Optical microscope - Knowledge (XXG)

1460: 1260: 340: 1078: 543:(1632–1724) is credited with bringing the microscope to the attention of biologists, even though simple magnifying lenses were already being produced in the 16th century. Van Leeuwenhoek's home-made microscopes were simple microscopes, with a single very small, yet strong lens. They were awkward in use, but enabled van Leeuwenhoek to see detailed images. It took about 150 years of optical development before the compound microscope was able to provide the same quality image as van Leeuwenhoek's simple microscopes, due to difficulties in configuring multiple lenses. In the 1850s, 752:, or ocular lens, is a cylinder containing two or more lenses; its function is to bring the image into focus for the eye. The eyepiece is inserted into the top end of the body tube. Eyepieces are interchangeable and many different eyepieces can be inserted with different degrees of magnification. Typical magnification values for eyepieces include 5×, 10× (the most common), 15× and 20×. In some high performance microscopes, the optical configuration of the objective lens and eyepiece are matched to give the best possible optical performance. This occurs most commonly with 977: 816: 1192: 1116: 1059: 1097: 33: 677: 1512: 196: 3289: 139: 3390: 463:, invented the compound microscope and/or the telescope as early as 1590. Johannes' testimony, which some claim is dubious, pushes the invention date so far back that Zacharias would have been a child at the time, leading to speculation that, for Johannes' claim to be true, the compound microscope would have to have been invented by Johannes' grandfather, Hans Martens. Another claim is that Janssen's competitor, 529: 215:) that gives the viewer an enlarged inverted virtual image of the object (image 2). The use of a compound objective/eyepiece combination allows for much higher magnification. Common compound microscopes often feature exchangeable objective lenses, allowing the user to quickly adjust the magnification. A compound microscope also enables more advanced illumination setups, such as 3402: 1523:

molecule produces a diffraction-limited spot of light in the image, and the centre of each of these spots corresponds to the location of the molecule. As the number of fluorescing molecules is low the spots of light are unlikely to overlap and therefore can be placed accurately. This process is then repeated many times to generate the image.

1495:, Alexa dyes, Atto dyes, Cy2/Cy3 and fluorescein molecules can be used for localization microscopy, provided certain photo-physical conditions are present. Using this so-called SPDMphymod (physically modifiable fluorophores) technology a single laser wavelength of suitable intensity is sufficient for nanoimaging. 884:

At magnifications higher than 100× moving a slide by hand is not practical. A mechanical stage, typical of medium and higher priced microscopes, allows tiny movements of the slide via control knobs that reposition the sample/slide as desired. If a microscope did not originally have a mechanical stage

867:

The frame provides a mounting point for various microscope controls. Normally this will include controls for focusing, typically a large knurled wheel to adjust coarse focus, together with a smaller knurled wheel to control fine focus. Other features may be lamp controls and/or controls for adjusting

473:

is sometimes cited as a compound microscope inventor. After 1610, he found that he could close focus his telescope to view small objects, such as flies, close up and/or could look through the wrong end in reverse to magnify small objects. The only drawback was that his 2 foot long telescope had to be

1282:

of a microscope is taken as the ability to distinguish between two closely spaced Airy disks (or, in other words the ability of the microscope to reveal adjacent structural detail as distinct and separate). It is these impacts of diffraction that limit the ability to resolve fine details. The extent

845:

or water and a matched cover slip between the objective lens and the sample. The refractive index of the index-matching material is higher than air allowing the objective lens to have a larger numerical aperture (greater than 1) so that the light is transmitted from the specimen to the outer face of

967:

and the objective lens. For example a 10x eyepiece magnification and a 100x objective lens magnification gives a total magnification of 1,000×. Modified environments such as the use of oil or ultraviolet light can increase the resolution and allow for resolved details at magnifications larger than

891:

Focusing starts at lower magnification in order to center the specimen by the user on the stage. Moving to a higher magnification requires the stage to be moved higher vertically for re-focus at the higher magnification and may also require slight horizontal specimen position adjustment. Horizontal

854:

Adjustment knobs move the stage up and down with separate adjustment for coarse and fine focusing. The same controls enable the microscope to adjust to specimens of different thickness. In older designs of microscopes, the focus adjustment wheels move the microscope tube up or down relative to the

1522:

is a simple example of how higher resolution surpassing the diffraction limit is possible, but it has major limitations. STED is a fluorescence microscopy technique which uses a combination of light pulses to induce fluorescence in a small sub-population of fluorescent molecules in a sample. Each

782:

that collect light from the sample. The objective is usually in a cylinder housing containing a glass single or multi-element compound lens. Typically there will be around three objective lenses screwed into a circular nose piece which may be rotated to select the required objective lens. These

114:

lenses with different magnification are usually provided mounted on a turret, allowing them to be rotated into place and providing an ability to zoom-in. The maximum magnification power of optical microscopes is typically limited to around 1000x because of the limited resolving power of visible

1374:

Multiple techniques are available for reaching resolutions higher than the transmitted light limit described above. Holographic techniques, as described by Courjon and Bulabois in 1979, are also capable of breaking this resolution limit, although resolution was restricted in their experimental

2837:

Bradl, Joachim (1996). "Comparative study of three-dimensional localization accuracy in conventional, confocal laser scanning and axial tomographic fluorescence light microscopy". In Bigio, Irving J; Grundfest, Warren S; Schneckenburger, Herbert; Svanberg, Katarina; Viallet, Pierre M (eds.).

1599:). The specimen chambers needed for all such instruments also limits sample size, and sample manipulation is more difficult. Color cannot be seen in images made by these methods, so some information is lost. They are however, essential when investigating molecular or atomic effects, such as 846:

the objective lens with minimal refraction. Numerical apertures as high as 1.6 can be achieved. The larger numerical aperture allows collection of more light making detailed observation of smaller details possible. An oil immersion lens usually has a magnification of 40 to 100×.

60:

to generate magnified images of small objects. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly invented in their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical microscopes can be very simple, although many complex designs aim to improve

684:

All modern optical microscopes designed for viewing samples by transmitted light share the same basic components of the light path. In addition, the vast majority of microscopes have the same 'structural' components (numbered below according to the image on the right):

1138:

Modern microscopes allow more than just observation of transmitted light image of a sample; there are many techniques which can be used to extract other kinds of data. Most of these require additional equipment in addition to a basic compound microscope.

1879:

Aspden, Reuben S.; Gemmell, Nathan R.; Morris, Peter A.; Tasca, Daniel S.; Mertens, Lena; Tanner, Michael G.; Kirkwood, Robert A.; Ruggeri, Alessandro; Tosi, Alberto; Boyd, Robert W.; Buller, Gerald S.; Hadfield, Robert H.; Padgett, Miles J. (2015).

364:. Microscopes can also be partly or wholly computer-controlled with various levels of automation. Digital microscopy allows greater analysis of a microscope image, for example, measurements of distances and areas and quantitation of a fluorescent or 1591:

STM and AFM are scanning probe techniques using a small probe which is scanned over the sample surface. Resolution in these cases is limited by the size of the probe; micromachining techniques can produce probes with tip radii of 5–10 nm.

1583:

The use of electrons and X-rays in place of light allows much higher resolution – the wavelength of the radiation is shorter so the diffraction limit is lower. To make the short-wavelength probe non-destructive, the atomic beam imaging system

863:

The whole of the optical assembly is traditionally attached to a rigid arm, which in turn is attached to a robust U-shaped foot to provide the necessary rigidity. The arm angle may be adjustable to allow the viewing angle to be adjusted.

575:. This method of sample illumination gives rise to extremely even lighting and overcomes many limitations of older techniques of sample illumination. Before development of Köhler illumination the image of the light source, for example a 150:

of a single lens or group of lenses for magnification. A compound microscope uses a system of lenses (one set enlarging the image produced by another) to achieve a much higher magnification of an object. The vast majority of modern

1579:

It is important to note that higher frequency waves have limited interaction with matter, for example soft tissues are relatively transparent to X-rays resulting in distinct sources of contrast and different target applications.

1475:

for light microscopy. "Optically isolated" means that at a given point in time, only a single particle/molecule within a region of a size determined by conventional optical resolution (typically approx. 200–250 nm

1115: 1077: 876:

The stage is a platform below the objective lens which supports the specimen being viewed. In the center of the stage is a hole through which light passes to illuminate the specimen. The stage usually has arms to hold

1527:

of the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry was awarded the 10th German Future Prize in 2006 and Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2014 for his development of the STED microscope and associated methodologies.

2518:

Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, Containing Its Transactions and Proceedings and a Summary of Current Researches Relating to Zoology and Botany (Principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), Microscopy,

563:

While basic microscope technology and optics have been available for over 400 years it is much more recently that techniques in sample illumination were developed to generate the high quality images seen today.

2793:

Lemmer, P.; Gunkel, M.; Baddeley, D.; Kaufmann, R.; Urich, A.; Weiland, Y.; Reymann, J.; Müller, P.; Hausmann, M.; Cremer, C. (2008). "SPDM: light microscopy with single-molecule resolution at the nanoscale".

391:

port to show the images directly on the monitor. They offer modest magnifications (up to about 200×) without the need to use eyepieces and at a very low cost. High-power illumination is usually provided by an

2974:

Kaufmann, R; Müller, P; Hildenbrand, G; Hausmann, M; Cremer, C; et al. (2011). "Analysis of Her2/neu membrane protein clusters in different types of breast cancer cells using localization microscopy".

270:, whose design usually includes a polarizing filter, rotating stage, and gypsum plate to facilitate the study of minerals or other crystalline materials whose optical properties can vary with orientation. 411:

to photon-sparse microscopy, the sample is illuminated with infrared photons, each spatially correlated with an entangled partner in the visible band for efficient imaging by a photon-counting camera.

159:

are simple single-lens microscopes. Compound microscopes can be further divided into a variety of other types of microscopes, which differ in their optical configurations, cost, and intended purposes.

895:

Due to the difficulty in preparing specimens and mounting them on slides, for children it is best to begin with prepared slides that are centered and focus easily regardless of the focus level used.

520:

corrected, and therefore a huge step forward in microscope development. The Huygens ocular is still being produced to this day, but suffers from a small field size, and other minor disadvantages.

2075:, p. 28) makes it unlikely he invented it in 1590 and the claim of invention is based on the testimony of Zacharias Janssen's son, Johannes Zachariassen, who may have fabricated the whole story ( 1503:

3D super resolution microscopy with standard fluorescent dyes can be achieved by combination of localization microscopy for standard fluorescent dyes SPDMphymod and structured illumination SMI.

2129:

Robert D. Huerta, Giants of Delft: Johannes Vermeer and the Natural Philosophers : the Parallel Search for Knowledge During the Age of Discovery, Bucknell University Press - 2003, page 126

2071:

Note: stories vary, including Zacharias Janssen had the help of his father Hans Martens (or sometimes said to have been built entirely by his father). Zacharias' probable birth date of 1585 (

467:(who applied for the first telescope patent in 1608) also invented the compound microscope. Other historians point to the Dutch innovator Cornelis Drebbel with his 1621 compound microscope. 2885: 1233:

associated with long workdays at a microscopy station. In certain applications, long-working-distance or long-focus microscopes are beneficial. An item may need to be examined behind a

1058: 3082:"Metallographic and Materialographic Specimen Preparation, Light Microscopy, Image Analysis and Hardness Testing", Kay Geels in collaboration with Struers A/S, ASTM International 2006. 1345: 227:

There are many variants of the compound optical microscope design for specialized purposes. Some of these are physical design differences allowing specialization for certain purposes:

637:

the sample is illuminated through the objective lens with a narrow set of wavelengths of light. This light interacts with fluorophores in the sample which then emit light of a longer

474:

extended out to 6 feet to view objects that close. After seeing the compound microscope built by Drebbel exhibited in Rome in 1624, Galileo built his own improved version. In 1625,

1820:

Lee, Joonhee; Crampton, Kevin T.; Tallarida, Nicholas; Apkarian, V. Ara (April 2019). "Visualizing vibrational normal modes of a single molecule with atomically confined light".

1096: 303:

Student microscope – an often low-power microscope with simplified controls and sometimes low-quality optics designed for school use or as a starter instrument for children.

1595:

Additionally, methods such as electron or X-ray microscopy use a vacuum or partial vacuum, which limits their use for live and biological samples (with the exception of an

2957: 3332: 1366:

obtainable with conventional lenses is about 200 nm. A new type of lens using multiple scattering of light allowed to improve the resolution to below 100 nm.

2454: 1660: 2559:

Van Putten, E. G.; Akbulut, D.; Bertolotti, J.; Vos, W. L.; Lagendijk, A.; Mosk, A. P. (2011). "Scattering Lens Resolves Sub-100 nm Structures with Visible Light".

2188: 455:

The actual inventor of the compound microscope is unknown although many claims have been made over the years. These include a claim 35 years after they appeared by

1400:

While most techniques focus on increases in lateral resolution there are also some techniques which aim to allow analysis of extremely thin samples. For example,

3243: 313:

to allow viewing of tiny particles whose diameter is below or near the wavelength of visible light (around 500 nanometers); mostly obsolete since the advent of

764:

Objective turret, revolver, or revolving nose piece is the part that holds the set of objective lenses. It allows the user to switch between objective lenses.

3171: 2620:

Courjon, D.; Bulabois, J. (1979). "Real Time Holographic Microscopy Using a Peculiar Holographic Illuminating System and a Rotary Shearing Interferometer".

1295:(NA) of the objective lens. There is therefore a finite limit beyond which it is impossible to resolve separate points in the objective field, known as the 888:

All stages move up and down for focus. With a mechanical stage slides move on two horizontal axes for positioning the specimen to examine specimen details.

1746: 1596: 3144: 2692: 551:, invented the first practical binocular microscope while carrying out one of the earliest and most extensive American microscopic investigations of 2725: 2870: 3375: 3370: 3238: 2108: 1536:

In order to overcome the limitations set by the diffraction limit of visible light other microscopes have been designed which use other waves.

1383: 599: 167:

A simple microscope uses a lens or set of lenses to enlarge an object through angular magnification alone, giving the viewer an erect enlarged

2901:

Cremer, Christoph; Hausmann, Michael; Bradl, Joachim and Rinke, Bernd "Method and devices for measuring distances between object structures",

2385: 91:

The sample can be lit in a variety of ways. Transparent objects can be lit from below and solid objects can be lit with light coming through (

2497: 2359: 2170: 2023: 1959: 1723: 1693: 1207:

Optical microscopy is used extensively in microelectronics, nanophysics, biotechnology, pharmaceutic research, mineralogy and microbiology.

1167: 803:

of about 40 to 2 mm, respectively. Objective lenses with higher magnifications normally have a higher numerical aperture and a shorter

2777:

Cremer, Christoph; Hausmann, Michael; Bradl, Joachim and Schneider, Bernhard "Wave field microscope with detection point spread function",

1259: 935:

is a lens designed to focus light from the illumination source onto the sample. The condenser may also include other features, such as a

3337: 2410: 2316: 1552: 1404:

methods place the thin sample on a contrast-enhancing surface and thereby allows to directly visualize films as thin as 0.3 nanometers.

3273: 3253: 3066: 1034: 981: 948: 807:

in the resulting image. Some high performance objective lenses may require matched eyepieces to deliver the best optical performance.

611: 1471:

which allows position, distance and angle measurements on "optically isolated" particles (e.g. molecules) well below the theoretical

2215: 424: 339: 2747:

Heintzmann, Rainer (1999). Bigio, Irving J.; Schneckenburger, Herbert; Slavik, Jan; Svanberg, Katarina; Viallet, Pierre M. (eds.).

3317: 3313: 3164: 1564: 1397:

Despite significant progress in the last decade, techniques for surpassing the diffraction limit remain limited and specialized.

297: 123: 2918: 2659: 1656: 1459: 3032: 1125: 615: 595: 323: 319: 2282: 3342: 2462: 2424: 2059: 1588:) has been proposed and widely discussed in the literature, but it is not yet competitive with conventional imaging systems. 2002:

J. William Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, page 391

1974:

William Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, pp. 391–392

1938:

Atti Della Fondazione Giorgio Ronchi E Contributi Dell'Istituto Nazionale Di Ottica, Volume 30, La Fondazione-1975, page 554

399:

Digital microscopy with very low light levels to avoid damage to vulnerable biological samples is available using sensitive

211:

of the object inside the microscope (image 1). That image is then magnified by a second lens or group of lenses (called the

146:

There are two basic types of optical microscopes: simple microscopes and compound microscopes. A simple microscope uses the

2138:

A. Mark Smith, From Sight to Light: The Passage from Ancient to Modern Optics, University of Chicago Press - 2014, page 387

1237:, or industrial subjects may be a hazard to the objective. Such optics resemble telescopes with close-focus capabilities. 2534: 2206: 1922: 1558: 1467:

SPDM (spectral precision distance microscopy), the basic localization microscopy technology is a light optical process of

294:, a widely used variant of epifluorescent illumination that uses a scanning laser to illuminate a sample for fluorescence. 3406: 2247:

Cassedy JH (1973). "John L. Riddell's Vibrio biceps: Two documents on American microscopy and cholera etiology 1849–59".

2185: 1546: 119: 1463:

3D dual color super resolution microscopy with Her2 and Her3 in breast cells, standard dyes: Alexa 488, Alexa 568 LIMON

976: 3438: 3394: 3157: 815: 1484:

within such a region all carry different spectral markers (e.g. different colors or other usable differences in the

1191: 510:(skopein) meaning "to look at", a name meant to be analogous with "telescope", another word coined by the Linceans. 3360: 1296: 1153: 1083: 1042: 1022: 984: 285: 1251:

Very small, portable microscopes have found some usage in places where a laboratory microscope would be a burden.

3433: 3233: 3110: 1492: 661: 327: 279: 127: 300:, used to image fluorescence deeper in scattering media and reduce photobleaching, especially in living samples. 1408: 1309: 1739: 84:, slightly different images are used to create a 3-D effect. A camera is typically used to capture the image ( 3321: 3303: 3218: 2682: 1540: 1468: 1424: 1064: 838: 834: 634: 540: 267: 171:. The use of a single convex lens or groups of lenses are found in simple magnification devices such as the 92: 3223: 2984: 1630: 939:

and/or filters, to manage the quality and intensity of the illumination. For illumination techniques like

932: 920: 727: 572: 234:, a low-powered microscope which provides a stereoscopic view of the sample, commonly used for dissection. 104: 1472: 799:. The former typically ranges from 5× to 100× while the latter ranges from 0.14 to 0.7, corresponding to 3228: 2715: 1436: 1270:

At very high magnifications with transmitted light, point objects are seen as fuzzy discs surrounded by

996: 273: 237: 96: 32: 1355: 881:(rectangular glass plates with typical dimensions of 25×75 mm, on which the specimen is mounted). 676: 80:

on the microscope. In high-power microscopes, both eyepieces typically show the same image, but with a

3428: 2803: 2629: 2578: 1896: 1829: 1087: 544: 485: 252: 3113:, an illustrated collection with more than 3000 photos of scientific microscopes by European makers 2989: 2098: 1988:

Raymond J. Seeger, Men of Physics: Galileo Galilei, His Life and His Works, Elsevier - 2016, page 24

326:, without traditional wavelength-based resolution limits. This microscope primarily realized on the 107:

can be used to increase image contrast by highlighting small details of differing refractive index.

3308: 3248: 2749:

Laterally modulated excitation microscopy: improvement of resolution by using a diffraction grating

2382: 1158: 1106: 633:

for specific structures within a cell. In contrast to normal transilluminated light microscopy, in

630: 404: 314: 291: 243: 1244:

graduated to allow measuring distances in the focal plane. The other (and older) type has simple

787:, which means that when one changes from one lens to another on a microscope, the sample stays in 115:

light. While larger magnifications are possible no additional details of the object are resolved.

3133: 3010: 2949: 2851: 2819: 2760: 2602: 2568: 2365: 1861: 1625: 1394:. In 2005, a microscope capable of detecting a single molecule was described as a teaching tool. 1292: 936: 796: 773: 695: 653: 533: 513: 351: 256: 240:

has two separate light paths allowing direct comparison of two samples via one image in each eye.

204: 156: 111: 62: 1240:

Measuring microscopes are used for precision measurement. There are two basic types. One has a

1021:

image from a sample. Major techniques for generating increased contrast from the sample include

837:

or water-immersion objectives for greater resolution at high magnification. These are used with

652:, have been used to label specific structures within the cell. More recent developments include 203:

A compound microscope uses a lens close to the object being viewed to collect light (called the

2485: 1299:. Assuming that optical aberrations in the whole optical set-up are negligible, the resolution 907:. Most microscopes, however, have their own adjustable and controllable light source – often a 606:

cells, can be imaged without having to use staining techniques. Just two years later, in 1955,

441:

with limited magnification, which date at least as far back as the widespread use of lenses in

3062: 3002: 2941: 2594: 2513: 2493: 2355: 2264: 2211: 2166: 2055: 2019: 1955: 1914: 1853: 1845: 1802: 1794: 1719: 1689: 1683: 1511: 1435:

SMI (spatially modulated illumination microscopy) is a light optical process of the so-called

1226: 1211: 1018: 1000: 548: 516:, another Dutchman, developed a simple 2-lens ocular system in the late 17th century that was 460: 420: 384: 231: 195: 81: 66: 2402: 2339: 2308: 2013: 1949: 1451:

of the illuminating light, or to extract other structural parameters in the nanometer range.

1443:

in a suitable manner to either increase the optical resolution, to maximize the precision of

3288: 3278: 2994: 2933: 2843: 2811: 2752: 2637: 2586: 2347: 2256: 1904: 1837: 1784: 1713: 1635: 1585: 1573: 1387: 878: 607: 568: 449: 438: 407:

may minimize the risk of damage to the most light-sensitive samples. In this application of

310: 172: 53: 692:

Objective turret, revolver, or revolving nose piece (to hold multiple objective lenses) (2)

246:, for studying samples from below; useful for cell cultures in liquid or for metallography. 138: 3365: 3125: 2389: 2192: 1604: 1519: 1416: 1391: 1225:

In industrial use, binocular microscopes are common. Aside from applications needing true

992: 665: 517: 470: 464: 400: 306: 100: 3122:, A collection of 17th through 19th century microscopes, including extensive descriptions 2807: 2633: 2582: 1900: 1833: 448:

Compound microscopes first appeared in Europe around 1620 including one demonstrated by

3258: 2720: 1608: 1485: 1234: 1215: 1121: 1030: 988: 944: 804: 788: 779: 591: 499: 475: 372: 357: 344: 249:

Fiber optic connector inspection microscope, designed for connector end-face inspection

216: 2871:"High-precision measurements in epifluorescent microscopy – simulation and experiment" 2147:

Daniel J. Boorstin, The Discoverers, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group - 2011, page 327

1771:

Kumar, Naresh; Weckhuysen, Bert M.; Wain, Andrew J.; Pollard, Andrew J. (April 2019).

1515:

Stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy image of actin filaments within a cell

1049:

Four examples of transilumination techniques used to generate contrast in a sample of

951:

microscopy additional optical components must be precisely aligned in the light path.

3422: 3327: 2998: 2764: 2751:. Optical Biopsies and Microscopic Techniques III. Vol. 3568. pp. 185–196. 2655: 2641: 1600: 960: 842: 828: 820: 792: 784: 587: 435: 408: 168: 147: 57: 3028: 2953: 2855: 2823: 2656:"Demonstration of a Low-Cost, Single-Molecule Capable, Multimode Optical Microscope" 2606: 2369: 1865: 3014: 2590: 2103: 1179:

Multiple transmission microscopy for contrast enhancement and aberration reduction.

1050: 1045:

and specific contrast-enhanced slides for the visualization of nanometric samples.

908: 800: 456: 17: 1017:

Many techniques are available which modify the light path to generate an improved

2842:. Optical Biopsies and Microscopic Techniques. Vol. 2926. pp. 201–206. 2260: 2159: 2157:

Gould, Stephen Jay (2000). "Chapter 2: The Sharp-Eyed Lynx, Outfoxed by Nature".

778:

At the lower end of a typical compound optical microscope, there are one or more

403:

digital cameras. It has been demonstrated that a light source providing pairs of

1524: 1420: 1412: 1379: 1271: 1203:

technique, placing the specimen on a glass slide and mixing with a salt solution

627: 583: 528: 2432: 2351: 1881: 1170:(where a UV-visible spectrophotometer is integrated with an optical microscope) 1143:

Reflected light, or incident, illumination (for analysis of surface structures)

903:

Many sources of light can be used. At its simplest, daylight is directed via a

3263: 3192: 3180: 2903: 2815: 2779: 1841: 1789: 1772: 1448: 1440: 1284: 1264: 1248:

and a micrometer mechanism for moving the subject relative to the microscope.

1245: 1230: 1219: 1196: 1102: 1068: 1026: 1012: 940: 753: 660:

to recognise specific proteins within a sample, and fluorescent proteins like

657: 638: 532:

The oldest published image known to have been made with a microscope: bees by

442: 380: 263:

Other microscope variants are designed for different illumination techniques:

208: 85: 49: 1918: 1882:"Photon-sparse microscopy: visible light imaging using infrared illumination" 1849: 1798: 1291:(λ), the refractive materials used to manufacture the objective lens and the 1909: 1481: 1275: 1200: 892:

specimen position adjustments are the reason for having a mechanical stage.

603: 576: 365: 184: 3006: 2945: 2937: 2598: 2344:

CLEO:2011 - Laser Applications to Photonic Applications (2011), Paper CThW6

1857: 1806: 2268: 1378:

Using fluorescent samples more techniques are available. Examples include

118:

Alternatives to optical microscopy which do not use visible light include

2161:

The Lying Stones of Marrakech: Penultimate Reflections in Natural History

1612: 1477: 1444: 964: 749: 743: 361: 212: 180: 152: 77: 2687: 1241: 552: 3119: 3098: 2847: 2756: 1998: 1996: 1994: 1182:

Automation (for automatic scanning of a large sample or image capture)

3268: 3149: 3104: 1401: 1350:

Usually a wavelength of 550 nm is assumed, which corresponds to

1038: 963:

of a compound optical microscope is the product of the powers of the

904: 791:. Microscope objectives are characterized by two parameters, namely, 720: 376: 3139: 3088:, Siegfried Weisenburger and Vahid Sandoghdar, arXiv:1412.3255 2014. 155:

microscopes are compound microscopes, while some cheaper commercial

1447:

measurements of fluorescent objects that are small relative to the

1283:

and magnitude of the diffraction patterns are affected by both the

626:

Modern biological microscopy depends heavily on the development of

594:

illumination which allows imaging of transparent samples. By using

3085: 2573: 2535:"If You've Ever Wanted a Smartphone Microscope, Now's Your Chance" 1984: 1982: 1980: 1773:"Nanoscale chemical imaging using tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy" 1510: 1362:

is 0.95, and with oil, up to 1.5. In practice the lowest value of

1351: 1288: 1258: 1190: 975: 916: 814: 716: 675: 527: 338: 194: 176: 137: 103:

may be used to determine crystal orientation of metallic objects.

2392:

By Katarina Logg. Chalmers Dept. Applied Physics. 20 January 2006

2340:"Contrast Enhancement by Multi-Pass Phase-Conjugation Microscopy" 1439:(PSF) engineering. These are processes which modify the PSF of a 3101:

A site about Antique Microscopes, their Accessories, and History

645: 644:

Since the mid-20th century chemical fluorescent stains, such as

3153: 2919:"Dual color localization microscopy of cellular nanostructures" 2716:"2 Americans and a German Are Awarded Nobel Prize in Chemistry" 912: 649: 393: 388: 288:, designed for analysis of samples that include fluorophores. 452:

in London (around 1621) and one exhibited in Rome in 1624.

130:

and as a result, can achieve much greater magnifications.

579:

filament, was always visible in the image of the sample.

375:, are also commercially available. These are essentially 3333:

Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRF)

2307:

Kenneth, Spring; Keller, H. Ernst; Davidson, Michael W.

2195:, Instituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza (in Italian) 823:

microscope objective lenses: 100× (left) and 40× (right)

3057:

Van Helden, Albert; Dupre, Sven; Van Gent, Rob (2011).

459:

spectacle-maker Johannes Zachariassen that his father,

282:, which applies the phase contrast illumination method. 3086:"Light Microscopy: An ongoing contemporary revolution" 2338:

Pégard, Nicolas C.; Fleischer, Jason W. (1 May 2011).

1128:

of different path lengths of light through the sample.

680:

Basic optical transmission microscope elements (1990s)

602:

of light, extremely transparent samples, such as live

1312: 1263:

The diffraction limit set in stone on a monument for

1086:

illumination, sample contrast comes from rotation of

641:. It is this emitted light which makes up the image. 482:

for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the

356:

A digital microscope is a microscope equipped with a

36:

Scientist using an optical microscope in a laboratory

3371:

Photo-activated localization microscopy (PALM/STORM)

2012:

Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010).

1948:

Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010).

3351: 3296: 3209: 2088:

Brian Shmaefsky, Biotechnology 101 - 2006, page 171

760:

Objective turret (revolver or revolving nose piece)

2228:Riddell JL (1854). "On the binocular microscope". 2158: 2018:. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 32–36, 43. 1715:The Principles and Practice of Electron Microscopy 1657:"Lesson 2 – Page 3, CLASSIFICATION OF MICROSCOPES" 1339: 387:. The camera is attached directly to a computer's 923:is often provided on more expensive instruments. 3099:Antique Microscopes & Scientific Instruments 1685:The IIT Foundation Series - Physics Class 8, 2/e 1195:A 40x magnification image of cells in a medical 3134:Online tutorial of practical optical microscopy 3029:"German Future Prize for crossing Abbe's Limit" 1105:illumination, sample contrast comes from light 396:source or sources adjacent to the camera lens. 2869:Heintzmann, R.; Münch, H.; Cremer, C. (1997). 2681:Ritter, Karl; Rising, Malin (8 October 2014). 1358:as the external medium, the highest practical 322:, is a variant of optical microscope based on 76:and may be directly viewed through one or two 3274:Interference reflection microscopy (IRM/RICM) 3165: 1480:) is being registered. This is possible when 483: 8: 2523:A discussion of Zeiss measuring microscopes. 1199:taken through an optical microscope using a 2840:Optical Biopsies and Microscopic Techniques 2683:"2 Americans, 1 German win chemistry Nobel" 2490:Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering, Vol. 3 2403:"Long-focus microscope with camera adapter" 3172: 3158: 3150: 1954:. Amsterdam University Press. p. 24. 1597:environmental scanning electron microscope 586:in physics was awarded to Dutch physicist 2988: 2572: 1908: 1788: 1718:. Cambridge University Press. p. 6. 1340:{\displaystyle d={\frac {\lambda }{2NA}}} 1319: 1311: 1124:illumination, sample contrast comes from 1067:illumination, sample contrast comes from 276:, similar to the petrographic microscope. 3244:Differential interference contrast (DIC) 1740:"Buying a cheap microscope for home use" 1688:. Pearson Education India. p. 213. 1458: 309:, an adapted light microscope that uses 31: 1647: 1047: 360:allowing observation of a sample via a 3239:Quantitative phase-contrast microscopy 2891:from the original on 16 February 2016. 1707: 1705: 1423:for the development of super-resolved 1384:near field scanning optical microscopy 919:are becoming a more common provision. 2533:Linder, Courtney (22 November 2019). 490:in 1624 (Galileo had called it the " 434:The earliest microscopes were single 7: 3401: 3366:Stimulated emission depletion (STED) 2695:from the original on 11 October 2014 2413:from the original on 3 October 2011. 2319:from the original on 1 November 2008 2111:from the original on 3 February 2017 1491:Many standard fluorescent dyes like 1229:, the use of dual eyepieces reduces 656:, which uses fluorescently labelled 2917:Manuel Gunkel; et al. (2009). 2728:from the original on 9 October 2014 1553:Scanning ion-conductance microscopy 1222:on free cells or tissue fragments. 498:"). Faber coined the name from the 2346:. Optica Publishing Group: CThW6. 2313:Olympus Microscopy Resource Center 2283:"How to Use a Compound Microscope" 1455:Localization microscopy SPDMphymod 1037:illumination. A recent technique ( 1035:differential interference contrast 949:differential interference contrast 612:differential interference contrast 330:platforms using all optical tools. 27:Microscope that uses visible light 25: 3338:Lightsheet microscopy (LSFM/SPIM) 3107:A collection of early microscopes 3035:from the original on 7 March 2009 2714:Chang, Kenneth (8 October 2014). 2662:from the original on 6 March 2009 1928:from the original on 4 June 2016. 1752:from the original on 5 March 2016 1218:when dealing with tissues, or in 425:Timeline of microscope technology 371:Low-powered digital microscopes, 3400: 3389: 3388: 3287: 3130:, concepts in optical microscopy 2999:10.1111/j.1365-2818.2010.03436.x 2963:from the original on 3 May 2019. 2488:. In Driggers, Ronald G. (ed.). 1663:from the original on 10 May 2016 1565:Transmission electron microscopy 1114: 1095: 1076: 1057: 783:arrangements are designed to be 712:Stage (to hold the specimen) (6) 701:Focus knobs (to move the stage) 199:Diagram of a compound microscope 124:transmission electron microscopy 2076: 2072: 2038: 1370:Surpassing the resolution limit 1210:Optical microscopy is used for 885:it may be possible to add one. 590:in 1953 for his development of 324:tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy 255:, for studying samples of high 3343:Lattice light-sheet microscopy 3254:Second harmonic imaging (SHIM) 3061:. Amsterdam University Press. 2907:priority date 23 December 1996 2591:10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.193905 2099:"Who Invented the Microscope?" 1499:3D super resolution microscopy 1146:Fluorescence microscopy, both: 911:, although illumination using 506:(micron) meaning "small", and 142:Diagram of a simple microscope 1: 2425:"Questar Maksutov microscope" 2207:The Lying Stones of Marrakech 1559:Scanning tunneling microscope 1520:Stimulated emission depletion 1392:stimulated emission depletion 855:stand and had a fixed stage. 833:Some microscopes make use of 320:Tip-enhanced Raman microscope 3059:The Origins of the Telescope 2783:, priority date 10 July 1997 2015:The Origins of the Telescope 1951:The Origins of the Telescope 1547:Scanning electron microscope 547:, Professor of Chemistry at 120:scanning electron microscopy 2492:. CRC Press. p. 2409. 2455:"FTA long-focus microscope" 2186:"Il microscopio di Galileo" 1431:Structured illumination SMI 3455: 3136:at University of Cambridge 2642:10.1088/0150-536X/10/3/004 2352:10.1364/CLEO_SI.2011.CThW6 2261:10.1093/jhmas/xxviii.2.101 2204:Gould, Stephen Jay (2000) 2165:. New York, N.Y: Harmony. 1682:Trisha Knowledge Systems. 1154:Epifluorescence microscopy 1010: 985:Office of Field Operations 826: 771: 741: 689:Eyepiece (ocular lens) (1) 618:-based imaging technique. 418: 349: 286:Epifluorescence microscope 72:The object is placed on a 3384: 3285: 3187: 2816:10.1007/s00340-008-3152-x 1842:10.1038/s41586-019-1059-9 1790:10.1038/s41596-019-0132-z 1488:of different particles). 1214:, the field being termed 1090:light through the sample. 610:published the theory for 484: 383:and generally do not use 328:scanning-probe microscope 280:Phase-contrast microscope 223:Other microscope variants 128:scanning probe microscopy 2484:Ollsson, Gustaf (2003). 2050:Shmaefsky, Brian (2006) 1409:Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1274:rings. These are called 1176:Near-Infrared microscopy 835:oil-immersion objectives 44:, also referred to as a 3304:Fluorescence microscopy 3264:Structured illumination 3219:Bright-field microscopy 3105:Antique Microscopes.com 2561:Physical Review Letters 2388:24 January 2011 at the 2309:"Microscope objectives" 1910:10.1364/OPTICA.2.001049 1541:Atomic force microscope 1469:fluorescence microscopy 1425:fluorescence microscopy 1407:On 8 October 2014, the 1071:of light in the sample. 1007:Illumination techniques 839:index-matching material 811:Oil immersion objective 668:making it fluorescent. 635:fluorescence microscopy 622:Fluorescence microscopy 541:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 268:Petrographic microscope 207:lens), which focuses a 3376:Near-field (NSOM/SNOM) 3314:Multiphoton microscopy 3145:Cell Centered Database 3111:Historical microscopes 2938:10.1002/biot.200900005 1570:Ultraviolet microscope 1516: 1464: 1341: 1267: 1204: 1173:Ultraviolet microscopy 1003: 824: 738:Eyepiece (ocular lens) 681: 664:which a live cell can 537: 347: 200: 143: 105:Phase-contrast imaging 99:) the objective lens. 37: 3229:Dark-field microscopy 3127:Molecular Expressions 2977:Journal of Microscopy 2926:Biotechnology Journal 2904:U.S. patent 6,424,421 2780:U.S. patent 7,342,717 2459:firsttenangstroms.com 2383:O1 Optical Microscopy 2107:. 14 September 2013. 2054:. Greenwood. p. 171. 1745:. Oxford University. 1514: 1462: 1437:point spread function 1342: 1262: 1194: 1084:Cross-polarized light 1043:cross-polarized light 1023:cross-polarized light 997:international airport 979: 818: 704:Coarse adjustment (4) 679: 531: 445:in the 13th century. 342: 298:Two-photon microscope 274:Polarizing microscope 238:Comparison microscope 198: 141: 35: 3297:Fluorescence methods 3120:The Golub Collection 2521:. 1906. p. 716. 2191:9 April 2008 at the 1712:Ian M. Watt (1997). 1310: 1303:, can be stated as: 959:The actual power or 733:Mechanical stage (9) 614:microscopy, another 545:John Leonard Riddell 486:Accademia dei Lincei 379:with a high-powered 315:electron microscopes 253:Traveling microscope 3328:Image deconvolution 3309:Confocal microscopy 3249:Dispersion staining 3224:Köhler illumination 2808:2008ApPhB..93....1L 2634:1979JOpt...10..125C 2583:2011PhRvL.106s3905V 2465:on 26 February 2012 1901:2015Optic...2.1049A 1834:2019Natur.568...78L 1631:Köhler illumination 1473:limit of resolution 1159:Confocal microscopy 987:agent checking the 921:Köhler illumination 707:Fine adjustment (5) 573:Köhler illumination 559:Lighting techniques 292:Confocal microscope 244:Inverted microscope 191:Compound microscope 157:digital microscopes 52:that commonly uses 18:Compound microscope 3439:Optical microscopy 3200:Optical microscopy 3181:Optical microscopy 1626:Digital microscope 1517: 1465: 1337: 1293:numerical aperture 1268: 1205: 1004: 825: 797:numerical aperture 774:Objective (optics) 682: 654:immunofluorescence 538: 534:Francesco Stelluti 514:Christiaan Huygens 439:magnifying glasses 352:Digital microscope 348: 335:Digital microscope 257:optical resolution 201: 144: 42:optical microscope 38: 3416: 3415: 3361:Diffraction limit 2848:10.1117/12.260797 2796:Applied Physics B 2757:10.1117/12.336833 2622:Journal of Optics 2539:Popular Mechanics 2499:978-0-824-74252-2 2361:978-1-55752-910-7 2210:. Harmony Books. 2172:978-0-224-05044-9 2052:Biotechnology 101 2025:978-90-6984-615-6 1961:978-90-6984-615-6 1725:978-0-521-43591-8 1695:978-81-317-6147-2 1659:. msnucleus.org. 1335: 1297:diffraction limit 1212:medical diagnosis 1168:Microspectroscopy 1053:. 1.559 μm/pixel. 1001:stereo microscope 549:Tulane University 461:Zacharias Janssen 421:History of optics 405:entangled photons 385:transillumination 232:Stereo microscope 187:and microscopes. 163:Simple microscope 82:stereo microscope 16:(Redirected from 3446: 3434:Dutch inventions 3404: 3403: 3392: 3391: 3354:limit techniques 3291: 3212:contrast methods 3210:Illumination and 3174: 3167: 3160: 3151: 3116: 3072: 3045: 3044: 3042: 3040: 3025: 3019: 3018: 2992: 2971: 2965: 2964: 2962: 2923: 2914: 2908: 2906: 2899: 2893: 2892: 2890: 2875: 2866: 2860: 2859: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2790: 2784: 2782: 2775: 2769: 2768: 2744: 2738: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2711: 2705: 2704: 2702: 2700: 2678: 2672: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2652: 2646: 2645: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2576: 2556: 2550: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2530: 2524: 2522: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2472: 2470: 2461:. Archived from 2451: 2445: 2444: 2442: 2440: 2431:. Archived from 2421: 2415: 2414: 2399: 2393: 2380: 2374: 2373: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2304: 2298: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2279: 2273: 2272: 2244: 2238: 2237: 2225: 2219: 2202: 2196: 2183: 2177: 2176: 2164: 2154: 2148: 2145: 2139: 2136: 2130: 2127: 2121: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2095: 2089: 2086: 2080: 2069: 2063: 2048: 2042: 2036: 2030: 2029: 2009: 2003: 2000: 1989: 1986: 1975: 1972: 1966: 1965: 1945: 1939: 1936: 1930: 1929: 1927: 1912: 1886: 1876: 1870: 1869: 1817: 1811: 1810: 1792: 1783:(4): 1169–1193. 1777:Nature Protocols 1768: 1762: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1751: 1744: 1736: 1730: 1729: 1709: 1700: 1699: 1679: 1673: 1672: 1670: 1668: 1652: 1636:Microscope slide 1605:aluminium alloys 1586:atomic nanoscope 1574:X-ray microscope 1388:evanescent waves 1346: 1344: 1343: 1338: 1336: 1334: 1320: 1227:depth perception 1134:Other techniques 1118: 1099: 1080: 1061: 780:objective lenses 715:Light source (a 696:Objective lenses 608:Georges Nomarski 567:In August 1893, 489: 488: 478:coined the name 450:Cornelis Drebbel 311:light scattering 173:magnifying glass 56:and a system of 46:light microscope 21: 3454: 3453: 3449: 3448: 3447: 3445: 3444: 3443: 3419: 3418: 3417: 3412: 3380: 3353: 3352:Sub-diffraction 3347: 3292: 3283: 3211: 3205: 3183: 3178: 3114: 3095: 3079: 3077:Further reading 3069: 3056: 3053: 3048: 3038: 3036: 3027: 3026: 3022: 2990:10.1.1.665.3604 2973: 2972: 2968: 2960: 2921: 2916: 2915: 2911: 2902: 2900: 2896: 2888: 2873: 2868: 2867: 2863: 2836: 2835: 2831: 2792: 2791: 2787: 2778: 2776: 2772: 2746: 2745: 2741: 2731: 2729: 2713: 2712: 2708: 2698: 2696: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2665: 2663: 2654: 2653: 2649: 2619: 2618: 2614: 2558: 2557: 2553: 2543: 2541: 2532: 2531: 2527: 2512: 2511: 2507: 2500: 2483: 2482: 2478: 2468: 2466: 2453: 2452: 2448: 2438: 2436: 2435:on 15 June 2011 2423: 2422: 2418: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2390:Wayback Machine 2381: 2377: 2362: 2337: 2336: 2332: 2322: 2320: 2306: 2305: 2301: 2291: 2289: 2281: 2280: 2276: 2246: 2245: 2241: 2230:Q J Microsc Sci 2227: 2226: 2222: 2203: 2199: 2193:Wayback Machine 2184: 2180: 2173: 2156: 2155: 2151: 2146: 2142: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2114: 2112: 2097: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2083: 2070: 2066: 2049: 2045: 2037: 2033: 2026: 2011: 2010: 2006: 2001: 1992: 1987: 1978: 1973: 1969: 1962: 1947: 1946: 1942: 1937: 1933: 1925: 1884: 1878: 1877: 1873: 1828:(7750): 78–82. 1819: 1818: 1814: 1770: 1769: 1765: 1755: 1753: 1749: 1742: 1738: 1737: 1733: 1726: 1711: 1710: 1703: 1696: 1681: 1680: 1676: 1666: 1664: 1654: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1640: 1621: 1534: 1509: 1501: 1457: 1433: 1417:William Moerner 1411:was awarded to 1372: 1324: 1308: 1307: 1280:resolving power 1257: 1189: 1136: 1129: 1119: 1110: 1100: 1091: 1081: 1072: 1062: 1015: 1009: 993:travel document 974: 957: 929: 901: 874: 868:the condenser. 861: 852: 831: 813: 776: 770: 762: 746: 740: 674: 648:which binds to 624: 561: 526: 471:Galileo Galilei 465:Hans Lippershey 432: 427: 417: 401:photon-counting 373:USB microscopes 354: 337: 307:Ultramicroscope 225: 193: 165: 136: 101:Polarised light 48:, is a type of 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3452: 3450: 3442: 3441: 3436: 3431: 3421: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3411: 3410: 3398: 3385: 3382: 3381: 3379: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3357: 3355: 3349: 3348: 3346: 3345: 3340: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3311: 3306: 3300: 3298: 3294: 3293: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3259:4Pi microscope 3256: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3234:Phase contrast 3231: 3226: 3221: 3215: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3204: 3203: 3196: 3188: 3185: 3184: 3179: 3177: 3176: 3169: 3162: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3131: 3123: 3117: 3108: 3102: 3094: 3093:External links 3091: 3090: 3089: 3083: 3078: 3075: 3074: 3073: 3068:978-9069846156 3067: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3046: 3020: 2966: 2909: 2894: 2861: 2829: 2785: 2770: 2739: 2721:New York Times 2706: 2673: 2647: 2612: 2567:(19): 193905. 2551: 2525: 2505: 2498: 2476: 2446: 2416: 2407:macrolenses.de 2394: 2375: 2360: 2330: 2299: 2287:Microscope.com 2274: 2255:(2): 101–108. 2239: 2220: 2197: 2178: 2171: 2149: 2140: 2131: 2122: 2090: 2081: 2064: 2043: 2031: 2024: 2004: 1990: 1976: 1967: 1960: 1940: 1931: 1871: 1812: 1763: 1731: 1724: 1701: 1694: 1674: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1638: 1633: 1628: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1609:microstructure 1577: 1576: 1571: 1568: 1562: 1556: 1550: 1544: 1533: 1530: 1508: 1505: 1500: 1497: 1486:light emission 1456: 1453: 1432: 1429: 1371: 1368: 1348: 1347: 1333: 1330: 1327: 1323: 1318: 1315: 1256: 1253: 1216:histopathology 1188: 1185: 1184: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1171: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1161: 1156: 1148: 1147: 1144: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1130: 1122:Phase contrast 1120: 1113: 1111: 1109:by the sample. 1101: 1094: 1092: 1082: 1075: 1073: 1063: 1056: 1054: 1031:phase contrast 1011:Main article: 1008: 1005: 973: 970: 956: 953: 945:phase contrast 928: 925: 900: 897: 873: 870: 860: 857: 851: 848: 827:Main article: 812: 809: 805:depth of field 772:Main article: 769: 768:Objective lens 766: 761: 758: 742:Main article: 739: 736: 735: 734: 731: 726:Diaphragm and 724: 713: 710: 709: 708: 705: 699: 693: 690: 673: 670: 623: 620: 592:phase contrast 560: 557: 525: 524:Popularization 522: 518:achromatically 476:Giovanni Faber 431: 428: 416: 413: 358:digital camera 350:Main article: 345:USB microscope 336: 333: 332: 331: 317: 304: 301: 295: 289: 283: 277: 271: 261: 260: 250: 247: 241: 235: 224: 221: 217:phase contrast 192: 189: 164: 161: 135: 132: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3451: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3432: 3430: 3427: 3426: 3424: 3409: 3408: 3399: 3397: 3396: 3387: 3386: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3362: 3359: 3358: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3341: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3331: 3329: 3326: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3312: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3302: 3301: 3299: 3295: 3290: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3245: 3242: 3240: 3237: 3235: 3232: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3222: 3220: 3217: 3216: 3214: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3197: 3195: 3194: 3190: 3189: 3186: 3182: 3175: 3170: 3168: 3163: 3161: 3156: 3155: 3152: 3146: 3143: 3141: 3138: 3135: 3132: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3121: 3118: 3112: 3109: 3106: 3103: 3100: 3097: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3084: 3081: 3080: 3076: 3070: 3064: 3060: 3055: 3054: 3051:Cited sources 3050: 3034: 3030: 3024: 3021: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2970: 2967: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2932:(6): 927–38. 2931: 2927: 2920: 2913: 2910: 2905: 2898: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2872: 2865: 2862: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2833: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2789: 2786: 2781: 2774: 2771: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2743: 2740: 2727: 2723: 2722: 2717: 2710: 2707: 2694: 2690: 2689: 2684: 2677: 2674: 2661: 2657: 2651: 2648: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2616: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2555: 2552: 2540: 2536: 2529: 2526: 2520: 2515: 2509: 2506: 2501: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2480: 2477: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2450: 2447: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2420: 2417: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2398: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2384: 2379: 2376: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2334: 2331: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2303: 2300: 2288: 2284: 2278: 2275: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2243: 2240: 2235: 2231: 2224: 2221: 2217: 2216:0-609-60142-3 2213: 2209: 2208: 2201: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2187: 2182: 2179: 2174: 2168: 2163: 2162: 2153: 2150: 2144: 2141: 2135: 2132: 2126: 2123: 2110: 2106: 2105: 2100: 2094: 2091: 2085: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2068: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2047: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2032: 2027: 2021: 2017: 2016: 2008: 2005: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1991: 1985: 1983: 1981: 1977: 1971: 1968: 1963: 1957: 1953: 1952: 1944: 1941: 1935: 1932: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1883: 1875: 1872: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1816: 1813: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1791: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1767: 1764: 1748: 1741: 1735: 1732: 1727: 1721: 1717: 1716: 1708: 1706: 1702: 1697: 1691: 1687: 1686: 1678: 1675: 1662: 1658: 1655:JR Blueford. 1651: 1648: 1642: 1637: 1634: 1632: 1629: 1627: 1624: 1623: 1618: 1616: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1601:age hardening 1598: 1593: 1589: 1587: 1581: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1551: 1548: 1545: 1542: 1539: 1538: 1537: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1521: 1513: 1506: 1504: 1498: 1496: 1494: 1489: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1474: 1470: 1461: 1454: 1452: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1430: 1428: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1403: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1376: 1369: 1367: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1331: 1328: 1325: 1321: 1316: 1313: 1306: 1305: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1266: 1261: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1238: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1208: 1202: 1198: 1193: 1186: 1181: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1151: 1150: 1149: 1145: 1142: 1141: 1140: 1133: 1127: 1123: 1117: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1098: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1079: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1060: 1055: 1052: 1048: 1046: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1014: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 983: 978: 971: 969: 966: 962: 961:magnification 955:Magnification 954: 952: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 926: 924: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 898: 896: 893: 889: 886: 882: 880: 871: 869: 865: 858: 856: 849: 847: 844: 843:immersion oil 840: 836: 830: 829:Oil immersion 822: 821:oil immersion 817: 810: 808: 806: 802: 801:focal lengths 798: 794: 793:magnification 790: 786: 781: 775: 767: 765: 759: 757: 755: 751: 745: 737: 732: 729: 725: 722: 718: 714: 711: 706: 703: 702: 700: 697: 694: 691: 688: 687: 686: 678: 671: 669: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 642: 640: 636: 632: 629: 621: 619: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 588:Frits Zernike 585: 580: 578: 574: 570: 569:August Köhler 565: 558: 556: 554: 550: 546: 542: 535: 530: 523: 521: 519: 515: 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 487: 481: 477: 472: 468: 466: 462: 458: 453: 451: 446: 444: 440: 437: 429: 426: 422: 414: 412: 410: 409:ghost imaging 406: 402: 397: 395: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 369: 367: 363: 359: 353: 346: 341: 334: 329: 325: 321: 318: 316: 312: 308: 305: 302: 299: 296: 293: 290: 287: 284: 281: 278: 275: 272: 269: 266: 265: 264: 258: 254: 251: 248: 245: 242: 239: 236: 233: 230: 229: 228: 222: 220: 218: 214: 210: 206: 197: 190: 188: 186: 182: 178: 174: 170: 169:virtual image 162: 160: 158: 154: 149: 148:optical power 140: 133: 131: 129: 125: 121: 116: 113: 108: 106: 102: 98: 95:) or around ( 94: 89: 87: 83: 79: 75: 70: 68: 64: 59: 55: 54:visible light 51: 47: 43: 34: 30: 19: 3405: 3393: 3322:Three-photon 3199: 3198: 3191: 3126: 3058: 3037:. Retrieved 3023: 2983:(1): 46–54. 2980: 2976: 2969: 2929: 2925: 2912: 2897: 2881: 2877: 2864: 2839: 2832: 2799: 2795: 2788: 2773: 2748: 2742: 2730:. Retrieved 2719: 2709: 2697:. Retrieved 2686: 2676: 2664:. Retrieved 2650: 2625: 2621: 2615: 2564: 2560: 2554: 2542:. Retrieved 2538: 2528: 2517: 2514:"Microscopy" 2508: 2489: 2479: 2467:. Retrieved 2463:the original 2458: 2449: 2437:. Retrieved 2433:the original 2429:company7.com 2428: 2419: 2406: 2397: 2378: 2343: 2333: 2321:. Retrieved 2312: 2302: 2290:. Retrieved 2286: 2277: 2252: 2248: 2242: 2233: 2229: 2223: 2205: 2200: 2181: 2160: 2152: 2143: 2134: 2125: 2113:. Retrieved 2104:Live Science 2102: 2093: 2084: 2067: 2051: 2046: 2034: 2014: 2007: 1970: 1950: 1943: 1934: 1895:(12): 1049. 1892: 1888: 1874: 1825: 1821: 1815: 1780: 1776: 1766: 1754:. Retrieved 1734: 1714: 1684: 1677: 1665:. Retrieved 1650: 1594: 1590: 1582: 1578: 1535: 1532:Alternatives 1518: 1502: 1490: 1466: 1434: 1406: 1399: 1396: 1377: 1373: 1363: 1359: 1354:light. With 1349: 1300: 1279: 1269: 1250: 1239: 1224: 1209: 1206: 1187:Applications 1137: 1126:interference 1065:Bright field 1051:tissue paper 1016: 989:authenticity 958: 930: 909:halogen lamp 902: 899:Light source 894: 890: 887: 883: 875: 866: 862: 853: 832: 777: 763: 756:objectives. 754:apochromatic 747: 683: 643: 625: 616:interference 598:rather than 596:interference 581: 566: 562: 539: 512: 507: 503: 495: 491: 479: 469: 454: 447: 433: 398: 370: 366:histological 355: 343:A miniature 262: 226: 202: 166: 145: 117: 109: 93:bright field 90: 73: 71: 45: 41: 39: 29: 3429:Microscopes 3140:OpenWetWare 3115:(in German) 3039:24 February 2884:: 252–253. 2878:Cell Vision 2802:(1): 1–12. 2666:25 February 1525:Stefan Hell 1421:Stefan Hell 1413:Eric Betzig 1386:which uses 1380:Vertico SMI 1272:diffraction 1255:Limitations 1220:smear tests 1041:) combines 850:Focus knobs 628:fluorescent 584:Nobel Prize 110:A range of 65:and sample 3423:Categories 3318:Two-photon 3193:Microscope 2628:(3): 125. 2544:3 November 2486:"Reticles" 2323:29 October 2292:8 February 2249:J Hist Med 2077:Van Helden 2073:Van Helden 2060:0313335281 2039:Van Helden 1756:5 November 1667:15 January 1643:References 1449:wavelength 1441:microscope 1375:analysis. 1285:wavelength 1276:Airy disks 1265:Ernst Abbe 1246:crosshairs 1231:eye strain 1197:smear test 1103:Dark field 1069:absorbance 1027:dark field 1013:Microscopy 941:dark field 819:Two Leica 672:Components 658:antibodies 639:wavelength 600:absorption 571:developed 496:little eye 492:occhiolino 480:microscope 443:eyeglasses 419:See also: 381:macro lens 209:real image 185:telescopes 97:dark field 86:micrograph 63:resolution 50:microscope 2985:CiteSeerX 2765:128763403 2732:8 October 2699:8 October 2574:1103.3643 2079:, p. 43). 1919:2334-2536 1850:1476-4687 1799:1750-2799 1607:, or the 1482:molecules 1322:λ 1201:wet mount 1107:scattered 1088:polarized 972:Operation 937:diaphragm 933:condenser 927:Condenser 728:condenser 604:mammalian 577:lightbulb 430:Invention 205:objective 181:eyepieces 112:objective 78:eyepieces 3395:Category 3033:Archived 3007:21118230 2958:Archived 2954:18162278 2946:19548231 2886:Archived 2856:55468495 2824:13805053 2726:Archived 2693:Archived 2660:Archived 2607:15793849 2599:21668161 2411:Archived 2386:Archived 2370:13366261 2317:Archived 2236:: 18–24. 2189:Archived 2115:31 March 2109:Archived 1923:Archived 1866:92998248 1858:30944493 1807:30911174 1747:Archived 1661:Archived 1619:See also 1613:polymers 1478:diameter 1445:distance 1019:contrast 999:using a 968:1,000x. 965:eyepiece 841:such as 785:parfocal 750:eyepiece 744:Eyepiece 362:computer 213:eyepiece 153:research 67:contrast 3407:Commons 3015:2119158 2804:Bibcode 2688:AP News 2630:Bibcode 2579:Bibcode 2469:11 July 2439:11 July 2269:4572620 2041:, p. 43 1897:Bibcode 1830:Bibcode 1242:reticle 666:express 553:cholera 508:σκοπεῖν 415:History 377:webcams 368:stain. 3269:Sarfus 3065: 3013: 3005: 2987: 2952: 2944: 2854: 2822: 2763: 2605: 2597: 2519:&c 2496: 2368: 2358: 2267: 2214: 2169: 2058: 2022: 1958: 1917: 1889:Optica 1864: 1856: 1848: 1822:Nature 1805: 1797: 1722: 1692: 1555:(SICM) 1402:sarfus 1390:, and 1278:. The 1235:window 1039:Sarfus 995:at an 917:lasers 905:mirror 879:slides 721:mirror 631:probes 536:, 1630 504:μικρόν 502:words 494:" or " 179:, and 177:loupes 58:lenses 3279:Raman 3011:S2CID 2961:(PDF) 2950:S2CID 2922:(PDF) 2889:(PDF) 2874:(PDF) 2852:S2CID 2820:S2CID 2761:S2CID 2603:S2CID 2569:arXiv 2366:S2CID 1926:(PDF) 1885:(PDF) 1862:S2CID 1750:(PDF) 1743:(PDF) 1567:(TEM) 1561:(STM) 1549:(SEM) 1543:(AFM) 1352:green 1289:light 991:of a 980:U.S. 872:Stage 859:Frame 789:focus 723:) (7) 719:or a 717:light 500:Greek 457:Dutch 134:Types 74:stage 3063:ISBN 3041:2009 3003:PMID 2942:PMID 2734:2014 2701:2014 2668:2009 2595:PMID 2546:2020 2494:ISBN 2471:2011 2441:2011 2356:ISBN 2325:2008 2294:2023 2265:PMID 2212:ISBN 2167:ISBN 2117:2017 2056:ISBN 2020:ISBN 1956:ISBN 1915:ISSN 1854:PMID 1846:ISSN 1803:PMID 1795:ISSN 1758:2015 1720:ISBN 1690:ISBN 1669:2017 1507:STED 1419:and 1033:and 947:and 931:The 915:and 913:LEDs 795:and 748:The 646:DAPI 582:The 436:lens 423:and 183:for 126:and 122:and 40:The 2995:doi 2981:242 2934:doi 2844:doi 2812:doi 2753:doi 2638:doi 2587:doi 2565:106 2348:doi 2257:doi 1905:doi 1838:doi 1826:568 1785:doi 1611:of 1603:in 1493:GFP 1356:air 1287:of 982:CBP 730:(8) 698:(3) 662:GFP 650:DNA 394:LED 389:USB 88:). 3425:: 3320:, 3031:. 3009:. 3001:. 2993:. 2979:. 2956:. 2948:. 2940:. 2928:. 2924:. 2880:. 2876:. 2850:. 2818:. 2810:. 2800:93 2798:. 2759:. 2724:. 2718:. 2691:. 2685:. 2658:. 2636:. 2626:10 2624:. 2601:. 2593:. 2585:. 2577:. 2563:. 2537:. 2516:. 2457:. 2427:. 2409:. 2405:. 2364:. 2354:. 2342:. 2315:. 2311:. 2285:. 2263:. 2253:28 2251:. 2232:. 2101:. 1993:^ 1979:^ 1921:. 1913:. 1903:. 1891:. 1887:. 1860:. 1852:. 1844:. 1836:. 1824:. 1801:. 1793:. 1781:14 1779:. 1775:. 1704:^ 1615:. 1427:. 1415:, 1382:, 1360:NA 1029:, 1025:, 943:, 555:. 219:. 175:, 69:. 3324:) 3316:( 3173:e 3166:t 3159:v 3071:. 3043:. 3017:. 2997:: 2936:: 2930:4 2882:4 2858:. 2846:: 2826:. 2814:: 2806:: 2767:. 2755:: 2736:. 2703:. 2670:. 2644:. 2640:: 2632:: 2609:. 2589:: 2581:: 2571:: 2548:. 2502:. 2473:. 2443:. 2372:. 2350:: 2327:. 2296:. 2271:. 2259:: 2234:2 2218:. 2175:. 2119:. 2062:. 2028:. 1964:. 1907:: 1899:: 1893:2 1868:. 1840:: 1832:: 1809:. 1787:: 1760:. 1728:. 1698:. 1671:. 1584:( 1364:d 1332:A 1329:N 1326:2 1317:= 1314:d 1301:d 259:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index