409:, CSF felt the effect in 1929 since radio transmission was mainly the result of global commercial activity. In 1929 it merged amateur equipment manufacturing into its Radiotechnique subsidiary and made an agreement with Philips of the Netherlands under which CSF would drop its amateur equipment line and Philips would not compete on professional equipment. Philips bought half the shares of Radiotechnique, but in practice fully controlled the subsidiary. The market for amateur receiving stations exploded in 1930. CSF used the sale of shares and its stake in Radiotechnique to strengthen its position in the professional sector. Development and manufacture of professional electronic tubes was transferred from Suresnes to the SFR plant at Levallois.
341:, through its subsidiary Radio-France. Eight 250 metres (820 ft) towers supported two antennas fed by four 500KW alternators. The station entered operation in 1922. Short wave transmissions, reflected by the ionosphere, are generally a better solution for intercontinental transmissions but are sensitive to weather and variations in the ionosphere. The huge Sainte-Assise installation remained useful for emergencies. In Sainte Assise the Radio-France subsidiary began broadcasting to Europe, America and the Far East in 1921 under a 30-year state concession signed in 1920. The Société Radio-Orient was a subsidiary that provided a similar service in the Near East.
248:
491:. The Personnel Department was instructed to facilitate the transfer of all Jewish employees who wish to move there. A small factory was also set up in Algiers. Controlled by the occupants as a Telefunken production center, SFR produced mainly for the German army. 65% of its turnover was devoted to German armaments from 1940 to 1944, reaching 86% in 1943. The number of employees was 2,600 in February 1940, dropped to 1,000 in August 1940 but then rose to more than 4,000 by 1943. Most of the output was equipment designed by Telefunken. Several capital increases were arranged, supported by BPPB.
27:
259:(BPPB) and including the Compagnie Française des Câbles Télégraphiques (CFCT), which operated transatlantic telegraph lines. One of the benefits to the bank was that it allowed it to make use of the rights it had to German assets seized by the Allies. Émile Girardeau headed the CSF, which was a holding company that included the SFR for radio telegraphy and had other subsidiaries for management of radio telegram traffic, maritime radio and radio broadcasting. In 1919 the SFR created a factory in
552:
325:
521:
544:). The company retained its core business but diversified into precision engineering, making scientific instrumentation and aerospace radars. In 1955 CAMECA was structured with three departments, one to produce Radio-Cinema and Charlin film projectors, one undertaking mechanical production for other CSF subsidiaries, and the third working on the Spectro-Lecteur. CAMECA went on to develop ion and electron
461:
484:
Under the German occupation there were very friendly relations between the CSF and
Telefunken, for which Brenot was later criticized. In his defense, Brenot said that Telefunken's permanent representative in Paris, Doctor Schultz, was a former composer and virtuoso pianist with whom he had formed cordial relations before the war, and who was liberal, anti-militaristic and anti-Nazi.
390:
225:. This led to orders for SFR equipment from Belgium, Mexico, Turkey, Bulgaria, Serbia, Italy, Russia and China. Between 1910 and 1914 the SFR developed musical frequency resonance alternators, established stations in the Belgian Congo and Russia, developed field transmitters that could be carried by car or mule, which were tested in the 1912–13
304:, Maine-et-Loire. The Cholet plant, which had been a subcontracting plant to the main Levallois factory, became an autonomous facility with the full range of administrative, technical and testing services. It grew from 25 workers in 1937 to 1,250 in 1957, with an area of 22,000 square metres (240,000 sq ft).
239:), with two arc transmitters and one spark transmitter. SFR delivered 65 fixed stations with over 5 kW power, 18,000 aircraft stations, 300 stations on vessels and 300 mobile stations on vehicles. A new machine providing continuous waves using the Bethenod process was installed at the Lyon la Doua station.
483:
was placed under the supervision of
Siemens & Halske, and the Radiotechnique plant in Suresnes under that of Philips Electro Special, a German subsidiary of Philips in Berlin. During the war Paul Brenot had the title of technical director of the SFR, but was the right-hand man of Émile Girardeau.
443:
The PTT asked CSF to study television, and CSF launched the Radio-cinéma subsidiary for this purpose, with the first objective being to develop talking movie projectors for large cinemas. Radio-cinéma was founded as a subsidiary of CSF on 21 June 1929, in the year that talking movies first appeared.
266:
There were strong financial relations between BPPB and the CSF holding company, but BPPB did not have much involvement with the subsidiaries, for which the CSF played the role of banker. The CSF revenues came from royalties paid by the subsidiaries for the exploitation of patents held by the parent
315:
ostensibly concerned with regulating use of radio frequencies the company leaders made agreements for cross-licensing of patents and for carving up the market. The CSF's main markets were France, the French colonial empire, Serbia, Argentina and Chile. The CSF also had branches in the Middle East,
476:, which paved the way for centimeter radar that will be widely used by the Allies from 1943 to equip hunters and bombers. On 8 May 1940 Maurice Ponte went to London in person to present the CSF magnetron to the British, who would combine the advantages of the SFR prototype and their own prototype.
421:
Rocard and Ponte both moved to
Levallois after the spin-off of Radiotechnique. Ponte was appointed director of the "lampes" department, the name used for electronic tubes at the time, but continued to be directly involved in research, particularly into magnetrons to generate ultra-short waves for
397:
CSF manufactured radio reception and transmission equipment for both amateurs and professionals. The Radio
Maritime subsidiary provided equipment to merchant ships. The Radiotechnique subsidiary was formed in 1919 to research and develop electronic transmission and reception tubes at its
275:
The CSF gave attractive salaries and facilities to young physicists who could not obtain academic positions. These included Yves Rocard (1903-1992), who joined
Radiotechnique in 1928 and Maurice Ponte (1902-1983), who joined in 1929. Both Rocard and Ponte were graduates of the
284:
later contributed to developing France's atomic bomb. Ponte was placed in charge of the SFR vacuum tubes department and of the general research laboratory, and was given a free hand in hiring physicists to assist in electronics and electromagnetic radiation research.
332:
To help promote radio technology, on 19 October 1920 the
Secretary of State for Posts and Telegraphs granted the CSF the concession to build and operate all international radio links from France. One of the company's early achievements was construction of the
118:, radar, television and other applications. It provided broadcasting and telegraphy services, and sold its equipment throughout the French colonial empire and in many other parts of the world. In 1968 CSF merged with the Thomson-Brandt to form
412:
In late 1937, Maurice Elie at SFR developed a means of pulse-modulating transmitter tubes. This led to a new 16 cm system with a peak power near 500W and a pulse width of 6μs. French and U.S. patents were filed in
December 1939.
430:
system in the short wave domain at 16 cm and 80 cm, a CSF team led by
Maurice Ponte and Henri Gutton, son of Camille Gutton, filed a patent for a radar detection system in 1934. In 1934–35 CSF equipped the SS Oregon and
344:
The SFR, based in
Levallois-Perret, began experimental broadcasts in June 1922. On 31 October 1922 it was authorized to broadcast regular programs, with the proviso that advertising was not allowed. The first broadcast of the
540:, an engineer known for his expertise in talking movies, loudspeakers and stereophonics. In 1954 Radio-Cinema became the Compagnie des Applications Mécaniques et Electroniques au Cinéma et à l'Atomistique (
532:, near to the other factories in Levallois. The project to develop the Spectro-Lecteur spectrum analysis device was launched at Radio-Cinema in 1947 in response to a request from the metallurgical company
349:
from
Levallois was made in early November 1922. Radiola was the first French private radio broadcasting station. It was renamed Radio-Paris in 1924. Additional radio broadcast stations were created in
185:(1868–1932) gathered a team to work on wireless telegraphy for the military. Ferrié demonstrated the value of radio telegraphy to the government during the volcanic eruption of the
497:, a graduate of the École Normale Supérieure, was appointed to the Lavallois-Perret research laboratory during World War II and participated in a project to develop a 60kV
1407:
1275:
452:
for big cinema screening rooms. CSF did not get involved in television cameras and receivers, but from 1935 was the PTT's main contact for development of TV transmitters.
1234:
1422:
422:
obstacle detection. This was an early form of Radar, although it was used to detect boats and icebergs rather than enemy aircraft. In the 1920s French physicists
111:
1442:
163:
255:
Creation of the Compagnie générale de la télégraphie sans fil (CSF) in 1918 was due to the success of the SFR and the initiative of investors led by the
1427:
217:
was an important contributor to development of the SFR. Bethenod's new techniques were used in the first radiotelegraph link in the tropics, between
1417:
159:
1327:
1218:
267:
company. Dividends remained low. The CSF managed a general research laboratory at the central level, and held all the patents in the group.
131:
1412:
235:(1914–18) stimulated radio research. New stations were ordered by Serbia and Romania. The French Navy built a large center at Basse-Lande (
247:
138:
From the mid-19th century the world was connected with an increasingly dense network of telegraph wires and submarine cables. In 1887
501:, needed for television research. Grivet acquired expertise in electron optics, and obtained a government order for an electrostatic
581:
On 5 September 1919 the British Marconi Company agreed to sell its American interests to General Electric. Later this would become
1255:
312:
472:
of the Netherlands. In the early months of the war the Levallois laboratories made important advances in the development of the
1240:
1150:
256:
479:
After the German occupation the Levallois and Cholet plants were placed under the supervision of Telefunken. The SIF plant in
1196:
110:(CSF: General Wireless Telegraphy Company) was a French company founded in 1918 during a reorganization and expansion of the
277:
402:
plant. The "Radiola" trademark was used for radio receivers produced by Radiotechnique as well as for the radio station.
445:
468:
In 1939 the company had slightly more than 4,000 employees, still considerably less than Telefunken, Marconi, RCA and
143:
288:
In 1925 the CSF group had about 1,600 employees. By 1935 it had grown to 4,900 employees, including the workforce of
1171:
1437:
334:
222:
182:
31:
236:
229:, and installed the first transmitters on airships, airplanes, warships, fishing boats and passenger boats.
1381:
346:
26:
1362:
350:
1133:
1432:
1114:
114:(SFR), which became a subsidiary. The company developed technology for radio-telegraphy, radio program
1342:
Gueit, Lydiane (2001), "Un exemple du partenariat banque/ industrie – Paribas et la CSF (1918-1968)",
175:
555:
551:
502:
494:
514:
115:
561:
In 1957 the CSF absorbed the SFR. In 1968 Thomson-Brandt and CSF were merged to form the large
198:
58:
158:, a student at the University of Bologna, invented wireless telegraphy. In 1897 he founded the
1323:
1214:
1206:
1192:
324:
263:
in the northwest of Paris. Paul Brenot left the army to become technical director of the SFR.
155:
147:
1317:
1351:
537:
473:
427:
406:
296:. In 1935 the state required that its most important suppliers have facilities south of the
260:
1383:
Modélisation et simulation de l'interaction entre onde électromagnétique et surfaces de mer
205:
decided to found a French company to meet military and civilian radio communication needs.
520:
449:
202:
435:
with anti-iceberg collision detectors with a range of about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi).
423:
289:
186:
139:
1291:
Elie, Maurice; Gutton, Henri; Hugon, Jacques Jean; Ponte, Maurice (30 December 1939),
1189:
Le Radar, 1904-2004 – Histoire d'un siècle d'innovations techniques et opérationnelles
426:
and Émile Pierret had experimented with 16 cm wavelengths. After researching the
311:
and the French CSF operated as a cartel, avoiding competition. During meetings of the
1401:
307:
During the inter-war period the German Telefunken, the British Marconi, the American
146:
of Russia developed antennas to transmit and receive radio waves. Scientists such as
1156:
1386:(thesis) (in French), École Nationale Supérieure des Télécommunications de Bretagne
498:
432:
194:
151:
130:
460:
1292:
562:
281:
232:
226:
218:
214:
119:
84:
545:
529:
389:
378:
190:
167:
649:
213:
The Société Française Radio-Electrique (SFR) was launched on 3 April 1910.
1355:
533:
480:
399:
354:
469:
358:
293:
171:
142:
of Germany conclusively proved the existence of electromagnetic waves.
541:
370:
362:
301:
565:
group. Thomson-CSF was nationalized in 1982 and privatized in 1997.
875:
873:
871:
381:. In 1933 Radiola was sold to the state due to political pressure.
550:
519:
459:
388:
374:
366:
338:
323:
297:
246:
129:
829:
827:
825:
633:
488:
193:, and showed the value of placing antennas at the summit of the
631:
629:
627:
625:
623:
621:
619:
617:
615:
613:
1319:
History of Nonlinear Oscillations Theory in France (1880–1940)
582:
308:
1277:
Report on Visits to European Electron Tube Laboratories, 1953
1263:(in French), Roubaix: Archives nationales du monde du travail
1152:
Nouveau syst-eme de repe-rage d'obstacles et ses applications
739:
737:
170:
company was created in Germany in 1903 as a joint venture of
724:
722:
720:
718:
536:. Early in the 1950s Radio-Cinema acquired the company of
1069:
1067:
846:
844:
842:
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
783:
781:
768:
766:
764:
154:
also contributed to development of the concepts. In 1895
994:
992:
931:
929:
812:
810:
808:
806:
517:
was director of microwave research at the CSF in Paris.
251:
Huge spiral "pancake" inductors at Sainte Assise in 1922
1307:
Fagot, Jacques; Delasalle, André (1979), "La CSF-SFR",
600:
598:
596:
1239:, Historiques (in French), l'Harmattan, archived from
904:
902:
900:
1294:
System for Object Detection and Distance Measurement
891:
879:
405:
Although France was not immediately affected by the
90:
80:
72:
64:
54:
46:
38:
1257:Société française radio-électrique (SFR - Thomson)
1115:"A Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company for America"
487:The SFR set up a study center in the free zone in
201:joined Ferrié's team. Girardeau and the scientist
134:Gustave Ferrié, pioneer of French radio technology
393:Vacuum tube 1T4 manufactured by La Radiotechnique
833:
650:A Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company for America
637:
1236:La radioélectricité en France sous l'Occupation
1311:(internal history) (in French), Paris: Thomson
1254:Delacroix, Laurent; Piernas, Gersende (2016),
709:
164:Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America
108:Compagnie générale de la télégraphie sans fil
20:Compagnie générale de la télégraphie sans fil
8:
1309:Historique Thomson, le groupe de 1893 à 1977
524:Castaing Microprobe, Model MS85, Cameca 1958
335:Sainte-Assise long-wave transmission station
292:, which at that time was jointly owned with
209:Société Française Radio-Electrique (1910–19)
19:
1138:, New York: The American historical society
697:
25:
18:
1408:Electronics companies established in 1918
743:
528:After World War II Radio-cinéma moved to
1211:Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics
1097:
1085:
1073:
1046:
1034:
1022:
1010:
998:
983:
971:
959:
947:
935:
862:
850:
816:
797:
772:
755:
673:
604:
505:during the period of German occupation.
920:
592:
574:
160:Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company
1423:Telecommunications companies of France
1173:La TSF (Télégraphie Sans Fil) à Brains
908:
685:
661:
1322:, Springer International Publishing,
728:
7:
1443:French companies established in 1918
1058:
448:. The subsidiary designed and made
166:was formed in the US in 1899. The
112:Société française radio-électrique
14:
1207:"A History of CAMECA (1954-2009)"
1428:Companies disestablished in 1968
1380:Lurton, Thibaut (1 April 2010),
1316:Ginoux, Jean-Marc (2017-05-26),
1191:(in French), éditions Ellipses,
1132:Archer, Gleason Leonard (1938),
585:(Radio Corporation of America).
444:The first workshops were in the
313:International Broadcasting Union
197:. In 1908 the young polytechnic
1418:Electronics companies of France
1149:Bertin?, Henri (20 July 1934),
556:Dassault Mirage Cyrano 11 Radar
257:Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas
181:In France the engineer captain
162:in England. Its subsidiary the
1233:Chambost, Emmanuel de (2012),
1205:Chambost, Emmanuel de (2011),
1:
1119:Electrical World and Engineer
1344:Histoire économie et société
1274:Dow, W. G. (November 1954),
1209:, in Peter W. Hawkes (ed.),
1170:bricedenis (22 March 2008),
834:Delacroix & Piernas 2016
638:Delacroix & Piernas 2016
446:20th arrondissement of Paris
1413:Defence companies of France
320:Radio transmission services
144:Alexander Stepanovich Popov
1459:
1363:"Histoire de Radiola 1922"
710:Fagot & Delasalle 1979
328:1924 Radiola advertisement
316:China Japan and the USSR.
271:Inter-war period (1919–39)
509:Post-war period (1945–68)
32:Sainte-Assise transmitter
24:
16:French technology company
1280:, University of Michigan
1187:Blanchard, Yves (2004),
1135:History of radio to 1926
880:Histoire de Radiola 1922
278:École Normale Supérieure
237:Brains, Loire-Atlantique
1121:: 13 v, 2 December 1899
300:, and the SFR moved to
1037:, pp. 21, 30, 87.
558:
525:
465:
456:World War II (1939–45)
394:
329:
252:
183:Gustave-Auguste Ferrié
135:
1356:10.3406/hes.2001.2255
554:
523:
463:
392:
327:
250:
133:
1025:, pp. 233–242.
1013:, pp. 107–116.
974:, pp. 189–198.
513:In the early 1950s
503:electron microscope
439:Film and television
243:Formation (1918–19)
21:
1213:, Academic Press,
1159:on 16 January 2009
731:, pp. 87–104.
559:
526:
515:Robert R. Warnecke
466:
395:
330:
253:
136:
1329:978-3-319-55239-2
1220:978-0-12-385985-3
1049:, pp. 87–96.
962:, pp. 45–58.
950:, pp. 31–44.
758:, pp. 11–12.
746:, pp. 77–81.
156:Guglielmo Marconi
104:
103:
1450:
1438:History of radio
1393:
1392:
1391:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1367:100 ans de radio
1358:
1338:
1337:
1336:
1312:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1270:
1269:
1268:
1262:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1201:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1155:, archived from
1145:
1144:
1143:
1128:
1127:
1126:
1101:
1095:
1089:
1083:
1077:
1071:
1062:
1056:
1050:
1044:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1020:
1014:
1008:
1002:
996:
987:
981:
975:
969:
963:
957:
951:
945:
939:
933:
924:
918:
912:
906:
895:
892:Elie et al. 1939
889:
883:
877:
866:
860:
854:
848:
837:
831:
820:
814:
801:
795:
776:
770:
759:
753:
747:
741:
732:
726:
713:
707:
701:
695:
689:
683:
677:
671:
665:
659:
653:
647:
641:
635:
608:
602:
586:
579:
474:cavity magnetron
450:movie projectors
428:cavity magnetron
407:Great Depression
261:Levallois-Perret
29:
22:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1452:
1451:
1449:
1448:
1447:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1389:
1387:
1379:
1372:
1370:
1361:
1341:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1315:
1306:
1299:
1297:
1290:
1283:
1281:
1273:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1253:
1246:
1244:
1232:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1204:
1199:
1186:
1179:
1177:
1169:
1162:
1160:
1148:
1141:
1139:
1131:
1124:
1122:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1100:, p. 19ff.
1096:
1092:
1084:
1080:
1072:
1065:
1057:
1053:
1045:
1041:
1033:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1005:
997:
990:
982:
978:
970:
966:
958:
954:
946:
942:
934:
927:
919:
915:
907:
898:
890:
886:
878:
869:
861:
857:
849:
840:
832:
823:
815:
804:
796:
779:
771:
762:
754:
750:
742:
735:
727:
716:
708:
704:
698:bricedenis 2008
696:
692:
684:
680:
672:
668:
660:
656:
648:
644:
636:
611:
603:
594:
590:
589:
580:
576:
571:
511:
458:
441:
419:
387:
385:Radio equipment
347:Radiola station
322:
273:
245:
211:
203:Joseph Bethenod
199:Émile Girardeau
128:
100:
96:
59:Émile Girardeau
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1456:
1454:
1446:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1394:
1377:
1359:
1339:
1328:
1313:
1304:
1288:
1271:
1251:
1230:
1219:
1202:
1197:
1184:
1167:
1146:
1129:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1090:
1078:
1063:
1051:
1039:
1027:
1015:
1003:
988:
976:
964:
952:
940:
925:
913:
896:
884:
867:
855:
838:
821:
802:
777:
760:
748:
744:Blanchard 2004
733:
714:
712:, p. 528.
702:
690:
678:
666:
664:, p. 173.
654:
652:, p. 870.
642:
609:
591:
588:
587:
573:
572:
570:
567:
510:
507:
457:
454:
440:
437:
424:Camille Gutton
418:
415:
386:
383:
321:
318:
290:Radiotechnique
272:
269:
244:
241:
210:
207:
148:Édouard Branly
140:Heinrich Hertz
127:
124:
102:
101:
98:
94:
92:
88:
87:
82:
78:
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74:
70:
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66:
62:
61:
56:
52:
51:
48:
44:
43:
40:
36:
35:
30:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1455:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1385:
1384:
1378:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1350:(1): 87–104,
1349:
1346:(in French),
1345:
1340:
1331:
1325:
1321:
1320:
1314:
1310:
1305:
1296:
1295:
1289:
1279:
1278:
1272:
1259:
1258:
1252:
1243:on 2017-08-22
1242:
1238:
1237:
1231:
1222:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1200:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1175:
1174:
1168:
1158:
1154:
1153:
1147:
1137:
1136:
1130:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1111:
1106:
1099:
1098:Chambost 2011
1094:
1091:
1087:
1086:Chambost 2011
1082:
1079:
1076:, p. 12.
1075:
1074:Chambost 2011
1070:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1047:Chambost 2012
1043:
1040:
1036:
1035:Chambost 2012
1031:
1028:
1024:
1023:Chambost 2012
1019:
1016:
1012:
1011:Chambost 2012
1007:
1004:
1000:
999:Chambost 2012
995:
993:
989:
985:
984:Chambost 2012
980:
977:
973:
972:Chambost 2012
968:
965:
961:
960:Chambost 2012
956:
953:
949:
948:Chambost 2012
944:
941:
937:
936:Chambost 2011
932:
930:
926:
922:
917:
914:
910:
905:
903:
901:
897:
893:
888:
885:
881:
876:
874:
872:
868:
865:, p. 15.
864:
863:Chambost 2012
859:
856:
853:, p. 14.
852:
851:Chambost 2012
847:
845:
843:
839:
835:
830:
828:
826:
822:
818:
817:Chambost 2011
813:
811:
809:
807:
803:
800:, p. 13.
799:
798:Chambost 2012
794:
792:
790:
788:
786:
784:
782:
778:
775:, p. 12.
774:
773:Chambost 2012
769:
767:
765:
761:
757:
756:Chambost 2012
752:
749:
745:
740:
738:
734:
730:
725:
723:
721:
719:
715:
711:
706:
703:
699:
694:
691:
688:, p. 44.
687:
682:
679:
676:, p. 10.
675:
674:Chambost 2012
670:
667:
663:
658:
655:
651:
646:
643:
639:
634:
632:
630:
628:
626:
624:
622:
620:
618:
616:
614:
610:
606:
605:Chambost 2012
601:
599:
597:
593:
584:
578:
575:
568:
566:
564:
557:
553:
549:
547:
543:
539:
538:André Charlin
535:
531:
522:
518:
516:
508:
506:
504:
500:
496:
495:Pierre Grivet
492:
490:
485:
482:
477:
475:
471:
464:Pierre Grivet
462:
455:
453:
451:
447:
438:
436:
434:
429:
425:
416:
414:
410:
408:
403:
401:
391:
384:
382:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
342:
340:
336:
326:
319:
317:
314:
310:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
286:
283:
279:
270:
268:
264:
262:
258:
249:
242:
240:
238:
234:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
208:
206:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
179:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
132:
125:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
93:
89:
86:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
60:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
28:
23:
1433:Thales Group
1388:, retrieved
1382:
1371:, retrieved
1366:
1347:
1343:
1333:, retrieved
1318:
1308:
1298:, retrieved
1293:
1282:, retrieved
1276:
1265:, retrieved
1256:
1245:, retrieved
1241:the original
1235:
1224:, retrieved
1210:
1188:
1178:, retrieved
1172:
1161:, retrieved
1157:the original
1151:
1140:, retrieved
1134:
1123:, retrieved
1118:
1093:
1088:, p. 7.
1081:
1054:
1042:
1030:
1018:
1006:
1001:, p. 8.
986:, p. 7.
979:
967:
955:
943:
938:, p. 6.
921:Bertin? 1934
916:
911:, p. 2.
887:
858:
836:, p. 4.
819:, p. 5.
751:
705:
693:
681:
669:
657:
645:
640:, p. 3.
607:, p. 9.
577:
560:
527:
512:
499:oscilloscope
493:
486:
478:
467:
442:
433:SS Normandie
420:
411:
404:
396:
343:
331:
306:
287:
274:
265:
254:
231:
212:
195:Eiffel Tower
180:
152:Nikola Tesla
137:
116:transmission
107:
105:
91:Headquarters
1369:(in French)
1176:(in French)
909:Lurton 2010
686:Ginoux 2017
662:Archer 1938
563:Thomson-CSF
546:microprobes
282:Yves Rocard
233:World War I
227:Balkan Wars
219:Brazzaville
215:Paul Brenot
187:Mount Pelée
120:Thomson-CSF
85:Thomson-CSF
42:Electronics
1402:Categories
1390:2017-10-04
1373:2017-10-04
1335:2017-08-22
1300:2017-10-04
1284:2017-10-04
1267:2017-10-05
1247:2017-08-22
1226:2017-10-05
1198:2729818022
1180:2017-10-05
1163:2017-10-04
1142:2017-10-05
1125:2017-10-05
729:Gueit 2001
530:Courbevoie
379:Strasbourg
280:in Paris.
191:Martinique
168:Telefunken
126:Background
81:Successor
1059:Dow 1954
534:Pechiney
481:Malakoff
400:Suresnes
355:Toulouse
39:Industry
1107:Sources
470:Philips
359:Algiers
337:, near
294:Philips
172:Siemens
65:Defunct
55:Founder
47:Founded
1326:
1217:
1195:
542:CAMECA
371:Rennes
363:Ankara
351:Clichy
302:Cholet
223:Loango
99:France
76:merged
1261:(PDF)
569:Notes
417:Radar
375:Lille
367:Tunis
339:Melun
298:Loire
95:Paris
1324:ISBN
1215:ISBN
1193:ISBN
489:Lyon
377:and
221:and
174:and
150:and
106:The
73:Fate
68:1968
50:1919
1352:doi
583:RCA
309:RCA
189:in
176:AEG
1404::
1365:,
1348:20
1117:,
1066:^
991:^
928:^
899:^
870:^
841:^
824:^
805:^
780:^
763:^
736:^
717:^
612:^
595:^
548:.
373:,
369:,
365:,
361:,
357:,
353:,
178:.
122:.
97:,
1354::
1061:.
923:.
894:.
882:.
700:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
