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publications. Time-locking is the practice of disabling functionality or whole programs in order to ensure that software, potentially delivered on condition of further payment, will "expire" and thus no longer function. In one featured case, a "developer of bespoke systems in the
Midlands" activated a time lock on a piece of software over a dispute with a client about an unpaid bill. The client reported this to the police who charged the programmer under Section 3 of the Act, with the outcome being a conviction by a magistrates court, with a conditional discharge given by the magistrate meaning that no punishment was applied on condition that the programmer did not re-offend.
446:
attempt to force these facts into the language of an Act not designed to fit them produced grave difficulties for both judge and jury which we would not wish to see repeated. The appellants' conduct amounted in essence, as already stated, to dishonestly gaining access to the relevant
Prestel data bank by a trick. That is not a criminal offence. If it is thought desirable to make it so, that is a matter for the legislature rather than the courts.
881:
the law when researching vulnerabilities or investigating cyber threat actors. Furthermore, 91 per cent of businesses that responded to the report’s survey suggested they had been put at a competitive disadvantage by the Act, and that reform would allow their organisation to reap significant productivity improvements, growth and resilience benefits. The report recommended that the government consider implementing the two above amendments.
67:
559:, web or other services, constitute the offence. Even if the initial access is authorised, subsequent exploration, if there is a hierarchy of privileges in the system, may lead to entry to parts of the system for which the requisite privileges are lacking and the offence will be committed. Looking over a user's shoulder or using sophisticated electronic equipment to monitor the
627:
cause a complete system malfunction, are all criminal "modifications". In 2004, John
Thornley pleaded guilty to four offences under §3, having mounted an attack on a rival site, and introduced a Trojan horse to bring it down on several occasions, but it was recognized that the wording of the offence needed to be clarified to confirm that all forms of
407:, had observed the password of a Prestel engineer. The engineer's username was 22222222 and the password used was 1234. This later gave rise to accusations that British Telecom (BT) had not taken security seriously. Armed with this information, the pair explored the system, even gaining access to the personal message box of
655:
In 2004, the All-Party
Internet Group published its review of the law and highlighted areas for development. Their recommendations led to the drafting of the Computer Misuse Act 1990 (Amendment) Bill which sought to amend the CMA to comply with the European Convention on Cyber Crime. Under its terms,
537:
who program their computers to search through password permutations are therefore liable, even if their attempts to log on are rejected by the target computer. The only precondition to liability is that the hacker should be aware that the access attempted is unauthorised. Thus, using another person's
686:
in 2011, there were discussions about amending the law to define "smart" phones (i.e. those with
Internet browsers and other connectivity features) as computers under the Act. Such an amendment might also introduce a new offence of "making information available with intent", i.e. publicly disclosing
532:
The sections 2 and 3 offences are intended to deter the more serious criminals from using a computer to assist in the commission of a criminal offence or from impairing or hindering access to data stored in a computer. The basic section 1 offence is to attempt or achieve access to a computer or the
880:
In
November 2020, the CyberUp Campaign and TechUK published a new report on the Computer Misuse Act, which was the first piece of work to quantify and analyse the views of the wider UK security community. The report found that 80 per cent of cyber security professionals have worried about breaking
788:
In May 2021, UK Home
Secretary Priti Patel announced the formal review of the Computer Misuse Act. She also launched a Call for Information on the Act that seeks views on whether there is activity causing harm in the area covered by the Act that is not adequately covered by the offences, including
626:
to obtain identity data or to acquire any other data from an unauthorised source, or modifying the operating system files or some aspect of the computer's functions to interfere with its operation or prevent access to any data, including the destruction of files, or deliberately generating code to
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Section 37 ("Making, supplying or obtaining articles for use in computer misuse offences") inserts a new section 3A into the 1990 Act and has drawn considerable criticism from IT professionals, as many of their tools can be used by criminals in addition to their legitimate purposes, and thus fall
639:
Although the Act ostensibly targets those who wish to gain unauthorised access to computer systems for various purposes, its implications on previously relatively widespread or well-known industry practices such as the "time-locking" of software have been described in various computing industry
445:
We have accordingly come to the conclusion that the language of the Act was not intended to apply to the situation which was shown to exist in this case. The submissions at the close of the prosecution case should have succeeded. It is a conclusion which we reach without regret. The
Procrustean
835:
The coalition was formed based on the shared view that an update of the UK's cyber crime legislation is necessary to protect national security and to increase economic growth for the UK cyber security industry. The
Campaign refers to Section 1 of the Act, "prohibiting unauthorised access to
433:. Their counsel cited the lack of evidence showing the two had attempted to obtain material gain from their exploits, and claimed that the Forgery and Counterfeiting Act had been misapplied to their conduct. They were acquitted by the Lord Justice Lane, but the prosecution appealed to the
850:
On 29 June 2020, to celebrate the Act's 30th birthday, the CyberUp
Campaign wrote an open letter to the prime minister on behalf of a number of cyber security industry figures to highlight the Act's outdatedness in a time of rapid digital advancement. This was published in
803:(NCA), warned that "the Computer Misuse Act went through Parliament at a time when cyber wasn't the tool that it is now is to enable all sorts of crimes like fraud" and talked about plans to introduce reforms to make sure the law was "fit for purpose in the modern age".
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information systems until the end of 2020 for the purposes of the Act to support and maintain the security of any network and information system which supports, directly or indirectly, the provision of NHS services or public health services intended to address
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Section 41 (new Section 3ZA of the Computer Misuse Act 1990). Unauthorised acts causing, or creating risk of, serious damage – punishable by up to 14 years in prison or a fine or both, possible life imprisonment where human welfare or national security were
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and recommended that "the Computer Misuse Act should be updated to reflect modern use of personal electronic devices". While the government response to the report said that the Act was regularly reviewed to determine the benefits of legislative change, the
602:. Thus, the §1 offence is committed as soon as the unauthorised access is attempted, and the §2 offence overtakes liability as soon as specific access is made for the criminal purpose. The §3 offence is specifically aimed at those who write and circulate a
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Section 43. Territorial scope of computer misuse - amendments to Sections 4, 5 and 10 making the primary territorial scope the United Kingdom but can be worldwide especially if the perpetrator (or conspirators) is British and broke local
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without proper authority to access data or a program, or to alter, delete, copy or move a program or data, or simply to output a program or data to a screen or printer, or to impersonate that other person using
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in an article that echoed the call for "urgent reform". The CyberUp Campaign is made up of a wide coalition of supportive bodies from within the cyber security industry, including the large cyber consultancies
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computers", stating that it inadvertently criminalises a large amount of cyber security and threat intelligence research and investigation which is frequently conducted by UK cyber security professionals.
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whether the legislation is fit for use following the technological advances since the CMA was introduced, and any other suggestions on how the legislative response to cyber crime could be strengthened.
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Amend the law to allow cyber security and threat intelligence researchers acting in the public interest to explain and justify their actions and to allow the detection or prevention of crime.
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Create a set of clear legal definitions to ensure that cyber security and threat intelligence researchers who reasonably believe they have authorisation to act can legitimately do so.
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In January 2020, the Criminal Law Reform Now Network (CLRNN) published a comprehensive report highlighting the Act's shortcomings and making detailed recommendations for reform.
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284:
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In the same month, the CyberUp Campaign was established with the intention of lobbying the UK government to "update and upgrade" the Act. The Campaign's launch was covered by
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unauthorised modification of computer material, punishable by twelve months/maximum fine (or six months in Scotland) on summary conviction and/or ten years/fine on indictment;
652:('Conspiracy') amended Section 8 (relevance of external law), Section 9(2)(b) (British citizenship immaterial: conspiracy) and Section 16 (application to Northern Ireland).
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laws, as it is seen "as a robust and flexible piece of legislation in terms of dealing with cybercrime". Several amendments have been passed to keep the Act up to date.
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with defrauding BT by manufacturing a "false instrument", namely the internal condition of BT's equipment after it had processed Gold's eavesdropped password. Tried at
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unauthorised access with intent to commit or facilitate commission of further offences, punishable by twelve months/maximum fine (or six months in Scotland) on
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The review of the Act follows growing calls, in recent year, for a complete government review of the Computer Misuse Act, in order to bring about new reforms.
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unauthorised access to computer material, punishable by twelve months' imprisonment (or six months in Scotland) and/or a fine "not exceeding level 5 on the
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IISS Global Perspectives – Power in Cyberspace. Q&A with Nigel Inkster, Director, Transnational Threats and Political Risk, IISS. 18 January 2011.
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The §§2–3 offences are aggravated offences, requiring a specific intent to commit another offence (for these purposes, the other offences are to be
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Prestel installed monitors on the suspect accounts and passed information thus obtained to the police. The pair were charged under section 1 of the
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Section 37. Making, supplying or obtaining articles for use in computer misuse offences, punishable by up to two years in prison or a fine or both.
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Section 36. Unauthorised acts with intent to impair operation of computer, etc. punishable by up to ten years in prison or a fine or both.
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the maximum sentence of imprisonment for breaching the Act changed from six months to two years. It also sought to explicitly criminalise
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1802:"Cyber security experts say they are being prevented from stopping computer fraud because criminals have to let them access machines"
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Section 47. Serious Crime Prevention Orders: meaning of "Serious Offence" - adds Computer Misuse to list of serious crimes in the
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Since the case, both defendants have written extensively about IT matters. Gold, who detailed the entire case at some length in
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An Act to make provision for securing computer material against unauthorised access or modification; and for connected purposes.
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497:. The bill, supported by the government, came into effect in 1990. Sections 1-3 of the Act introduced three criminal offences:
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Section 86. Transition and savings provisions – requires Sections 42 and 43 to be brought into force before they can be used.
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The Law Lords' ruling led many legal scholars to believe that hacking was not unlawful as the law then stood. The English
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from serious computer criminals. The Act has nonetheless become a model from which several other countries, including
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338:(1988) 1 AC 1063. Critics of the bill complained that it was introduced hastily, was poorly thought out, and that
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Section 35. Unauthorised access to computer material, punishable by up to two years in prison or a fine or both.
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857:, with the headline "Cyber security experts say they are being prevented from stopping computer fraud".
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590:). So a hacker who obtains access to a system intending to transfer money or shares, intends to commit
1827:"4 out of 5 cyber security professionals worry about breaking the law when defending UK, report finds"
1250:"House of Commons - Privilege: Hacking of Members' mobile phones - Standards and Privileges Committee"
877:, highlighted in January 2021 that no progress had been made towards implementing the recommendation.
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Section 42. Obtaining articles for purposes relating to computer misuse – amendments to Section 3A.
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The amendments to the Computer Misuse Act 1990 by Part 5 of the Police and Justice Act 2006 are
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Although the fines imposed were modest, they elected to appeal to the Criminal Division of the
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Schedule 1. Amendments to Serious Crimes Act 2007: Scotland – similar changes to Scottish law.
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including reference to the case of Christopher Pile (aka 'the Black Baron') in November 1995.
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data it stores, by inducing a computer to perform any function with intent to secure access.
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The amendments to the Computer Misuse Act 1990 by Part 2 of the Serious Crime Act 2015. are
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Schedule 4. Minor and consequential amendments – changes Computer Misuse Act 1990 and the
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related to deception, but the English Law Commission believed a new law was necessary.
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In 2015, the Act was further amended by Part 2 sections 41 to 44 (plus others) of the
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was often difficult to prove, with the bill inadequately differentiating "joyriding"
914:"The Computer Misuse Act 1990: lessons from its past and predictions for its future"
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Section 44. Savings – covers seizure and enactment amendments to Sections 10 and 16.
426:(five against Schifreen, four against Gold) and fined, respectively, £750 and £600.
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a password for someone's phone or computer so that others can access it illegally.
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service. While at a trade show, Schifreen, by doing what latterly became known as
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Section 3 of the Computer Misuse Act 1990: an Antidote for Computer Viruses!
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and other crimes facilitated by denial-of-service. The Bill did not receive
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864:, responsible for oversight of the UK intelligence services, published the
1110:"Computer Misuse Act 1990; 1990 c. 18 Computer misuse offences Section 1"
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concluded that intrusion was adequately covered in Scotland under the
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A list of Computer Misuse Act cases compiled by Michael J L Turner
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1210:"Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy) Act 1998 Schedule 1"
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and its counterpart in Scotland both considered the matter. The
1776:"Cybercrime laws need urgent reform to protect UK, says report"
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including being grounds for compulsory winding up of a company.
362:, have drawn inspiration when subsequently drafting their own
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1073:"'80s hacker turned journo, IT crime ace Steve Gold logs off"
828:. In November 2020, the campaign gained the backing of the
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in late 1984 and early 1985, gained unauthorised access to
1689:"Home Secretary Priti Patel speech to CyberUK Conference"
42:
986:. School of Computer Science. Professional Computing.
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contain amendments to the Computer Misuse Act 1990.
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Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy) Act 1998
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Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy) Act 1998
1057:Here Lord Brandon alludes to the classical myth of
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928:Computer Misuse: Response, Regulation and the Law
866:Intelligence and Security Committee Russia report
862:Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament
1719:"Computer Misuse Act 1990: call for information"
1664:"Hancock grants GCHQ powers over NHS IT systems"
839:The Campaign has called for two key amendments:
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1012:Information Technology Law: The Law and Society
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715:Section 38. Transitional and saving provision.
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437:. In 1988, the Lords upheld the acquittal.
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1870:Amendments to the Computer Misuse Act 1990
280:Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994
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1865:Wording of the failed 2004 amendment bill
1382:"Police and Justice Act 2006, section 37"
1352:"Police and Justice Act 2006, section 36"
1322:"Police and Justice Act 2006, section 35"
151:Learn how and when to remove this message
1749:"Reforming the Computer Misuse Act 1990"
1194:Naylor, Chris (July 1994). "Locked up".
684:News International phone hacking scandal
32:This is an accepted version of this page
1899:Computer security in the United Kingdom
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1046:HL 21 April 1988, AC 1063 summary at
946:Computer Misuse Act (amendment) speech
485:Based on the ELC's recommendations, a
1833:from the original on 19 November 2020
1165:"Computer Misuse Act 1990, section 3"
1135:"Computer Misuse Act 1990, section 2"
312:Text of statute as originally enacted
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1755:from the original on 18 January 2021
1603:"Serious Crime Act 2015, schedule 1"
1573:"Serious Crime Act 2015, section 86"
1543:"Serious Crime Act 2015, section 47"
1513:"Serious Crime Act 2015, section 44"
1483:"Serious Crime Act 2015, section 43"
1463:from the original on 5 February 2016
1453:"Serious Crime Act 2015, section 42"
1423:"Serious Crime Act 2015, section 41"
1392:from the original on 29 October 2010
1362:from the original on 31 October 2010
1332:from the original on 29 October 2010
89:adding citations to reliable sources
1633:"Serious Crime Act 2015, section 4"
1583:from the original on 6 January 2016
635:Implications for industry practices
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416:Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981
1553:from the original on 28 March 2016
824:and the cyber industry trade body
319:Revised text of statute as amended
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1774:Bowcott, Owen (22 January 2020).
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1433:from the original on 13 July 2015
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1071:Leyden, John (13 January 2015).
332:Parliament of the United Kingdom
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1662:Carding, Nick (29 April 2020).
1643:from the original on 4 May 2015
981:"Lecture 2: Legal Perspectives"
574:, and so include all the major
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1800:Bowcott, Owen (29 June 2020).
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1292:"Police and Justice Act 2006"
1904:Hacking (computer security)
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290:Police and Justice Act 2006
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930:(Cullomption, Willan 2009)
799:, Director General of the
648:Schedule 1 Part II of the
512:and/or five years/fine on
505:" (since 2015, unlimited);
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163:United Kingdom legislation
100:"Computer Misuse Act 1990"
979:Lee, Mark (Autumn 2014).
767:issued directions giving
671:Sections 35 to 38 of the
658:denial-of-service attacks
561:electromagnetic radiation
422:, they were convicted on
330:(c. 18) is an act of the
184:United Kingdom Parliament
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1855:The Internet Crime Forum
1097:Computer Misuse Act 1990
988:University of Birmingham
901:Data Protection Act 1998
871:Shadow Foreign Secretary
523:(For other offences see
371:R v Gold & Schifreen
336:R v Gold & Schifreen
328:Computer Misuse Act 1990
222:Territorial extent
167:Computer Misuse Act 1990
39:latest accepted revision
1216:. The National Archives
1196:Personal Computer World
1017:Oxford University Press
1009:Murray, Andrew (2016).
773:National Health Service
664:because Parliament was
481:The Computer Misuse Act
456:Scottish Law Commission
1668:Health Service Journal
1637:www.legislation.gov.uk
1607:www.legislation.gov.uk
1577:www.legislation.gov.uk
1547:www.legislation.gov.uk
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1296:www.legislation.gov.uk
1169:www.legislation.gov.uk
1139:www.legislation.gov.uk
771:temporary powers over
759:Application to the NHS
739:Serious Crime Act 2007
692:Serious Crime Act 2015
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295:Serious Crime Act 2015
1894:Computing legislation
952:The Law Lords' ruling
801:National Crime Agency
752:Armed Forces Act 2006
631:attack are included.
487:private member's bill
474:Further information:
468:The Hacker's Handbook
420:Southwark Crown Court
383:, using conventional
1829:. CyberUp Campaign.
439:Lord Justice Brandon
364:information security
85:improve this article
1806:The Daily Telegraph
1198:. pp. 470–471.
918:Criminal Law Review
854:The Daily Telegraph
618:. Similarly, using
360:Republic of Ireland
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29:Page version status
18:Computer Misuse Act
1214:legislation.gov.uk
1114:legislation.gov.uk
937:(1996) 3 Web JCLI
860:In July 2020, the
795:In November 2019,
679:under section 3A.
510:summary conviction
489:was introduced by
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926:Stefan Fafinski,
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1077:The Register
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399:interactive
381:Stephen Gold
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259:Commencement
253:29 June 1990
249:Royal assent
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141:January 2009
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83:Please help
78:verification
75:
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37:This is the
31:
1276:30 December
1236:"Full list"
724:endangered.
563:emitted by
557:online chat
47:3 July 2024
1888:Categories
1837:23 January
1811:22 January
1785:22 January
1082:14 January
1059:Procrustes
907:References
875:Lisa Nandy
682:After the
614:or across
588:dishonesty
576:common law
572:arrestable
544:identifier
514:indictment
460:common law
273:Amended by
206:1990 c. 18
192:Long title
111:newspapers
1751:. CLRNN.
1099:, s1 - s3
818:NCC Group
666:prorogued
600:extortion
596:blackmail
580:statutory
546:(ID) and
352:Schifreen
340:intention
1831:Archived
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1300:Archived
1220:24 March
1173:Archived
1143:Archived
916:(2008),
885:See also
822:F-Secure
778:COVID-19
620:phishing
616:networks
548:password
540:username
401:viewdata
358:and the
232:Scotland
202:Citation
43:reviewed
1759:15 June
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535:Hackers
529:below)
397:Prestel
344:hackers
125:scholar
1723:GOV.UK
1693:GOV.UK
1673:8 June
1032:19 May
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826:TechUK
784:Reform
553:e-mail
441:said:
389:modems
356:Canada
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984:(PDF)
958:Notes
592:theft
584:fraud
346:like
243:Dates
132:JSTOR
118:books
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1021:ISBN
996:2017
820:and
769:GCHQ
731:law.
608:worm
586:and
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565:VDUs
387:and
379:and
350:and
348:Gold
326:The
104:news
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612:LAN
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