Cogeneration - Knowledge (XXG)

1175:, similar to other steam turbine power plants, can be fitted with extractions in the turbines to bleed partially expanded steam to a heating system. With a heating system temperature of 95 °C it is possible to extract about 10 MW heat for every MW electricity lost. With a temperature of 130 °C the gain is slightly smaller, about 7 MW for every MWe lost. A review of cogeneration options is in Czech research team proposed a "Teplator" system where heat from spent fuel rods is recovered for the purpose of residential heating. 2198:

country's electricity to 25% of the country's electricity by 2020 and has passed supporting legislation accordingly. The UK is also actively supporting combined heat and power. In light of UK's goal to achieve a 60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050, the government has set the target to source at least 15% of its government electricity use from CHP by 2010. Other UK measures to encourage CHP growth are financial incentives, grant support, a greater regulatory framework, and government leadership and partnership.

2252: 1006: 848:, distillation columns, steam driers and other uses. This heat, which is usually used in the form of steam, can be generated at the typically low pressures used in heating, or can be generated at much higher pressure and passed through a turbine first to generate electricity. In the turbine the steam pressure and temperature is lowered as the internal energy of the steam is converted to work. The lower-pressure steam leaving the turbine can then be used for process heat. 2148: 901: 810: 55: 1291:. One author indicated in 2008 that MicroCHP based on Stirling engines is the most cost-effective of the so-called microgeneration technologies in abating carbon emissions. A 2013 UK report from Ecuity Consulting stated that MCHP is the most cost-effective method of using gas to generate energy at the domestic level. However, advances in reciprocation engine technology are adding efficiency to CHP plants, particularly in the 4640: 2124: 5219: 646: 2448: 660: 2190:.” Energy efficiency and cogeneration are recognized in the opening paragraphs of the European Union's Cogeneration Directive 2004/08/EC. This directive intends to support cogeneration and establish a method for calculating cogeneration abilities per country. The development of cogeneration has been very uneven over the years and has been dominated throughout the last decades by national circumstances. 2434: 1334: 31: 1053: 2304:(combined heat and power, waste heat recovery, and district energy) technologies as viable energy options and reduce any perceived risks associated with their implementation. The focus of the Application Centers is to provide an outreach and technology deployment program for end users, policymakers, utilities, and industry stakeholders. 1391:, refineries and chemical plants. In this "industrial cogeneration/CHP", the heat is typically recovered at higher temperatures (above 100 °C) and used for process steam or drying duties. This is more valuable and flexible than low-grade waste heat, but there is a slight loss of power generation. The increased focus on 1962: 2303:

has an aggressive goal of having CHP constitute 20% of generation capacity by 2030. Eight Clean Energy Application Centers have been established across the nation. Their mission is to develop the required technology application knowledge and educational infrastructure necessary to lead "clean energy"

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The viability of CHP (sometimes termed utilisation factor), especially in smaller CHP installations, depends on a good baseload of operation, both in terms of an on-site (or near site) electrical demand and heat demand. In practice, an exact match between the heat and electricity needs rarely exists.

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For cogeneration to be practical power generation and end use of heat must be in relatively close proximity (<2 km typically). Even though the efficiency of a small distributed electrical generator may be lower than a large central power plant, the use of its waste heat for local heating and

1117:. These plants are generally manufactured as fully packaged units that can be installed within a plantroom or external plant compound with simple connections to the site's gas supply, electrical distribution network and heating systems. Typical outputs and efficiencies see Typical large example see 2091:

power plants operate at up to 60% efficiency. In the case of conventional power plants, approximately 10-15% of this heat is lost up the stack of the boiler. Most of the remaining heat emerges from the turbines as low-grade waste heat with no significant local uses, so it is usually rejected to the

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and warm water, the same water may even serve as both a "dump" for the waste heat rejected by a/c units and as a "source" for heat pumps providing warm water. Those considerations are behind what is sometimes called "cold district heating" using a "heat" source whose temperature is well below those

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It is also possible to run a heat driven operation combined with a heat pump, where the excess electricity (as heat demand is the defining factor on se) is used to drive a heat pump. As heat demand increases, more electricity is generated to drive the heat pump, with the waste heat also heating the

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a heat pump were used to provide the same heat by taking electrical power from the generator running at lower output temperature and higher efficiency. Typically for every unit of electrical power lost, then about 6 units of heat are made available at about 90 °C (194 °F). Thus CHP has an

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Energy cogeneration in sugarcane industries located in Brazil is a practice that has been growing in last years. With the adoption of energy cogeneration in the sugar and alcohol sector, the sugarcane industries are able to supply the electric energy demand needed to operate, and generate a surplus

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The European Union generates 11% of its electricity using cogeneration. However, there is large difference between Member States with variations of the energy savings between 2% and 60%. Europe has the three countries with the world's most intensive cogeneration economies: Denmark, the Netherlands

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of steam that is not recovered when a turbine exhausts its low temperature and pressure steam to a condenser. (Typical steam to condenser would be at a few millimeters absolute pressure and on the order of 5 °C (41 °F) hotter than the cooling water temperature, depending on the condenser

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Cogeneration plants face possible contamination of returned condensate. Because boiler feed water from cogeneration plants has much lower return rates than 100% condensing power plants, industries usually have to treat proportionately more boiler make up water. Boiler feed water must be completely

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As the efficiency of heat pumps depends on the difference between hot end and cold end temperature (efficiency rises as the difference decreases) it may be worthwhile to combine even relatively low grade waste heat otherwise unsuitable for home heating with heat pumps. For example, a large enough

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compared to a heat pump of 6. However, for a remotely operated heat pump, losses in the electrical distribution network would need to be considered, of the order of 6%. Because the losses are proportional to the square of the current, during peak periods losses are much higher than this and it is

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Cogeneration was practiced in some of the earliest installations of electrical generation. Before central stations distributed power, industries generating their own power used exhaust steam for process heating. Large office and apartment buildings, hotels, and stores commonly generated their own

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By the early 1900s, regulations emerged to promote rural electrification through the construction of centralized plants managed by regional utilities. These regulations not only promoted electrification throughout the countryside, but they also discouraged decentralized power generation, such as

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scheme regulates the combined production of heat and power. It was introduced in 1996. It defines, through calculation of inputs and outputs, "Good Quality CHP" in terms of the achievement of primary energy savings against conventional separate generation of heat and electricity. Compliance with

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CHP is most efficient when heat can be used on-site or very close to it. Overall efficiency is reduced when the heat must be transported over longer distances. This requires heavily insulated pipes, which are expensive and inefficient; whereas electricity can be transmitted along a comparatively

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may have extraction pressures of 160 and 60 psi (1.10 and 0.41 MPa). A typical back pressure may be 60 psi (0.41 MPa). In practice these pressures are custom designed for each facility. Conversely, simply generating process steam for industrial purposes instead of high enough

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Other European countries are also making great efforts to increase efficiency. Germany reported that at present, over 50% of the country's total electricity demand could be provided through cogeneration. So far, Germany has set the target to double its electricity cogeneration from 12.5% of the

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with some use of its waste heat, the latter being less advantageous in terms of its utilisation factor and thus its overall efficiency. The viability can be greatly increased where opportunities for trigeneration exist. In such cases, the heat from the CHP plant is also used as a primary energy

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reduction from buildings, where more than 14% of emissions can be saved using CHP in buildings. The University of Cambridge reported a cost-effective steam engine MicroCHP prototype in 2017 which has the potential to be commercially competitive in the following decades. Quite recently, in some

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is used for both heating and cooling, typically in an absorption refrigerator. Combined cooling, heat, and power systems can attain higher overall efficiencies than cogeneration or traditional power plants. In the United States, the application of trigeneration in buildings is called building

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According to the IEA 2008 modeling of cogeneration expansion for the G8 countries, the expansion of cogeneration in France, Germany, Italy and the UK alone would effectively double the existing primary fuel savings by 2030. This would increase Europe's savings from today's 155.69 Twh to

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Most industrial countries generate the majority of their electrical power needs in large centralized facilities with capacity for large electrical power output. These plants benefit from economy of scale, but may need to transmit electricity across long distances causing transmission losses.

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In addition to the environmental advantages, cogeneration using sugarcane bagasse presents advantages in terms of efficiency comparing to thermoelectric generation, through the final destination of the energy produced. While in thermoelectric generation, part of the heat produced is lost, in

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in a house or small business. Instead of burning fuel to merely heat space or water, some of the energy is converted to electricity in addition to heat. This electricity can be used within the home or business or, if permitted by the grid management, sold back into the electric power grid.

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consumption and thus reduced carbon emissions. These plants are generally manufactured as fully packaged units that can be installed within a plantroom or external plant compound with simple connections to the site's electrical distribution and heating systems. Another variant is the

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environment, typically to cooling water passing through a condenser. Because turbine exhaust is normally just above ambient temperature, some potential power generation is sacrificed in rejecting higher-temperature steam from the turbine for cogeneration purposes.

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Cogeneration or trigeneration production is subject to limitations in the local demand and thus may sometimes need to reduce (e.g., heat or cooling production to match the demand). An example of cogeneration with trigeneration applications in a major city is the

2281:, the world's first commercial power plant, was a combined heat and power plant, producing both electricity and thermal energy while using waste heat to warm neighboring buildings. Recycling allowed Edison's plant to achieve approximately 50 percent efficiency. 1324:

system with a secondary heat exchanger that allows heat to be extracted from combustion products down to the ambient temperature along with recovering heat from the water vapor. The chimney is replaced by a water drain and vent to the side of the building.

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Another MicroCHP example is a natural gas or propane fueled Electricity Producing Condensing Furnace. It combines the fuel saving technique of cogeneration meaning producing electric power and useful heat from a single source of combustion. The condensing

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Cogeneration plants proliferated, soon producing about 8% of all energy in the United States. However, the bill left implementation and enforcement up to individual states, resulting in little or nothing being done in many parts of the country.

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may be compared with a CHP unit as follows. If, to supply thermal energy, the exhaust steam from the turbo-generator must be taken at a higher temperature than the system would produce most electricity at, the lost electrical generation is

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Since the temperature difference between the hot gases and the fluid to be heated (steam or water) is low, and with the heat transmission coefficient being low as well, the evaporator and economizer are designed with plate fin heat

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After each reaction, chlorine starts a destructive cycle with another ozone molecule. In this way, a single chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules. As these molecules are being broken, they are unable to absorb the

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A car engine becomes a CHP plant in winter when the reject heat is useful for warming the interior of the vehicle. The example illustrates the point that deployment of CHP depends on heat uses in the vicinity of the heat engine.

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Due to this absorption, when the sugarcane bagasse is burned in the power cogeneration, dioxins and methyl chloride ends up being emitted. In the case of dioxins, these substances are considered very toxic and cancerous.

984:(TEOR) plants often produce a substantial amount of excess electricity. After generating electricity, these plants pump leftover steam into heavy oil wells so that the oil will flow more easily, increasing production. 3375: 864:

of some steam at lower pressures after it has passed through a number of turbine stages, with the un-extracted steam going on through the turbine to a condenser. In this case, the extracted steam causes a mechanical

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are normally designed to be fed high-pressure steam, which exits the turbine at a condenser operating a few degrees above ambient temperature and at a few millimeters of mercury absolute pressure. (This is called a

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boiler feeds an electrical plant. Bottoming cycle plants are only used in industrial processes that require very high temperatures such as furnaces for glass and metal manufacturing, so they are less common.

3218:"Best Value CHP, Combined Heat & Power and Cogeneration - Alfagy - Profitable Greener Energy via CHP, Cogen and Biomass Boiler using Wood, Biogas, Natural Gas, Biodiesel, Vegetable Oil, Syngas and Straw" 1267:

units, which shut down at night, this equates to an estimated lifetime of between ten and fifteen years. For a price of $ 22,600 before installation. For 2013 a state subsidy for 50,000 units is in place.

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Utilities are less likely to have sharp load swings than industrial operations, which deal with shutting down or starting up units that may represent a significant percent of either steam or power demand.

2219: 1187:. The heat is removed from the exhaust and radiator. The systems are popular in small sizes because small gas and diesel engines are less expensive than small gas- or oil-fired steam-electric plants. 3916: 3596:

Tomaz W. L, Gordono F. S, Da Silva F. P, De Castro M. D. C, Esperidião M. (2015). "Cogeração de energia a partir do bagaço da cana-de-açúcar: estudo de caso múltiplo no setor sucroalcoleiro".

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who serve as an information hub for the most recent updates within Europe's energy policy. COGEN is Europe's umbrella organization representing the interests of the cogeneration industry.

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Smaller industrial co-generation units have an output capacity of 5–25 MW and represent a viable off-grid option for a variety of remote applications to reduce carbon emissions.

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power and used waste steam for building heat. Due to the high cost of early purchased power, these CHP operations continued for many years after utility electricity became available.

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Topping cycle plants primarily produce electricity from a steam turbine. Partly expanded steam is then condensed in a heating condensor at a temperature level that is suitable e.g.

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systems of larger buildings (e.g. hospitals, hotels, prisons) and are commonly used in the industry in thermal production processes for process water, cooling, steam production or

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likely that widespread (i.e. citywide application of heat pumps) would cause overloading of the distribution and transmission grids unless they were substantially reinforced.

5248: 2216: 3371: 2863: 4388: 3543: 1997: 1806: 3102: 2777: 952:, whose exhaust powers a steam plant, whose condensate provides heat. Cogeneration plants based on a combined cycle power unit can have thermal efficiencies above 80%. 3868: 3701: 3621: 3199: 2032: 1841: 4133: 3006:

Pearce, J. M. (2009). "Expanding Photovoltaic Penetration with Residential Distributed Generation from Hybrid Solar Photovoltaic + Combined Heat and Power Systems".

2064: 1873: 1127:, depending upon which biofuel is being used, and are otherwise very similar in design to a Gas engine CHP plant. The advantage of using a biofuel is one of reduced 3203: 2952:

Oliveira, A.C.; Afonso, C.; Matos, J.; Riffat, S.; Nguyen, M.; Doherty, P. (2002). "A Combined Heat and Power System for Buildings driven by Solar Energy and Gas".

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The exhaust gas velocity is limited by the need to keep head losses down. Thus, the transmission coefficient is low, which calls for a large heating surface area.

1957:{\displaystyle \eta _{th}\equiv {\frac {W_{out}}{Q_{in}}}\equiv {\frac {\text{Electrical power output + Heat output + Cooling output}}{\text{Total heat input}}}} 2110:

Typically, for a gas-fired plant the fully installed cost per kW electrical is around £400/kW (US$ 577), which is comparable with large central power stations.

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generation to further improve technical and environmental performance. Such hybrid systems can be scaled down to the building level and even individual homes.

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CHP plants use a reciprocating gas engine, which is generally more competitive than a gas turbine up to about 5 MW. The gaseous fuel used is normally

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capacity.) In cogeneration this steam exits the turbine at a higher temperature where it may be used for process heat, building heat or cooling with an

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turbine.) For all practical purposes this steam has negligible useful energy before it is condensed. Steam turbines for cogeneration are designed for

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and Finland. Of the 28.46 TWh of electrical power generated by conventional thermal power plants in Finland in 2012, 81.80% was cogeneration.

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reservoir of cooling water at 15 °C (59 °F) can significantly improve efficiency of heat pumps drawing from such a reservoir compared to

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Análise da Viabilidade Econômica Financeira de Projetos de Cogeração de Energia Através do Bagaço de Cana-de-Açúcar em Quatro Usinas em São Paulo

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Combined Heat and Power Quality Assurance is required for cogeneration installations to be eligible for government subsidies and tax incentives.

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cooling can result in an overall use of the primary fuel supply as great as 80%. This provides substantial financial and environmental benefits.

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Heat output may also be used for cooling (for example, in summer), thanks to an absorption chiller. If cooling is achieved in the same time,

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A growing sector in the use of biomass for power generation is the sugar and alcohol sector, which mainly uses sugarcane bagasse as fuel for

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distributes 66 billion kilograms of 350 °F (177 °C) steam each year through its seven cogeneration plants to 100,000 buildings in

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Typical cogeneration models have losses as in any system. The energy distribution below is represented as a percent of total input energy:

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cooling, heating, and power. Heating and cooling output may operate concurrently or alternately depending on need and system construction.

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By 1978, Congress recognized that efficiency at central power plants had stagnated and sought to encourage improved efficiency with the

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cogeneration this heat has the possibility of being used in the production processes, increasing the overall efficiency of the process.

3099:"Launch of New 'Ene-Farm' Home Fuel Cell Product More Affordable and Easier to Install - Headquarters News - Panasonic Newsroom Global" 2307:

High electric rates in New England and the Middle Atlantic make these areas of the United States the most beneficial for cogeneration.

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heated a boiler for a conventional steam powerplant, whose condensate was then used for space heat. A more modern system might use a

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layer, since chlorine when combined with the ozone molecule generates a catalytic reaction leading to the breakdown of ozone links.

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can now be found, which can operate on hydrogen, or other fuels as natural gas or LPG. When running on natural gas, it relies on

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Large cogeneration systems provide heating water and power for an industrial site or an entire town. Common CHP plant types are:

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Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (1998). "Public health statement chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (CDDs)".

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A plant producing electricity, heat and cold is called a trigeneration or polygeneration plant. Cogeneration systems linked to

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465 Twh in 2030. It would also result in a 16% to 29% increase in each country's total cogenerated electricity by 2030.

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The HRSG is designed based upon the specific features of the gas turbine or reciprocating engine that it will be coupled to.

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in gas turbine with steam turbine plants. Most of the efficiency loss with steam power generation is associated with the

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and safety considerations have often kept them further from population centers than comparable chemical power plants and

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from electricity generation is put to some productive use. Combined heat and power (CHP) plants recover otherwise wasted

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Conventional central coal- or nuclear-powered power stations convert about 33–45% of their input heat to electricity.

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Utilities are typically larger scale power than industry, which helps offset the higher capital costs of high pressure.

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refers to any plant or animal matter in which it is possible to be reused as a source of heat or electricity, such as

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Industrial cogeneration plants normally operate at much lower boiler pressures than utilities. Among the reasons are:

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can also be applied to the power systems simultaneously generating electricity, heat, and industrial chemicals (e.g.,

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HRSGs used in the CHP industry are distinguished from conventional steam generators by the following main features:

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oxygen free and de-mineralized, and the higher the pressure the more critical the level of purity of the feed water.

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field. As both MiniCHP and CHP have been shown to reduce emissions they could play a large role in the field of CO

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Yagoub, W.; Doherty, P.; Riffat, S. B. (2006). "Solar energy-gas driven micro-CHP system for an office building".

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Yive, N. S. C. K., Tiroumalechetty, M. (2008). "Dioxin levels in fly ash coming from the combustion of bagasse".

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in the downstream stages of the turbine. Or they are designed, with or without extraction, for final exhaust at

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Any of the following conventional power plants may be converted to a combined cooling, heat and power system:

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of natural gas to convert the natural gas to hydrogen prior to use in the fuel cell. This hence still emits CO

1202:). Some CHP plants use waste gas as the fuel for electricity and heat generation. Waste gases can be gas from 4081:"Energy Efficiency Industrial Forum Position Paper: energy efficiency – a vital component of energy security" 5088: 5078: 5068: 4423: 4190: 2572: 2453: 1342: 747: 664: 542: 532: 236: 171: 2885:"High cogeneration performance by innovative steam turbine for biomass-fired CHP plant in Iislami, Finland" 5009: 4872: 4655: 4544: 3887: 3015: 2504: 2492: 2392: 1635:

drawing from cold air during a −20 °C (−4 °F) night. In the summer when there's both demand for

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micro-combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012. 20,000 units were sold in

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partially offsetting their low (single digit percent) efficiency in converting thermal to electric energy

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Pehnt, M (2008). "Environmental impacts of distributed energy systems—The case of micro cogeneration".

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Since the exhaust gas temperature is relatively low, heat transmission is accomplished mainly through

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in a zero oxygen high temperature environment; the resulting gas is then used to power the gas engine.

4738: 4500: 4098:"2011 - Cogen -Experts discuss the central role cogeneration has to play in shaping EU energy policy" 3824: 3736: 3495: 3286:"Combined Heat and Power (CHP or Cogeneration) for Saving Energy and Carbon in Commercial Buildings." 2387: 2278: 2187: 1632: 1542:, the energy generation using sugarcane bagasse has environmental advantages due to the reduction of 1443: 1180: 606: 501: 345: 251: 111: 3020: 5109: 4942: 4842: 4817: 4770: 4579: 4569: 4534: 1495:

industries. Brazil is now considered a world reference in terms of energy generation from biomass.

1388: 1372: 1276: 1172: 786: 742:. This is also called combined heat and power district heating. Small CHP plants are an example of 427: 293: 276: 221: 76: 64: 3526:. Utilização de resíduos sucro-alcooleiros na fabricação de fibrocimento pelo processo de extrusão 1005: 746:. By-product heat at moderate temperatures (100–180 °C (212–356 °F) can also be used in 4983: 4594: 4244: 3317: 3050: 3033: 2365: 1880: 1689: 1679: 1566: 1399:

compared to generating steam or burning fuel on-site and importing electric power from the grid.

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A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730-1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power

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Gestão ambiental em usinas do setor sucroalcooleiro: fatores de influência e práticas adotadas

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In sugarcane cultivation, is usually used potassium source's containing high concentration of

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residue of sugar refining, which is burned to produce steam. Some steam can be sent through a

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CHP plants using the waste heat in the flue gas of gas turbines. The fuel used is typically

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Lowe, R. (2011). "Combined heat and power considered as a virtual steam cycle heat pump".

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project ene.field deploys in 2017 up 1,000 residential fuel cell Combined Heat and Power (

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XU, J., YE, Y., HUANG, F., CHEN, H., WU, HAN., HUANG, J., HU, J., XIA, D., WU, Y (2016).

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A cogeração de energia e sua importância do ponto de vista técnico, econômico e ambiental

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Elsevier Ltd, The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom.

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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

5139: 5129: 4927: 4539: 4172: 3967: 3845: 3812: 3722:"Global chlorine emissions from biomass burning: Reactive Chlorine Emissions Inventory" 2536: 2462: 2411: 2404: 2235: 2179: 1597: 1543: 1535: 1503: 1392: 1321: 1143: 1036: 996: 925: 829: 774: 735: 611: 584: 557: 525: 508: 387: 176: 146: 3297: 2965: 2806:

Locatelli, Giorgio; Fiordaliso, Andrea; Boarin, Sara; Ricotti, Marco E. (2017-05-01).

2123: 5237: 5159: 4947: 4832: 4812: 4743: 4733: 4690: 4574: 4529: 3981: 3585:(Dissertação) (in Portuguese). Faculdade de Tecnologia, Ciências e Educação - FATECE. 3037: 2665: 2554: 2480: 2474: 2439: 2415: 2356: 2274: 2183: 2088: 1670: 1666: 1451: 1368: 1350: 1272: 1264: 1169: 1159: 1133: 1124: 937: 890: 766: 758: 720: 623: 589: 496: 479: 360: 350: 201: 5179: 5154: 5019: 4988: 4604: 3321: 3298:"Cost Effective Grid-Connected Inverter for a Micro Combined Heat and Power System" 2468: 2226:) installations in 12 states. Per 2012 the first 2 installations have taken place. 2206: 1662: 1593: 1577: 1333: 1284: 1260: 1222: 1207: 1203: 1199: 841: 833: 778: 562: 447: 116: 3910:"Why Heat From CHP is Renewable - based on paper presented at IAEE Vilnius (2010)" 3679: 2826: 2795:

http://www.elforsk.se/nyhet/seminarie/Elforskdagen%20_10/webb_varme/d_welander.pdf

3256: 3029: 2856:"Czech researchers develop revolutionary nuclear heating plant | DW | 07.04.2021" 2693:"Consider Installing High-Pressure Boilers With Back Pressure Turbine-Generators" 2495: – Decentralised electricity generation (more general term encompassing CHP) 5004: 4972: 4765: 4753: 4673: 4599: 4589: 4519: 3953: 3813:"Association between dioxin and cancer incidence and mortality: a meta analysis" 3642:(Dissertação) (in Portuguese). Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) de Bauru. 3346: 2808:"Cogeneration: An option to facilitate load following in Small Modular Reactors" 2447: 2344: 2334: 2329: 1539: 1492: 1439: 1435: 1128: 1114: 1104: 1100: 961: 949: 945: 797:

is less efficient in lower population density areas due to transmission losses.

754: 716: 659: 567: 442: 392: 355: 338: 323: 141: 2692: 1576:

In the case of methyl chloride, when this substance is emitted and reaches the

1534:

In comparison with the electric power generation by means of fossil fuel-based

4967: 4962: 4775: 4758: 4614: 2557: – Model that is used to predict the performance of steam turbine systems 2429: 2292:(PURPA), which encouraged utilities to buy power from other energy producers. 1465: 1215: 1110: 1040: 885: 837: 813: 762: 731: 577: 402: 397: 365: 328: 313: 96: 4055:"38% HHV Caterpillar Bio-gas Engine Fitted to Sewage Works - Claverton Group" 3313: 889:

pressure to generate power at the top end also has an opportunity cost (See:

785:

for electricity generation at all. Cogeneration is less commonly employed in

4683: 4678: 4564: 4524: 3125:"What is Microgeneration? And what is the most cost effective in terms of CO 2433: 2400: 2339: 2223: 2205:

Governments are being assisted in their CHP endeavors by organizations like

1609: 1488: 1376: 1288: 1252: 432: 412: 181: 91: 4134:"COGEN Europe: Cogeneration in the European Union's Energy Supply Security" 3854: 3687: 3271:"Buying CHP and Cogeneration - the Process - Alfagy CHP & Cogeneration" 820:. This station burns straw as fuel. The adjacent greenhouses are heated by 30: 4797: 3749: 2397: 2256: 1661:

Every heat engine is subject to the theoretical efficiency limits of the

1562: 1211: 1137: 1064: 917: 874: 572: 457: 452: 106: 101: 71: 2778:"Complete 7 MWe Deutz ( 2 x 3.5MWe) gas engine CHP power plant for sale" 1052: 730:

Cogeneration is a more efficient use of fuel or heat, because otherwise-

4718: 4708: 4469: 3648: 2489: – Comparison of costs of different electricity generation sources 1519: 1515: 1484: 1191: 1120: 1068: 913: 897:, which usually limits self-generated power to large-scale operations. 817: 594: 552: 288: 271: 3836: 2182:

has actively incorporated cogeneration into its energy policy via the

1251:

Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the

1088:

plants produce high temperature heat for industrial processes, then a

973:

simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss.

34:

Diagram comparing losses from conventional generation vs. cogeneration

4713: 2578: 1395:

has made industrial CHP more attractive, as it substantially reduces

1292: 941: 909: 283: 1491:, vegetable oils, wood, organic waste and residues from the food or 2519: – Legislation in the area of energetics in the European Union 3174:"Micro CHP report powers heated discussion about UK energy future" 2250: 2136: 2122: 1581: 1447: 1332: 1256: 1163: 1051: 1012:, a bituminous coal-fired combined heat and power plant in Germany 1004: 899: 808: 790: 518: 3884:"Dioxins & Furans: The Most Toxic Chemicals Known to Science" 4668: 2324: 1241: 1060: 905: 877:

that could be used for power generation, so cogeneration has an

739: 616: 4473: 4333:"World's First Commercial Power Plant Was a Cogeneration Plant" 4044:

See Mechanical or Chemical Engineering texts on Thermodynamics.

3883: 916:

as an energy source, providing electricity and heat for 30,000

4266:

European-wide field trials for residential fuel cell micro-CHP

3496:"Micro CHP (Combined Heat & Power) – Cogeneration Systems" 2730: 2728: 2726: 2724: 2141: 4302: 3720:

Lobert, Jurgen; Keene, Willian; Yevich, Jennifer (1999).

3570:(Dissertação) (in Portuguese). Universidade de São Paulo. 3528:(Dissertação) (in Portuguese). Universidade de São Paulo. 3217: 1557:

Disadvantages of the cogeneration using sugarcane bagasse

1514:

In the sugarcane industry, cogeneration is fueled by the

2513: – Process of changing something to use electricity 1271:

MicroCHP installations use five different technologies:

1136:

CHP plant whereby a wood pellet or wood chip biofuel is

3397:"Clarke Energy - Fuel-Efficient Distributed Generation" 2532:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

1039:). Trigeneration differs from cogeneration in that the 4240: 2539: – Gaseous materials produced for use in industry 2483: – EU Directive on cogeneration of heat and power 1947:

Electrical power output + Heat output + Cooling output

1530:

Advantages of the cogeneration using sugarcane bagasse

1454:

or is used in industrial processes that require heat.

1123:

CHP plants use an adapted reciprocating gas engine or

27:

Simultaneous generation of electricity and useful heat

4303:"Combined Heat and Power Quality Assurance Programme" 2042: 2007: 1975: 1891: 1851: 1816: 1784: 1700: 1596:

is more intense on Earth and there is a worsening of

4021:"DOE – Fossil Energy: How Turbine Power Plants Work" 3067: 3065: 2563: – Variation on the Rankine thermodynamic cycle 1259:

in 2012 overall within the Ene Farm project. With a

1240:(DER). The installation is usually less than 5 5188: 5098: 5035: 4997: 4851: 4788: 4699: 4654: 4647: 4507: 2917:"Transforming Greenhouse Gas Emissions into Energy" 753:The supply of high-temperature heat first drives a 4187:"DEFRA Action in the UK - Combined Heat and Power" 2926:. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2014. 2664: 2598:(35 ed.). Babcock & Wilson Company. 1913. 2058: 2026: 1991: 1956: 1867: 1835: 1800: 1765: 1522:that turns a generator, producing electric power. 1510:Power cogeneration in the sugar and alcohol sector 1406:Utility pressures versus self generated industrial 4205:"5th stakeholders general assembly of the FCH JU" 4408:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 2551: – District heating system in New York City 2545: – Small-scale generation of heat and power 2671:. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: MIT Press. 2617:"How Does Cogeneration Provide Heat and Power?" 1221:Some cogeneration plants combine gas and solar 956:A CHP plant can either meet the need for heat ( 4461:Renewable and efficient electric power systems 2581: – Closed vessel in which fluid is heated 2523:Environmental impact of electricity generation 2507: – Process of generating electrical power 1162:CHP plants that use the heating system as the 1156:have a hot exhaust, very suitable for heating. 769:may be used. Cogeneration is also common with 4485: 4015: 4013: 3154:The role of micro CHP in a smart energy world 2569: – Closed-cycle regenerative heat engine 1669:in the case of steam turbine power plants or 1446:in a CHP plant to heat up water and generate 685: 8: 3867:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3729:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 3700:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3198:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3073:"Latest Developments in the Ene-Farm Scheme" 2752:"Finning Caterpillar Gas Engine CHP Ratings" 2575: – Refrigerator that uses a heat source 2501: – Centralized heat distribution system 3302:IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 2648:. The Decentralised Energy Knowledge Base. 5249:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning 4651: 4492: 4478: 4470: 4391:. Archived from the original on 2013-04-15 3202:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2663:Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). 987:Cogeneration plants are commonly found in 692: 678: 53: 37: 4151:"Electricity Generation by Energy Source" 3844: 3748: 3647: 3620:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3019: 2240:Combined Heat and Power Quality Assurance 2217:Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking 2047: 2041: 2012: 2006: 1980: 1974: 1944: 1930: 1914: 1908: 1896: 1890: 1883:in a trigeneration system is defined as: 1856: 1850: 1821: 1815: 1789: 1783: 1753: 1739: 1723: 1717: 1705: 1699: 965:source to deliver cooling by means of an 4389:"Eight Clean Energy Application Centers" 2311:Applications in power generation systems 1692:in a cogeneration system is defined as: 1682:. The majority of this heat is from the 1580:, it ends up being very harmful for the 1357:Combined heat and power district heating 1218:, and combustible industrial waste gas. 912:. The 45 MW boiler uses waste wood 884:A typical power generation turbine in a 29: 3982:"Trigeneration Systems with Fuel Cells" 3968:"Was bedeutet kalte Nahwärme? (Update)" 3882:Environmental Justice Activists (ed.). 3715: 3713: 3711: 3661: 3659: 3633: 3631: 2608: 2530: – European bioenergy organization 1434:(HRSG) is a steam boiler that uses hot 1236:or 'Micro cogeneration" is a so-called 45: 4401: 4358:"World Survey of Decentralized Energy" 3860: 3793: 3782: 3693: 3610: 3599: 3191: 2371:Radioisotope thermoelectric generators 2290:Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act 2127:A cogeneration thermal power plant in 1640:usually employed in district heating. 1190:Some cogeneration plants are fired by 187:List of low-energy building techniques 4221:from the original on 10 November 2013 3915:. 2011-09-14. p. 4 paragraph 4. 3546:from the original on 22 December 2018 3296:Du, Ruoyang; Robertson, Paul (2017). 2709:from the original on 21 December 2016 2471: – Idealized thermodynamic cycle 1756:Electrical power output + Heat output 1179:Smaller cogeneration units may use a 781:may be necessary to reach acceptable 7: 4313:from the original on 30 October 2014 3760:from the original on 26 October 2019 2993:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2005.11.021 4247:from the original on 2 October 2016 4023:. Fossil.energy.gov. Archived from 3998:from the original on 6 October 2011 2780:. Claverton Energy Research Group. 2517:Energy policy of the European Union 2477: – Energy allocation procedure 891:Steam supply and exhaust conditions 5170:Renewable energy commercialization 3890:from the original on 19 March 2019 3566:Dantas Filho, Paulo Lucas (2009). 3542:. Empresa de Pesquisa Energética. 3540:"Balanço energético nacional 2018" 3245:Environmental Science & Policy 3224:from the original on 23 April 2015 3180:from the original on 20 March 2016 3079:from the original on 14 April 2016 3051:The fuel cell industry review 2013 2933:from the original on 13 April 2015 2301:United States Department of Energy 2230:Cogeneration in the United Kingdom 2066:= Total heat input into the system 2034:= Total work output by all systems 1875:= Total heat input into the system 1843:= Total work output by all systems 727:and useful heat at the same time. 25: 4114:from the original on 20 June 2017 3524:Soares Teixeira, Ronaldo (2010). 3135:from the original on 11 July 2015 3105:from the original on 10 July 2014 2897:from the original on 15 July 2011 2247:Cogeneration in the United States 828:Many process industries, such as 773:as they often produce relatively 5218: 5217: 4638: 4448:from the original on 2015-01-23. 4430:from the original on 2015-05-31. 3581:Barbeli, Marcelo Carlos (2015). 3407:from the original on 19 May 2015 2784:from the original on 2013-09-30. 2758:from the original on 18 May 2015 2652:from the original on 2008-12-10. 2446: 2432: 2269:Perhaps the first modern use of 2146: 1620:Coefficient of Performance (COP) 1387:Cogeneration is still common in 1021:combined cooling, heat and power 658: 645: 644: 122:Energy efficiency implementation 4370:from the original on 2009-01-06 3922:from the original on 2017-09-21 3506:from the original on 2021-06-24 3477:from the original on 2007-08-13 3469:Bevelhymer, Carl (2003-11-10). 3451:from the original on 2007-08-21 3378:from the original on 2019-10-23 3353:from the original on 2019-11-06 3328:from the original on 2020-02-23 3277:from the original on 2012-11-03 2866:from the original on 2021-06-09 2836:from the original on 2018-07-24 2646:"What is Decentralised Energy?" 2627:from the original on 2019-11-27 1450:. The steam, in turn, drives a 1166:condenser for the steam turbine 378:Ocean thermal energy conversion 3668:Journal of Hazardous Materials 3372:"Fuel cell micro Cogeneration" 2854:Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. 1426:Heat recovery steam generators 1: 5165:Renewable Energy Certificates 5125:Cost of electricity by source 5047:Arc-fault circuit interrupter 4923:High-voltage shore connection 4463:. New York: Wiley-IEEE Press. 3680:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.11.045 2966:10.1016/S1359-4311(01)00110-7 2924:WIPO Green Case Studies, 2014 2827:10.1016/j.pnucene.2016.12.012 2740:. Babcock & Wilcox. 1913. 2595:Steam, Its Generation and Use 2543:Micro combined heat and power 2487:Cost of electricity by source 2420:compressed air energy storage 2106:Cost of electricity by source 1432:heat recovery steam generator 1234:Micro combined heat and power 207:Passive solar building design 18:Combined heat and power plant 5180:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread 4978:Transmission system operator 4938:Mains electricity by country 4515:Automatic generation control 3257:10.1016/j.envsci.2007.07.001 3030:10.1016/j.energy.2009.08.012 2737:Steam-its generation and use 2528:European Biomass Association 2260:Kendall Cogeneration Station 1526:that can be commercialized. 1263:of around 60,000 hours. For 1146:power plants adapted for CHP 1063:cogeneration power plant in 5205:List of electricity sectors 5200:Electric energy consumption 4918:High-voltage direct current 4893:Electric power transmission 4883:Electric power distribution 4560:Energy return on investment 3954:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.05.007 2981:Applied Thermal Engineering 2954:Applied Thermal Engineering 2220:Seventh Framework Programme 2083:Electrical line losses = 2% 1684:latent heat of vaporization 1675:latent heat of vaporization 1604:Comparison with a heat pump 1238:distributed energy resource 1150:Molten-carbonate fuel cells 840:, require large amounts of 665:Renewable energy portal 383:Renewable energy transition 5280: 5120:Carbon offsets and credits 4838:Three-phase electric power 4289:November 10, 2013, at the 2815:Progress in Nuclear Energy 2549:New York City steam system 2214:public–private partnership 2103: 1992:{\displaystyle \eta _{th}} 1801:{\displaystyle \eta _{th}} 1686:when the steam condenses. 1651:New York City steam system 1480:Cogeneration using biomass 1360: 1302:fuel cell micro-CHP plants 5213: 5175:Renewable Energy Payments 4664:Fossil fuel power station 4636: 4459:Masters, Gilbert (2004). 4284:ene.field Grant No 303462 2375:Radioisotope heater units 2155:This section needs to be 936:. For example, the RU-25 227:Sustainable refurbishment 5259:Sustainable technologies 4958:Single-wire earth return 4898:Electrical busbar system 4555:Energy demand management 3735:(D7). Wiley: 8373–8389. 3638:Ribeiro, Silvio (2010). 3314:10.1109/TIE.2017.2677340 2465: – Chemical process 2264:Cambridge, Massachusetts 904:A cogeneration plant in 748:absorption refrigerators 212:Sustainable architecture 167:Glass in green buildings 157:Environmental technology 87:Compact fluorescent lamp 5089:Residual-current device 5079:Power system protection 5069:Generator interlock kit 2573:Absorption refrigerator 2454:Renewable energy portal 2027:{\displaystyle W_{out}} 1836:{\displaystyle W_{out}} 844:for such operations as 771:geothermal power plants 709:combined heat and power 533:Human-powered transport 237:Tropical green building 172:Green building and wood 4873:Distributed generation 4545:Electric power quality 3792:Cite journal requires 3609:Cite journal requires 3500:Vista Projects Limited 2505:Electricity generation 2493:Distributed generation 2266: 2139: 2119:Cogeneration in Europe 2060: 2059:{\displaystyle Q_{in}} 2028: 1993: 1958: 1869: 1868:{\displaystyle Q_{in}} 1837: 1802: 1767: 1644:Distributed generation 1338: 1154:solid oxide fuel cells 1071: 1013: 921: 853:thermal power stations 825: 629:Personal rapid transit 371:Tidal stream generator 232:Thermal energy storage 152:Environmental planning 35: 5145:Fossil fuel phase-out 4913:Electricity retailing 4908:Electrical substation 4888:Electric power system 3431:May 18, 2012, at the 3347:"Fuel Cell micro CHP" 2561:Organic Rankine cycle 2254: 2126: 2061: 2029: 1994: 1959: 1870: 1838: 1803: 1768: 1633:air source heat pumps 1444:reciprocating engines 1336: 1196:municipal solid waste 1057:Hanasaari Power Plant 1055: 1010:Rostock Power Station 1008: 982:enhanced oil recovery 958:heat driven operation 932:of the power plant's 903: 816:CHP power station in 812: 473:Sustainable transport 418:Floating wind turbine 247:Zero heating building 162:Fossil fuel phase-out 33: 4501:Electricity delivery 4442:"New England Energy" 3750:10.1029/1998JD100077 2279:Pearl Street Station 2077:Heat + Cooling = 40% 2040: 2005: 1999:= Thermal efficiency 1973: 1889: 1849: 1814: 1808:= Thermal efficiency 1782: 1698: 1389:pulp and paper mills 1194:, or industrial and 1181:reciprocating engine 787:nuclear power plants 744:decentralized energy 725:generate electricity 607:Personal transporter 502:Wind-powered vehicle 346:Marine current power 252:Zero-energy building 112:Efficient energy use 5110:Availability factor 5062:Sulfur hexafluoride 4943:Overhead power line 4843:Virtual power plant 4818:Induction generator 4771:Sustainable biofuel 4580:Home energy storage 4570:Grid energy storage 4535:Droop speed control 3829:2016NatSR...638012X 3741:1999JGR...104.8373L 2621:Scientific American 1592:. As a result, the 1373:Consolidated Edison 1349:use waste heat for 1347:adsorption chillers 1343:absorption chillers 1337:Trigeneration cycle 1277:internal combustion 1212:gas from coal mines 1090:waste heat recovery 991:systems of cities, 294:Carbon-neutral fuel 222:Sustainable habitat 77:Building insulation 65:Energy conservation 41:Part of a series on 4984:Transmission tower 4595:Nameplate capacity 4424:"Electricity Data" 4271:2016-11-09 at the 3970:. 17 January 2018. 3817:Scientific Reports 3473:. Gotham Gazette. 3426:Fuel Cells and CHP 3159:2016-03-04 at the 3056:2016-04-14 at the 2366:geothermal heating 2267: 2140: 2056: 2024: 1989: 1954: 1881:thermal efficiency 1865: 1833: 1798: 1763: 1690:Thermal efficiency 1680:absorption chiller 1657:Thermal efficiency 1567:potassium chloride 1339: 1080:water desalination 1072: 1014: 967:absorption chiller 922: 851:Steam turbines at 826: 783:thermal efficiency 715:) is the use of a 309:Geothermal heating 137:Energy saving lamp 47:Sustainable energy 36: 5254:Energy conversion 5231: 5230: 5135:Environmental tax 5015:Cascading failure 4784: 4783: 4620:Utility frequency 4061:on 19 August 2019 3837:10.1038/srep38012 3502:. 18 March 2020. 3445:"Newsroom: Steam" 3014:(11): 1947–1954. 2987:(14): 1604–1610. 2678:978-0-262-08198-6 2345:Small gas turbine 2188:energy efficiency 2176: 2175: 2129:Ferrera Erbognone 2080:Heat losses = 13% 2074:Electricity = 45% 1952: 1951: 1948: 1939: 1761: 1760: 1757: 1748: 960:) or be run as a 846:chemical reactors 702: 701: 299:Geothermal energy 16:(Redirected from 5271: 5264:Renewable energy 5221: 5220: 5130:Energy subsidies 5084:Protective relay 5025:Rolling blackout 4652: 4642: 4610:Power-flow study 4550:Electrical fault 4494: 4487: 4480: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4456: 4450: 4449: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4407: 4399: 4397: 4396: 4385: 4379: 4378: 4376: 4375: 4369: 4362: 4354: 4348: 4347: 4345: 4344: 4335:. 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input 1758: 1755: 1754: 1749: 1747: 1746: 1734: 1733: 1718: 1713: 1712: 1637:air conditioning 1590:ultraviolet rays 1538:plants, such as 1397:carbon footprint 1363:District heating 1281:stirling engines 1076:district heating 989:district heating 879:opportunity cost 822:district heating 795:district heating 694: 687: 680: 667: 663: 662: 653: 648: 647: 485:Electric vehicle 334:Run-of-the-river 319:Hydroelectricity 304:Geothermal power 265:Renewable energy 217:Sustainable city 192:Low-energy house 132:Energy recycling 57: 38: 21: 5279: 5278: 5274: 5273: 5272: 5270: 5269: 5268: 5234: 5233: 5232: 5227: 5209: 5193: 5191: 5184: 5115:Capacity factor 5103: 5101: 5094: 5074:Numerical relay 5052:Circuit breaker 5040: 5038: 5031: 4993: 4933:Load management 4903:Electrical grid 4868:Demand response 4861: 4856: 4847: 4828:Microgeneration 4780: 4695: 4643: 4634: 4630:Vehicle-to-grid 4503: 4498: 4468: 4458: 4457: 4453: 4440: 4439: 4435: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4400: 4394: 4392: 4387: 4386: 4382: 4373: 4371: 4367: 4360: 4356: 4355: 4351: 4342: 4340: 4331: 4330: 4326: 4316: 4314: 4301: 4300: 4296: 4291:Wayback Machine 4282: 4278: 4273:Wayback Machine 4264: 4260: 4250: 4248: 4239: 4238: 4234: 4224: 4222: 4218: 4207: 4203: 4202: 4198: 4185: 4184: 4180: 4167: 4166: 4162: 4149: 4148: 4144: 4136: 4132: 4131: 4127: 4117: 4115: 4111: 4100: 4096: 4095: 4091: 4083: 4079: 4078: 4074: 4064: 4062: 4053: 4052: 4048: 4043: 4039: 4030: 4028: 4027:on May 27, 2010 4019: 4018: 4011: 4001: 3999: 3995: 3984: 3980: 3979: 3975: 3966: 3965: 3961: 3939: 3938: 3934: 3925: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3908: 3907: 3903: 3893: 3891: 3881: 3880: 3876: 3859: 3810: 3809: 3805: 3791: 3781: 3778: 3777: 3773: 3763: 3761: 3757: 3724: 3719: 3718: 3709: 3692: 3665: 3664: 3657: 3637: 3636: 3629: 3619: 3608: 3598: 3595: 3594: 3590: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3565: 3564: 3560: 3549: 3547: 3538: 3537: 3533: 3523: 3522: 3518: 3509: 3507: 3494: 3493: 3489: 3480: 3478: 3468: 3467: 3463: 3454: 3452: 3443: 3442: 3438: 3433:Wayback Machine 3424: 3420: 3410: 3408: 3395: 3394: 3390: 3381: 3379: 3370: 3369: 3365: 3356: 3354: 3345: 3344: 3340: 3331: 3329: 3295: 3294: 3290: 3280: 3278: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3242: 3241: 3237: 3227: 3225: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3190: 3183: 3181: 3171: 3170: 3166: 3161:Wayback Machine 3152: 3148: 3138: 3136: 3128: 3123: 3122: 3118: 3108: 3106: 3097: 3096: 3092: 3082: 3080: 3071: 3070: 3063: 3058:Wayback Machine 3049: 3045: 3021:10.1.1.593.8182 3005: 3004: 3000: 2978: 2977: 2973: 2951: 2950: 2946: 2936: 2934: 2930: 2919: 2915: 2914: 2910: 2900: 2898: 2894: 2887: 2883: 2882: 2878: 2869: 2867: 2853: 2852: 2848: 2839: 2837: 2833: 2810: 2805: 2804: 2800: 2793: 2789: 2776: 2775: 2771: 2761: 2759: 2750: 2749: 2745: 2734: 2733: 2722: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2695: 2691: 2690: 2686: 2679: 2662: 2661: 2657: 2644: 2643: 2639: 2630: 2628: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2592: 2589: 2587:Further reading 2584: 2567:Stirling engine 2531: 2511:Electrification 2452: 2445: 2438: 2431: 2428: 2384: 2353: 2318: 2313: 2249: 2232: 2172: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2151: 2147: 2121: 2116: 2108: 2102: 2043: 2038: 2037: 2008: 2003: 2002: 1976: 1971: 1970: 1926: 1910: 1892: 1887: 1886: 1852: 1847: 1846: 1817: 1812: 1811: 1785: 1780: 1779: 1735: 1719: 1701: 1696: 1695: 1659: 1646: 1627:heating fluid. 1606: 1559: 1547: 1532: 1512: 1482: 1428: 1408: 1385: 1365: 1359: 1331: 1311: 1306:steam reforming 1300:private homes, 1298: 1283:, closed-cycle 1245: 1231: 1185:Stirling engine 1086:Bottoming cycle 1050: 1048:Types of plants 1002:fertilization. 1000: 993:central heating 934:bottoming cycle 830:chemical plants 824:from the plant. 807: 698: 657: 656: 643: 636: 635: 475: 465: 464: 267: 257: 256: 242:Waste-to-energy 197:Microgeneration 127:Energy recovery 67: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5277: 5275: 5267: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5246: 5236: 5235: 5229: 5228: 5226: 5225: 5214: 5211: 5210: 5208: 5207: 5202: 5196: 5194: 5190:Statistics and 5189: 5186: 5185: 5183: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5140:Feed-in tariff 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5106: 5104: 5099: 5096: 5095: 5093: 5092: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5065: 5064: 5059: 5049: 5043: 5041: 5036: 5033: 5032: 5030: 5029: 5028: 5027: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5001: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4928:Interconnector 4925: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4878:Dynamic demand 4875: 4870: 4864: 4862: 4852: 4849: 4848: 4846: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4808:Combined cycle 4805: 4800: 4794: 4792: 4786: 4785: 4782: 4781: 4779: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4762: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4705: 4703: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4693: 4688: 4687: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4660: 4658: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4585:Load-following 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4540:Electric power 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4511: 4509: 4505: 4504: 4499: 4497: 4496: 4489: 4482: 4474: 4467: 4466: 4451: 4433: 4415: 4380: 4349: 4324: 4294: 4276: 4258: 4232: 4196: 4193:on 2010-06-12. 4178: 4175:on 2014-02-02. 4160: 4157:on 2014-02-20. 4142: 4125: 4105:cogeneurope.eu 4089: 4072: 4046: 4037: 4009: 3989:Research Paper 3973: 3959: 3932: 3901: 3874: 3803: 3794:|journal= 3771: 3707: 3655: 3627: 3611:|journal= 3588: 3573: 3558: 3531: 3516: 3487: 3461: 3436: 3418: 3388: 3363: 3338: 3288: 3262: 3235: 3209: 3164: 3146: 3126: 3116: 3090: 3061: 3043: 2998: 2971: 2960:(6): 587–593. 2944: 2908: 2876: 2846: 2798: 2787: 2769: 2743: 2720: 2684: 2677: 2655: 2637: 2607: 2605: 2602: 2601: 2600: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2582: 2576: 2570: 2564: 2558: 2552: 2546: 2540: 2537:Industrial gas 2534: 2525: 2520: 2514: 2508: 2502: 2496: 2490: 2484: 2478: 2472: 2466: 2463:Air separation 2459: 2458: 2457: 2443: 2427: 2424: 2423: 2422: 2408: 2405:green hydrogen 2395: 2390: 2383: 2380: 2379: 2378: 2368: 2359: 2352: 2349: 2348: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2285:cogeneration. 2248: 2245: 2236:United Kingdom 2231: 2228: 2174: 2173: 2154: 2152: 2145: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2112: 2101: 2098: 2085: 2084: 2081: 2078: 2075: 2068: 2067: 2053: 2050: 2046: 2035: 2021: 2018: 2015: 2011: 2000: 1986: 1983: 1979: 1943: 1936: 1933: 1929: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1913: 1907: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1877: 1876: 1862: 1859: 1855: 1844: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1820: 1809: 1795: 1792: 1788: 1752: 1745: 1742: 1738: 1732: 1729: 1726: 1722: 1716: 1711: 1708: 1704: 1658: 1655: 1645: 1642: 1605: 1602: 1598:global warming 1558: 1555: 1545: 1536:thermoelectric 1531: 1528: 1511: 1508: 1504:electric power 1481: 1478: 1477: 1476: 1472: 1469: 1462: 1427: 1424: 1423: 1422: 1419: 1416: 1407: 1404: 1393:sustainability 1384: 1383:Industrial CHP 1381: 1358: 1355: 1330: 1327: 1322:forced-air gas 1309: 1296: 1243: 1230: 1227: 1177: 1176: 1167: 1157: 1147: 1144:Combined cycle 1141: 1121:Biofuel engine 1118: 1108: 1049: 1046: 998: 926:combined cycle 834:oil refineries 806: 803: 775:low grade heat 736:thermal energy 700: 699: 697: 696: 689: 682: 674: 671: 670: 669: 668: 654: 638: 637: 634: 633: 632: 631: 621: 620: 619: 612:Rail transport 609: 604: 603: 602: 597: 592: 587: 585:Roller skating 582: 581: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 558:Cycle rickshaw 555: 545: 540: 530: 529: 528: 523: 522: 521: 514:Human-electric 509:Hybrid vehicle 506: 505: 504: 499: 494: 493: 492: 476: 471: 470: 467: 466: 463: 462: 461: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 410: 400: 395: 390: 388:Renewable heat 385: 380: 375: 374: 373: 368: 363: 353: 348: 343: 342: 341: 336: 331: 326: 321: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 280: 279: 268: 263: 262: 259: 258: 255: 254: 249: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 177:Green building 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 147:Energy storage 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 68: 63: 62: 59: 58: 50: 49: 43: 42: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5276: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5241: 5239: 5224: 5216: 5215: 5212: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5197: 5195: 5187: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5160:Pigouvian tax 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5097: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5057:Earth-leakage 5055: 5054: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5034: 5026: 5023: 5022: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5002: 5000: 4998:Failure modes 4996: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4948:Power station 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4833:Rankine cycle 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4813:Cooling tower 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4793: 4791: 4787: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4706: 4704: 4702: 4698: 4692: 4689: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4666: 4665: 4662: 4661: 4659: 4657: 4656:Non-renewable 4653: 4650: 4646: 4641: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4575:Grid strength 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4530:Demand factor 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4512: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4495: 4490: 4488: 4483: 4481: 4476: 4475: 4472: 4462: 4455: 4452: 4447: 4443: 4437: 4434: 4429: 4425: 4419: 4416: 4411: 4405: 4390: 4384: 4381: 4366: 4359: 4353: 4350: 4339:on 2008-04-25 4338: 4334: 4328: 4325: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4298: 4295: 4292: 4288: 4285: 4280: 4277: 4274: 4270: 4267: 4262: 4259: 4246: 4242: 4236: 4233: 4217: 4213: 4206: 4200: 4197: 4192: 4188: 4182: 4179: 4174: 4170: 4164: 4161: 4156: 4152: 4146: 4143: 4135: 4129: 4126: 4110: 4106: 4099: 4093: 4090: 4082: 4076: 4073: 4060: 4056: 4050: 4047: 4041: 4038: 4026: 4022: 4016: 4014: 4010: 3994: 3990: 3983: 3977: 3974: 3969: 3963: 3960: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3942:Energy Policy 3936: 3933: 3918: 3911: 3905: 3902: 3889: 3885: 3878: 3875: 3870: 3864: 3856: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3807: 3804: 3799: 3786: 3775: 3772: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3723: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3703: 3697: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3660: 3656: 3650: 3645: 3641: 3634: 3632: 3628: 3623: 3616: 3603: 3592: 3589: 3584: 3577: 3574: 3569: 3562: 3559: 3545: 3541: 3535: 3532: 3527: 3520: 3517: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3491: 3488: 3476: 3472: 3465: 3462: 3450: 3447:. ConEdison. 3446: 3440: 3437: 3434: 3430: 3427: 3422: 3419: 3406: 3402: 3401:Clarke Energy 3398: 3392: 3389: 3377: 3373: 3367: 3364: 3352: 3348: 3342: 3339: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3292: 3289: 3276: 3272: 3266: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3239: 3236: 3223: 3219: 3213: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3195: 3179: 3175: 3168: 3165: 3162: 3158: 3155: 3150: 3147: 3134: 3130: 3120: 3117: 3104: 3100: 3094: 3091: 3078: 3074: 3068: 3066: 3062: 3059: 3055: 3052: 3047: 3044: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3022: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3002: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2975: 2972: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2948: 2945: 2929: 2925: 2918: 2912: 2909: 2893: 2886: 2880: 2877: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2850: 2847: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2809: 2802: 2799: 2796: 2791: 2788: 2783: 2779: 2773: 2770: 2757: 2753: 2747: 2744: 2739: 2738: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2725: 2721: 2705: 2701: 2694: 2688: 2685: 2680: 2674: 2669: 2668: 2659: 2656: 2651: 2647: 2641: 2638: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2612: 2609: 2603: 2597: 2596: 2591: 2590: 2586: 2580: 2577: 2574: 2571: 2568: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2555:Rankine cycle 2553: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2529: 2526: 2524: 2521: 2518: 2515: 2512: 2509: 2506: 2503: 2500: 2497: 2494: 2491: 2488: 2485: 2482: 2481:CHP Directive 2479: 2476: 2475:Carnot method 2473: 2470: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2460: 2455: 2449: 2444: 2441: 2440:Energy portal 2435: 2430: 2425: 2421: 2418:, such as in 2417: 2416:turboexpander 2413: 2409: 2406: 2402: 2399: 2396: 2394: 2391: 2389: 2388:Solar thermal 2386: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2363: 2360: 2358: 2357:Nuclear power 2355: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2321: 2315: 2310: 2308: 2305: 2302: 2297: 2293: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2280: 2276: 2275:Thomas Edison 2272: 2265: 2261: 2258: 2255:The 250 2253: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2237: 2229: 2227: 2225: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2212:The European 2210: 2208: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2189: 2185: 2184:CHP Directive 2181: 2170: 2158: 2153: 2144: 2143: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2125: 2118: 2113: 2111: 2107: 2099: 2097: 2093: 2090: 2089:Brayton cycle 2082: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2072: 2071: 2051: 2048: 2044: 2036: 2019: 2016: 2013: 2009: 2001: 1984: 1981: 1977: 1969: 1968: 1967: 1964: 1941: 1934: 1931: 1927: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1911: 1905: 1900: 1897: 1893: 1884: 1882: 1860: 1857: 1853: 1845: 1828: 1825: 1822: 1818: 1810: 1793: 1790: 1786: 1778: 1777: 1776: 1773: 1750: 1743: 1740: 1736: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1720: 1714: 1709: 1706: 1702: 1693: 1691: 1687: 1685: 1681: 1676: 1672: 1671:Brayton cycle 1668: 1667:Rankine cycle 1664: 1656: 1654: 1652: 1643: 1641: 1638: 1634: 1628: 1624: 1621: 1616: 1611: 1603: 1601: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1585: 1583: 1579: 1574: 1570: 1568: 1564: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1548: 1541: 1537: 1529: 1527: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1509: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1479: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1463: 1460: 1459: 1458: 1455: 1453: 1452:steam turbine 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1436:exhaust gases 1433: 1425: 1420: 1417: 1413: 1412: 1411: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1382: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1369:United States 1364: 1356: 1354: 1352: 1351:refrigeration 1348: 1344: 1335: 1329:Trigeneration 1328: 1326: 1323: 1319: 1313: 1307: 1303: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1285:steam engines 1282: 1278: 1274: 1273:microturbines 1269: 1266: 1265:PEM fuel cell 1262: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1246: 1239: 1235: 1228: 1226: 1224: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1174: 1171: 1170:Nuclear power 1168: 1165: 1161: 1160:Steam turbine 1158: 1155: 1151: 1148: 1145: 1142: 1139: 1135: 1134:wood gasifier 1130: 1126: 1125:diesel engine 1122: 1119: 1116: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1102: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1081: 1077: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1033:trigeneration 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1017:Trigeneration 1011: 1007: 1003: 1001: 994: 990: 985: 983: 978: 974: 970: 968: 963: 959: 953: 951: 947: 943: 939: 938:MHD generator 935: 931: 927: 919: 915: 911: 907: 902: 898: 896: 892: 887: 882: 880: 876: 872: 871:back pressure 868: 863: 859: 854: 849: 847: 843: 839: 836:and pulp and 835: 831: 823: 819: 815: 811: 804: 802: 798: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 779:Binary cycles 776: 772: 768: 767:diesel engine 764: 760: 759:steam turbine 756: 751: 750:for cooling. 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 728: 726: 722: 721:power station 718: 714: 710: 706: 695: 690: 688: 683: 681: 676: 675: 673: 672: 666: 661: 655: 652: 642: 641: 640: 639: 630: 627: 626: 625: 624:Rapid transit 622: 618: 615: 614: 613: 610: 608: 605: 601: 598: 596: 593: 591: 590:Skateboarding 588: 586: 583: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 550: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 535: 534: 531: 527: 524: 520: 517: 516: 515: 512: 511: 510: 507: 503: 500: 498: 497:Solar vehicle 495: 491: 488: 487: 486: 483: 482: 481: 480:Green vehicle 478: 477: 474: 469: 468: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 405: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 361:Tidal barrage 359: 358: 357: 354: 352: 351:Marine energy 349: 347: 344: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 316: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 278: 275: 274: 273: 270: 269: 266: 261: 260: 253: 250: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 202:Passive house 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 103: 100: 98: 95: 93: 90: 88: 85: 83: 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 69: 66: 61: 60: 56: 52: 51: 48: 44: 40: 39: 32: 19: 5244:Cogeneration 5155:Net metering 5102:and policies 5020:Power outage 4989:Utility pole 4953:Pumped hydro 4859:distribution 4854:Transmission 4803:Cogeneration 4802: 4605:Power factor 4460: 4454: 4436: 4418: 4393:. 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