4057:Electric power distribution
3734:Energy return on investment
3419:Stirling (pseudo/adiabatic)
3298:Applied Thermal Engineering
2944:"Efficiency by the Numbers"
2612:and Macquarie Generation’s
2608:. In Australia CS Energy’s
2390:latent heat of vaporisation
1795:molten carbonate fuel cells
1464:Entropy as energy dispersal
1275:"Perpetual motion" machines
1214:{\displaystyle G(T,p)=H-TS}
1159:{\displaystyle A(T,V)=U-TS}
1104:{\displaystyle H(S,p)=U+pV}
40:It has been suggested that
4454:
4294:Carbon offsets and credits
4012:Three-phase electric power
2970:Fend, Thomas; et al.
2616:started construction of a
2514:
2272:
2085:, then passes through the
2011:, rather than inexpensive
1822:combined cycle gas turbine
1748:combined cycle gas turbine
1732:combined cycle power plant
1712:Gateway Generating Station
911:{\displaystyle \partial T}
864:{\displaystyle \partial V}
779:{\displaystyle \partial p}
732:{\displaystyle \partial V}
644:{\displaystyle \partial T}
597:{\displaystyle \partial S}
75:
68:
18:Combined Cycle Gas Turbine
4387:
4349:Renewable Energy Payments
3838:Fossil fuel power station
3810:
3271:Volume 3: Turbo Expo 2003
2292:Intermountain Power Plant
1869:German electricity sector
1385:An Inquiry Concerning the
71:Canadian Coast Guard Ship
4428:Power station technology
4132:Single-wire earth return
4072:Electrical busbar system
3729:Energy demand management
2449:Baglan Bay power station
2279:Midcontinent Rift System
1865:levelised cost of energy
1742:. On land, when used to
1398:Heterogeneous Substances
815:{\displaystyle \alpha =}
683:{\displaystyle \beta =-}
78:Closed-cycle gas turbine
4263:Residual-current device
4253:Power system protection
4243:Generator interlock kit
3257:Applied Thermodynamics
2242:next generation nuclear
1909:gas turbine power plant
1799:combined heat and power
1787:mercury vapour turbines
4423:Mechanical engineering
4047:Distributed generation
3719:Electric power quality
2755:. Fraunhofer ISE. 2013
2679:Combined gas and steam
2505:additive manufacturing
2491:overall pressure ratio
2460:Irsching Power Station
2149:saturation temperature
1992:
1984:
1939:
1884:
1859:In November 2013, the
1760:combined gas and steam
1727:
1215:
1160:
1105:
1050:
1049:{\displaystyle U(S,V)}
912:
888:
865:
841:
816:
780:
756:
733:
709:
684:
645:
621:
598:
574:
549:
528:Specific heat capacity
132:Quantum thermodynamics
4319:Fossil fuel phase-out
4087:Electricity retailing
4082:Electrical substation
4062:Electric power system
2714:Compound steam engine
2614:Liddell Power Station
2572:in 2010, followed by
2478:Électricité de France
2001:thermal power station
1990:
1982:
1937:
1882:
1756:gas-fired power plant
1710:
1396:On the Equilibrium of
1216:
1161:
1114:Helmholtz free energy
1106:
1051:
913:
889:
866:
842:
817:
781:
757:
734:
710:
685:
646:
622:
599:
575:
550:
4433:Thermodynamic cycles
3675:Electricity delivery
3603:Regenerative cooling
3481:combustion / thermal
3380:Without phase change
3371:combustion / thermal
3361:Thermodynamic cycles
3304:(17–18): 2779–2790.
3279:10.1115/GT2003-38096
2386:Higher Heating Value
2339:temperature and the
2314:lower startup cost.
2163:Supplementary firing
2097:Dual pressure boiler
1875:Basic combined cycle
1409:Motive Power of Fire
1175:
1120:
1065:
1025:
977:Bridgman's equations
954:Fundamental relation
899:
878:
852:
831:
803:
767:
746:
720:
699:
668:
632:
611:
585:
564:
536:
50:into this article. (
4284:Availability factor
4236:Sulfur hexafluoride
4117:Overhead power line
4017:Virtual power plant
3992:Induction generator
3945:Sustainable biofuel
3754:Home energy storage
3744:Grid energy storage
3709:Droop speed control
3310:2007AppTE..27.2779S
3273:. pp. 95–101.
3014:2010ECM....51.2501W
2788:2008ECM....49..551P
2408:Boosting efficiency
2398:Lower Heating Value
2370:lower heating value
2352:lower heating value
1920:waste heat recovery
1889:thermodynamic cycle
1720:Contra Costa County
1387:Source ... Friction
1319:Loschmidt's paradox
511:Material properties
389:Conjugate variables
4158:Transmission tower
3769:Nameplate capacity
3241:on 12 August 2014.
3177:2013-09-25 at the
3127:2013-09-28 at the
2946:by Lee S. Langston
2496:In December 2016,
2394:condensing boilers
2380:Fuel heating value
2189:thermal efficiency
2063:economies of scale
1993:
1985:
1940:
1885:
1826:thermal efficiency
1816:(operating by the
1808:(operating by the
1734:is an assembly of
1728:
1651:Order and disorder
1407:Reflections on the
1314:Heat death paradox
1211:
1156:
1101:
1046:
908:
884:
861:
837:
812:
776:
752:
729:
705:
680:
641:
617:
594:
570:
548:{\displaystyle c=}
545:
518:Property databases
494:Reduced properties
478:Chemical potential
442:Functions of state
365:Thermal efficiency
101:Carnot heat engine
4418:Energy conversion
4405:
4404:
4309:Environmental tax
4189:Cascading failure
3958:
3957:
3794:Utility frequency
3641:
3640:
3618:Vapor-compression
3544:Staged combustion
3473:
3472:
3438:With phase change
3093:(Press release).
3049:(Press release).
3008:(12): 2501–2509.
2664:Allam power cycle
2388:(HHV), including
2345:Carnot efficiency
1980:
1967:Design principles
1814:steam power plant
1781:Historical cycles
1740:mechanical energy
1705:
1704:
1646:Self-organization
1471:
1470:
1169:Gibbs free energy
967:Maxwell relations
925:
924:
921:
920:
887:{\displaystyle V}
840:{\displaystyle 1}
795:Thermal expansion
789:
788:
755:{\displaystyle V}
708:{\displaystyle 1}
654:
653:
620:{\displaystyle N}
573:{\displaystyle T}
501:
500:
417:Process functions
403:Property diagrams
382:System properties
372:
371:
337:Endoreversibility
229:Equation of state
64:
63:
59:
16:(Redirected from
4445:
4438:Turbo generators
4395:
4394:
4304:Energy subsidies
4258:Protective relay
4199:Rolling blackout
3826:
3816:
3784:Power-flow study
3724:Electrical fault
3668:
3661:
3654:
3645:
3613:Vapor absorption
3376:
3354:
3347:
3340:
3331:
3321:
3292:
3243:
3242:
3231:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3220:
3205:
3199:
3198:
3187:
3181:
3169:
3163:
3158:
3152:
3151:
3149:
3148:
3137:
3131:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3095:General Electric
3086:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3061:
3055:
3054:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3032:
3026:
3025:
2997:
2991:
2990:
2988:
2986:
2976:
2967:
2961:
2960:
2953:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2934:
2932:
2931:
2925:
2918:
2910:
2904:
2899:
2893:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2860:
2854:
2853:
2845:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2828:
2822:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2762:
2760:
2754:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2732:
2624:Bottoming cycles
2586:Yazd power plant
2486:General Electric
2471:Nishi-ku, Nagoya
2359:district heating
2275:Natural hydrogen
2193:make more money.
2121:
2109:
1981:
1930:Steam generators
1744:make electricity
1697:
1690:
1683:
1667:
1666:
1374:Key publications
1355:
1354:("living force")
1304:Brownian ratchet
1299:Entropy and life
1294:Entropy and time
1245:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1212:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1157:
1110:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1055:
1053:
1052:
1047:
949:Clausius theorem
944:Carnot's theorem
917:
915:
914:
909:
893:
891:
890:
885:
870:
868:
867:
862:
846:
844:
843:
838:
825:
824:
821:
819:
818:
813:
785:
783:
782:
777:
761:
759:
758:
753:
738:
736:
735:
730:
714:
712:
711:
706:
693:
692:
689:
687:
686:
681:
650:
648:
647:
642:
626:
624:
623:
618:
603:
601:
600:
595:
579:
577:
576:
571:
558:
557:
554:
552:
551:
546:
524:
523:
397:
216:
97:
83:
55:
35:
34:
27:
21:
4453:
4452:
4448:
4447:
4446:
4444:
4443:
4442:
4408:
4407:
4406:
4401:
4383:
4367:
4365:
4358:
4289:Capacity factor
4277:
4275:
4268:
4248:Numerical relay
4226:Circuit breaker
4214:
4212:
4205:
4167:
4107:Load management
4077:Electrical grid
4042:Demand response
4035:
4030:
4021:
4002:Microgeneration
3954:
3869:
3817:
3808:
3804:Vehicle-to-grid
3677:
3672:
3642:
3637:
3574:
3548:
3480:
3469:
3459:Organic Rankine
3433:
3387:
3384:hot air engines
3381:
3370:
3363:
3358:
3328:
3295:
3289:
3268:
3251:
3249:Further reading
3246:
3233:
3232:
3228:
3218:
3216:
3215:on 27 July 2011
3207:
3206:
3202:
3197:on 25 May 2015.
3189:
3188:
3184:
3179:Wayback Machine
3170:
3166:
3159:
3155:
3146:
3144:
3139:
3138:
3134:
3129:Wayback Machine
3120:
3116:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3088:
3087:
3083:
3074:
3072:
3063:
3062:
3058:
3045:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3033:
3029:
2999:
2998:
2994:
2984:
2982:
2974:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2955:
2954:
2950:
2942:
2938:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2912:
2911:
2907:
2900:
2896:
2889:
2885:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2862:
2861:
2857:
2847:
2846:
2835:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2815:
2811:
2773:
2772:
2768:
2758:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2743:
2734:
2733:
2726:
2722:
2660:
2626:
2602:Ain Beni Mathar
2535:
2519:
2513:
2442:
2410:
2382:
2336:
2300:
2281:
2271:
2258:
2214:
2209:
2165:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2122:
2114:
2113:
2110:
2099:
2079:
2059:
1971:
1969:
1956:
1932:
1877:
1854:fuel efficiency
1783:
1701:
1656:
1655:
1631:
1623:
1622:
1621:
1481:
1473:
1472:
1451:
1437:
1412:
1408:
1401:
1397:
1390:
1386:
1353:
1346:
1328:
1309:Maxwell's demon
1271:
1242:
1241:
1225:
1224:
1223:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1063:
1062:
1061:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1019:Internal energy
1014:
999:
989:
988:
963:
938:
928:
927:
926:
897:
896:
876:
875:
850:
849:
829:
828:
801:
800:
765:
764:
744:
743:
718:
717:
697:
696:
666:
665:
660:Compressibility
630:
629:
609:
608:
583:
582:
562:
561:
534:
533:
513:
503:
502:
483:Particle number
436:
395:
384:
374:
373:
332:Irreversibility
244:State of matter
211:Isolated system
196:
186:
185:
184:
159:
149:
148:
144:Non-equilibrium
136:
111:
103:
81:
74:
67:
60:
36:
32:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4451:
4449:
4441:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4410:
4409:
4403:
4402:
4400:
4399:
4388:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4381:
4376:
4370:
4368:
4364:Statistics and
4363:
4360:
4359:
4357:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4314:Feed-in tariff
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4280:
4278:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4267:
4266:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4239:
4238:
4233:
4223:
4217:
4215:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4203:
4202:
4201:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4175:
4173:
4169:
4168:
4166:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4102:Interconnector
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4052:Dynamic demand
4049:
4044:
4038:
4036:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3982:Combined cycle
3979:
3974:
3968:
3966:
3960:
3959:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3936:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3879:
3877:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3867:
3862:
3861:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3834:
3832:
3823:
3819:
3818:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3759:Load-following
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3714:Electric power
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3685:
3683:
3679:
3678:
3673:
3671:
3670:
3663:
3656:
3648:
3639:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3584:
3582:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3556:
3554:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3485:
3483:
3475:
3474:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3467:
3462:
3452:
3447:
3441:
3439:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3390:
3388:
3379:
3373:
3365:
3364:
3359:
3357:
3356:
3349:
3342:
3334:
3327:
3326:External links
3324:
3323:
3322:
3293:
3287:
3266:
3255:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3244:
3226:
3200:
3182:
3164:
3153:
3132:
3114:
3100:
3081:
3056:
3053:. 19 May 2011.
3038:
3027:
2992:
2962:
2948:
2936:
2905:
2894:
2883:
2869:
2855:
2833:
2809:
2782:(4): 551–563.
2766:
2741:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2717:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2659:
2656:
2625:
2622:
2534:
2531:
2515:Main article:
2512:
2509:
2493:is 21.8 to 1.
2467:Chubu Electric
2441:
2438:
2409:
2406:
2381:
2378:
2335:
2332:
2299:
2296:
2270:
2267:
2257:
2254:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2181:stoichiometric
2164:
2161:
2123:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2078:
2077:Unfired boiler
2075:
2058:
2055:
2051:cooling towers
2045:(HRSG) with a
1968:
1965:
1955:
1952:
1931:
1928:
1876:
1873:
1782:
1779:
1771:heat exchanger
1703:
1702:
1700:
1699:
1692:
1685:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1671:
1658:
1657:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1435:
1430:
1428:Thermodynamics
1424:
1421:
1420:
1416:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1404:
1402:
1393:
1391:
1382:
1377:
1376:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1345:
1344:
1342:Caloric theory
1338:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1270:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1243:
1240:
1239:
1236:
1232:
1231:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1221:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1166:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1111:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1056:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1015:
1013:
1012:
1007:
1001:
1000:
995:
994:
991:
990:
987:
986:
979:
974:
969:
962:
961:
956:
951:
946:
940:
939:
934:
933:
930:
929:
923:
922:
919:
918:
907:
904:
894:
883:
872:
871:
860:
857:
847:
836:
822:
811:
808:
798:
791:
790:
787:
786:
775:
772:
762:
751:
740:
739:
728:
725:
715:
704:
690:
679:
676:
673:
663:
656:
655:
652:
651:
640:
637:
627:
616:
605:
604:
593:
590:
580:
569:
555:
544:
541:
531:
522:
521:
520:
514:
509:
508:
505:
504:
499:
498:
497:
496:
491:
486:
475:
464:
445:
444:
438:
437:
435:
434:
429:
423:
420:
419:
413:
412:
411:
410:
405:
386:
385:
380:
379:
376:
375:
370:
369:
368:
367:
362:
357:
349:
348:
342:
341:
340:
339:
334:
329:
324:
322:Free expansion
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
276:
275:
269:
268:
267:
266:
261:
259:Control volume
256:
251:
249:Phase (matter)
246:
241:
236:
231:
223:
222:
214:
213:
208:
203:
197:
192:
191:
188:
187:
183:
182:
177:
172:
167:
161:
160:
155:
154:
151:
150:
147:
146:
135:
134:
129:
124:
119:
113:
112:
109:
108:
105:
104:
99:The classical
98:
90:
89:
87:Thermodynamics
65:
62:
61:
39:
37:
30:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4450:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4415:
4413:
4398:
4390:
4389:
4386:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4371:
4369:
4361:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4334:Pigouvian tax
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4281:
4279:
4271:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4231:Earth-leakage
4229:
4228:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4216:
4208:
4200:
4197:
4196:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4172:Failure modes
4170:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4122:Power station
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4007:Rankine cycle
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3987:Cooling tower
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3910:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3878:
3876:
3872:
3866:
3863:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3840:
3839:
3836:
3835:
3833:
3831:
3830:Non-renewable
3827:
3824:
3820:
3815:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3749:Grid strength
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3704:Demand factor
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3669:
3664:
3662:
3657:
3655:
3650:
3649:
3646:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3608:Transcritical
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3588:Hampson–Linde
3586:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3580:Refrigeration
3577:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3557:
3555:
3551:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3509:Gas-generator
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3494:Brayton/Joule
3492:
3490:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3482:
3476:
3466:
3463:
3460:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3436:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3399:Brayton/Joule
3397:
3395:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3385:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3366:
3362:
3355:
3350:
3348:
3343:
3341:
3336:
3335:
3332:
3325:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3294:
3290:
3288:0-7918-3686-X
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3267:
3264:
3263:9788185444031
3260:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3248:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3227:
3214:
3210:
3204:
3201:
3196:
3192:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3173:
3168:
3165:
3162:
3157:
3154:
3142:
3136:
3133:
3130:
3126:
3123:
3118:
3115:
3110:
3104:
3101:
3096:
3092:
3085:
3082:
3071:on 2016-07-20
3070:
3066:
3060:
3057:
3052:
3048:
3042:
3039:
3031:
3028:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2996:
2993:
2980:
2973:
2966:
2963:
2958:
2952:
2949:
2945:
2940:
2937:
2926:on 2016-12-29
2922:
2915:
2909:
2906:
2903:
2898:
2895:
2892:
2887:
2884:
2880:. 2015-08-11.
2879:
2873:
2870:
2865:
2859:
2856:
2851:
2844:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2770:
2767:
2751:
2745:
2742:
2737:
2731:
2729:
2725:
2719:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2652:Vortex engine
2648:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2633:
2631:
2630:Rankine cycle
2623:
2621:
2619:
2618:solar Fresnel
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2560:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2547:solar thermal
2544:
2540:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2501:
2499:
2494:
2492:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2472:
2468:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2452:
2450:
2445:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2420:
2414:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2371:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2353:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2333:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2298:Configuration
2297:
2295:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2276:
2268:
2266:
2262:
2255:
2253:
2251:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2226:synthesis gas
2223:
2219:
2211:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2197:
2194:
2190:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2138:
2134:
2120:
2108:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2064:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2037:
2036:Rankine cycle
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1989:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1948:steam turbine
1945:
1936:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1910:
1906:
1905:steam turbine
1902:
1901:Rankine cycle
1898:
1894:
1893:Brayton cycle
1890:
1881:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1863:assessed the
1862:
1857:
1855:
1851:
1850:peaker plants
1845:
1843:
1840:. Ships burn
1839:
1835:
1834:synthesis gas
1831:
1827:
1823:
1820:). This is a
1819:
1818:Rankine cycle
1815:
1811:
1810:Brayton cycle
1807:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1767:working fluid
1763:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1698:
1693:
1691:
1686:
1684:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1675:
1670:
1662:
1661:
1660:
1659:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1641:Self-assembly
1639:
1637:
1634:
1633:
1627:
1626:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1612:van der Waals
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1537:von Helmholtz
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1477:
1476:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1456:
1455:
1454:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1440:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1381:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1375:
1371:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1337:
1336:
1331:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1291:
1289:
1288:
1285:
1281:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
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1251:
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1237:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1228:
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1205:
1202:
1199:
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1190:
1187:
1184:
1178:
1170:
1167:
1153:
1150:
1147:
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1132:
1129:
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1112:
1098:
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1092:
1089:
1086:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1068:
1060:
1057:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1028:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1002:
998:
993:
992:
985:
984:
980:
978:
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
964:
960:
959:Ideal gas law
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
941:
937:
932:
931:
905:
895:
881:
874:
873:
858:
848:
834:
827:
826:
823:
809:
806:
799:
796:
793:
792:
773:
763:
749:
742:
741:
726:
716:
702:
695:
694:
691:
677:
674:
671:
664:
661:
658:
657:
638:
628:
614:
607:
606:
591:
581:
567:
560:
559:
556:
542:
539:
532:
529:
526:
525:
519:
516:
515:
512:
507:
506:
495:
492:
490:
489:Vapor quality
487:
485:
484:
479:
476:
474:
473:
468:
465:
462:
458:
457:
452:
449:
448:
447:
446:
443:
439:
433:
430:
428:
425:
424:
422:
421:
418:
414:
409:
406:
404:
401:
400:
399:
398:
394:
390:
383:
378:
377:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
352:
351:
350:
347:
343:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
327:Reversibility
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
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280:
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278:
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274:
270:
265:
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250:
247:
245:
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240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
226:
225:
224:
221:
217:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
201:Closed system
199:
198:
195:
190:
189:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
162:
158:
153:
152:
145:
141:
138:
137:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
114:
107:
106:
102:
96:
92:
91:
88:
84:
79:
72:
58:
53:
49:
45:
44:
38:
29:
28:
19:
4329:Net metering
4276:and policies
4194:Power outage
4163:Utility pole
4127:Pumped hydro
4033:distribution
4028:Transmission
3981:
3977:Cogeneration
3779:Power factor
3465:Regenerative
3394:Bell Coleman
3301:
3297:
3270:
3239:the original
3229:
3217:. Retrieved
3213:the original
3203:
3195:the original
3185:
3167:
3156:
3145:. Retrieved
3135:
3117:
3103:
3084:
3073:. Retrieved
3069:the original
3059:
3041:
3030:
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3001:
2995:
2983:. Retrieved
2978:
2965:
2951:
2939:
2928:. Retrieved
2921:the original
2908:
2897:
2886:
2872:
2858:
2849:
2848:Yahya, S.M.
2825:. Retrieved
2812:
2779:
2775:
2769:
2757:. Retrieved
2744:
2674:Cogeneration
2649:
2645:
2641:cogeneration
2634:
2627:
2563:
2555:
2552:
2542:
2538:
2536:
2520:
2502:
2495:
2475:
2464:
2454:In May 2011
2453:
2446:
2443:
2434:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2415:
2411:
2383:
2374:
2367:
2363:cogeneration
2356:
2349:
2337:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2301:
2282:
2263:
2259:
2246:
2238:ISCC section
2215:
2202:
2198:
2192:
2188:
2186:
2173:duct burners
2172:
2166:
2142:
2130:
2083:super heater
2080:
2071:
2067:
2060:
2057:Typical size
2040:
2017:
1998:
1994:
1957:
1941:
1913:
1886:
1858:
1846:
1821:
1803:
1784:
1775:
1764:
1751:
1747:
1736:heat engines
1731:
1729:
1502:Carathéodory
1433:Heat engines
1405:
1394:
1383:
1365:Motive power
1350:
1010:Free entropy
981:
481:
480: /
470:
469: /
461:introduction
454:
453: /
392:
355:Heat engines
142: /
56:
41:
4324:Load factor
4179:Black start
4147:Transformer
3848:Natural gas
3799:Variability
3774:Peak demand
3764:Merit order
3694:Backfeeding
3633:Ionocaloric
3628:Vuilleumier
3450:Hygroscopic
2669:Cheng cycle
2610:Kogan Creek
2594:Hassi R'mel
2440:Competition
2284:Xcel Energy
2220:, although
2218:natural gas
1960:Cheng cycle
1954:Cheng cycle
1944:gas turbine
1924:gas turbine
1916:exhaust gas
1903:which is a
1897:gas turbine
1895:which is a
1830:natural gas
1806:gas turbine
1324:Synergetics
1005:Free energy
451:Temperature
312:Quasistatic
307:Isenthalpic
264:Instruments
254:Equilibrium
206:Open system
140:Equilibrium
122:Statistical
4412:Categories
4366:production
4211:Protective
4142:Super grid
4137:Smart grid
3964:Generation
3898:Geothermal
3789:Repowering
3598:Pulse tube
3570:Mixed/dual
3147:2017-12-25
3075:2015-06-01
3051:Siemens AG
2985:19 October
2981:. Elsevier
2930:2010-09-13
2827:2019-05-10
2720:References
2647:turbines.
2498:Mitsubishi
2456:Siemens AG
2341:waste heat
2334:Efficiency
2273:See also:
2087:evaporator
2047:live steam
2020:compressor
1724:California
1636:Nucleation
1480:Scientists
1284:Philosophy
997:Potentials
360:Heat pumps
317:Polytropic
302:Isentropic
292:Isothermal
4274:Economics
3997:Micro CHP
3875:Renewable
3858:Petroleum
3853:Oil shale
3739:Grid code
3699:Base load
3593:Kleemenko
3479:Internal
2804:109274670
2396:, or the
2140:circuit.
2024:combustor
1801:" (CHP).
1617:Waterston
1567:von Mayer
1522:de Donder
1512:Clapeyron
1492:Boltzmann
1487:Bernoulli
1448:Education
1419:Timelines
1203:−
1148:−
936:Equations
903:∂
856:∂
807:α
771:∂
724:∂
678:−
672:β
636:∂
589:∂
297:Adiabatic
287:Isochoric
273:Processes
234:Ideal gas
117:Classical
4397:Category
4184:Brownout
3972:AC power
3682:Concepts
3560:Combined
3519:Humphrey
3504:Expander
3489:Atkinson
3424:Stoddard
3414:Stirling
3409:Ericsson
3369:External
3219:16 April
3175:Archived
3125:Archived
2658:See also
2482:Bouchain
2269:Hydrogen
2240:). Many
2230:Biofuels
2222:fuel oil
2032:flue gas
1842:fuel oil
1669:Category
1607:Thompson
1517:Clausius
1497:Bridgman
1351:Vis viva
1333:Theories
1267:Gas laws
1059:Enthalpy
467:Pressure
282:Isobaric
239:Real gas
127:Chemical
110:Branches
4213:devices
3923:Thermal
3918:Osmotic
3913:Current
3893:Biomass
3883:Biofuel
3865:Nuclear
3822:Sources
3623:Siemens
3539:Scuderi
3455:Rankine
3306:Bibcode
3010:Bibcode
2784:Bibcode
2637:Finland
2606:Morocco
2598:Algeria
2578:Florida
2402:methane
2288:Midwest
2157:turbine
2028:turbine
1592:Smeaton
1587:Rankine
1577:Onsager
1562:Maxwell
1557:Massieu
1262:Entropy
1257:General
1248:History
1238:Culture
1235:History
459: (
456:Entropy
393:italics
194:Systems
52:Discuss
3908:Marine
3888:Biogas
3529:Miller
3524:Lenoir
3499:Diesel
3445:Kalina
3429:Manson
3404:Carnot
3285:
3261:
2802:
2527:syngas
2250:gasify
2177:oxygen
2153:boiler
2091:boiler
2026:and a
2009:cobalt
2005:nickel
1582:Planck
1572:Nernst
1547:Kelvin
1507:Carnot
797:
662:
530:
472:Volume
387:Note:
346:Cycles
175:Second
165:Zeroth
48:merged
4265:(GFI)
4154:(TSO)
3940:Solar
3928:Tidal
3903:Hydro
3553:Mixed
2975:(PDF)
2924:(PDF)
2917:(PDF)
2821:(PDF)
2800:S2CID
2759:6 May
2753:(PDF)
2582:Egypt
2570:Italy
2234:solar
2137:steam
2133:water
2013:steel
1999:In a
1836:from
1630:Other
1597:Stahl
1552:Lewis
1542:Joule
1532:Gibbs
1527:Duhem
220:State
180:Third
170:First
4031:and
3950:Wind
3933:Wave
3843:Coal
3565:HEHC
3534:Otto
3283:ISBN
3259:ISBN
3221:2010
2987:2019
2761:2014
2590:Iran
2543:ISCC
2465:The
2277:and
2169:HRSG
2167:The
2145:pump
2022:, a
1958:The
1887:The
1838:coal
1793:and
1752:CCGT
1602:Tait
432:Heat
427:Work
157:Laws
3314:doi
3275:doi
3018:doi
2792:doi
2604:in
2596:in
2588:in
2576:in
2537:An
2521:An
2480:in
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2007:or
1832:or
1718:in
1445:Art
391:in
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