1092:(STM). An atomic force microscope has a fine probe, usually of silicon or silicon nitride, attached to a cantilever; the probe is scanned over the surface of the sample, and the forces that cause an interaction between the probe and the surface of the sample are measured and mapped. A near-field scanning optical microscope is similar to an AFM but its probe consists of a light source in an optical fiber covered with a tip that has usually an aperture for the light to pass through. The microscope can capture either transmitted or reflected light to measure very localized optical properties of the surface, commonly of a biological specimen. Scanning tunneling microscopes have a metal tip with a single apical atom; the tip is attached to a tube through which a current flows. The tip is scanned over the surface of a conductive sample until a tunneling current flows; the current is kept constant by computer movement of the tip and an image is formed by the recorded movements of the tip.
1065:. This requires careful sample preparation, since electrons are scattered strongly by most materials. The samples must also be very thin (below 100 nm) in order for the electrons to pass through it. Cross-sections of cells stained with osmium and heavy metals reveal clear organelle membranes and proteins such as ribosomes. With a 0.1 nm level of resolution, detailed views of viruses (20 – 300 nm) and a strand of DNA (2 nm in width) can be obtained. In contrast, the SEM has raster coils to scan the surface of bulk objects with a fine electron beam. Therefore, the specimen do not necessarily need to be sectioned, but coating with a nanometric metal or carbon layer may be needed for nonconductive samples. SEM allows fast surface imaging of samples, possibly in thin water vapor to prevent drying.
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798:(electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively, microscopes can be classified based on whether they analyze the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyze the sample all at once (wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes).
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460:, which is central to achieving the theoretical limits of resolution for the light microscope. This method of sample illumination produces even lighting and overcomes the limited contrast and resolution imposed by early techniques of sample illumination. Further developments in sample illumination came from the discovery of
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is a recent optical technique that increases the sensitivity of a standard optical microscope to a point where it is possible to directly visualize nanometric films (down to 0.3 nanometre) and isolated nano-objects (down to 2 nm-diameter). The technique is based on the use of non-reflecting
840:
Scanning optical and electron microscopes, like the confocal microscope and scanning electron microscope, use lenses to focus a spot of light or electrons onto the sample then analyze the signals generated by the beam interacting with the sample. The point is then scanned over the sample to analyze a
555:
One of the latest discoveries made about using an electron microscope is the ability to identify a virus. Since this microscope produces a visible, clear image of small organelles, in an electron microscope there is no need for reagents to see the virus or harmful cells, resulting in a more efficient
451:
lens system to focus light on the specimen and the objective lens to capture the light from the specimen and form an image. Early instruments were limited until this principle was fully appreciated and developed from the late 19th to very early 20th century, and until electric lamps were available as
602:
from quantum tunnelling theory, that read very small forces exchanged between a probe and the surface of a sample. The probe approaches the surface so closely that electrons can flow continuously between probe and sample, making a current from surface to probe. The microscope was not initially well
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The different types of scanning probe microscopes arise from the many different types of interactions that occur when a small probe is scanned over and interacts with a specimen. These interactions or modes can be recorded or mapped as function of location on the surface to form a characterization
844:
Scanning probe microscopes also analyze a single point in the sample and then scan the probe over a rectangular sample region to build up an image. As these microscopes do not use electromagnetic or electron radiation for imaging they are not subject to the same resolution limit as the optical and
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are approaching the resolution of electron microscopes. This occurs because the diffraction limit is occurred from light or excitation, which makes the resolution must be doubled to become super saturated. Stefan Hell was awarded the 2014 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry for the development of the STED
757:
X-ray microscopes are instruments that use electromagnetic radiation usually in the soft X-ray band to image objects. Technological advances in X-ray lens optics in the early 1970s made the instrument a viable imaging choice. They are often used in tomography (see
346:(also sometimes cited as compound microscope inventor) seems to have found after 1610 that he could close focus his telescope to view small objects and, after seeing a compound microscope built by Drebbel exhibited in Rome in 1624, built his own improved version.
841:
rectangular region. Magnification of the image is achieved by displaying the data from scanning a physically small sample area on a relatively large screen. These microscopes have the same resolution limit as wide field optical, probe, and electron microscopes.
522:(TEM). The transmission electron microscope works on similar principles to an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light and electromagnets in the place of glass lenses. Use of electrons, instead of light, allows for much higher resolution.
1115:
in principle, they are used for such jobs as detecting defects in the subsurfaces of materials including those found in integrated circuits. On
February 4, 2013, Australian engineers built a "quantum microscope" which provides unparalleled precision.
1869:
Aspden, Reuben S.; Gemmell, Nathan R.; Morris, Peter A.; Tasca, Daniel S.; Mertens, Lena; Tanner, Michael G.; Kirkwood, Robert A.; Ruggeri, Alessandro; Tosi, Alberto; Boyd, Robert W.; Buller, Gerald S.; Hadfield, Robert H.; Padgett, Miles J. (2015).
544:, developed the first commercial transmission electron microscope and, in the 1950s, major scientific conferences on electron microscopy started being held. In 1965, the first commercial scanning electron microscope was developed by Professor Sir
611:
began publishing articles that tied theory to the experimental results obtained by the instrument. This was closely followed in 1985 with functioning commercial instruments, and in 1986 with Gerd Binnig, Quate, and Gerber's invention of the
890:), to focus light on the eye or on to another light detector. Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner. Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1,250× with a theoretical
374:, 1637) describes microscopes wherein a concave mirror, with its concavity towards the object, is used, in conjunction with a lens, for illuminating the object, which is mounted on a point fixing it at the focus of the mirror.
762:) to produce three dimensional images of objects, including biological materials that have not been chemically fixed. Currently research is being done to improve optics for hard X-rays which have greater penetrating power.
1022:
to photon-sparse microscopy, the sample is illuminated with infrared photons, each of which is spatially correlated with an entangled partner in the visible band for efficient imaging by a photon-counting camera.
206:
There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different ways. One way is to describe the method an instrument uses to interact with a sample and produce images, either by sending a beam of
423:
had a huge impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. Hooke created tiny lenses of small glass globules made by fusing the ends of threads of spun glass. A significant contribution came from
1061:(SEMs). They both have series of electromagnetic and electrostatic lenses to focus a high energy beam of electrons on a sample. In a TEM the electrons pass through the sample, analogous to
405:
The microscope was still largely a novelty until the 1660s and 1670s when naturalists in Italy, the
Netherlands and England began using them to study biology. Italian scientist
2319:
2055:
1740:
319:, appeared in Europe around 1620. The inventor is unknown, even though many claims have been made over the years. Several revolve around the spectacle-making centers in the
299:
accounts of the optical properties of water-filled spheres (5th century BC) followed by many centuries of writings on optics, the earliest known use of simple microscopes (
914:
limited. The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the
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223:
from a sample, or by scanning across and a short distance from the surface of a sample using a probe. The most common microscope (and the first to be invented) is the
432:
between the holes in two metal plates riveted together, and with an adjustable-by-screws needle attached to mount the specimen. Then, Van
Leeuwenhoek re-discovered
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444:, and helped popularise the use of microscopes to view biological ultrastructure. On 9 October 1676, van Leeuwenhoek reported the discovery of micro-organisms.
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structures were developed. The main groups of techniques involve targeted chemical staining of particular cell structures, for example, the chemical compound
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Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping is based on what interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e.,
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533:. Although TEMs were being used for research before WWII, and became popular afterwards, the SEM was not commercially available until 1965.
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light can be used to visualize circuitry embedded in bonded silicon devices, since silicon is transparent in this region of wavelengths.
619:
New types of scanning probe microscope have continued to be developed as the ability to machine ultra-fine probes and tips has advanced.
327:(claim made by his son) or Zacharias' father, Hans Martens, or both, claims it was invented by their neighbor and rival spectacle maker,
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685:. These techniques use these different fluorophores for analysis of cell structure at a molecular level in both live and fixed samples.
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Evolution of spatial resolution achieved with optical, transmission (TEM) and aberration-corrected electron microscopes (ACTEM)
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technique, along with Eric Betzig and
William Moerner who adapted fluorescence microscopy for single-molecule visualization.
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In the early 20th century a significant alternative to the light microscope was developed, an instrument that uses a beam of
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J. William
Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, page 391
1010:
Digital microscopy with very low light levels to avoid damage to vulnerable biological samples is available using sensitive
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William
Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, pp. 391–92
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Atti Della
Fondazione Giorgio Ronchi E Contributi Dell'Istituto Nazionale Di Ottica, Volume 30, La Fondazione-1975, p. 554
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light enables the resolution of microscopic features as well as the imaging of samples that are transparent to the eye.
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by some historians of biology, began his analysis of biological structures with the lungs. The publication in 1665 of
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who achieved up to 300 times magnification using a simple single lens microscope. He sandwiched a very small glass
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Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold; Zipursky, S. Lawrence; Matsudaira, Paul; Baltimore, David; Darnell, James (2000).
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Much current research (in the early 21st century) on optical microscope techniques is focused on development of
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Help add sources such as review articles, monographs, or textbooks. Please also establish the relevance for any
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Development of the transmission electron microscope was quickly followed in 1935 by the development of the
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of organic tissue based on the use of a microscope did not appear until 1644, in
Giambattista Odierna's
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Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002).
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many wavelengths of light ranging from the ultraviolet to the visible can be used to cause samples to
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Fluorescence microscope with the filter cube turret above the objective lenses, coupled with a camera
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of the radiation used to image the sample, where shorter wavelengths allow for a higher resolution.
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Wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes both use the theory of lenses (
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The rise of fluorescence microscopy drove the development of a major modern microscope design, the
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Raymond J. Seeger, Men of
Physics: Galileo Galilei, His Life and His Works, Elsevier – 2016, p. 24
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when the flashlight is activated. However, mobile app microscopes are harder to use due to visual
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Unstained cells viewed by typical brightfield (left) compared to phase-contrast microscopy (right)
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is used to obtain an image, which is then displayed on a computer monitor. These sensors may use
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by Henry C. King, Harold Spencer Jones Publisher Courier Dover Publications, 2003, pp. 25–27
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lenses for electron microscopes) in order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a
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The performance of a compound light microscope depends on the quality and correct use of the
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may minimize the risk of damage to the most light-sensitive samples. In this application of
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producing an enlarged image of a sample placed in the focal plane. Optical microscopes have
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in the 13th century. The earliest known examples of compound microscopes, which combine an
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This article is about microscopes, the instruments, in general. For light microscopes, see
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Knoll, Max (1935). "Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
2004:
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received due to the complex nature of the underlying theoretical explanations. In 1984
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technology limited practical application of the technique. It was not until 1978 when
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Gould, Stephen Jay (2000). "Chapter 2: The Sharp-Eyed Lynx, Outfoxed by Nature".
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digital cameras. It has been demonstrated that a light source providing pairs of
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902:. This limits practical magnification to ~1,500×. Specialized techniques (e.g.,
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sample to produce an observable image. Other major types of microscopes are the
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transmitted through the sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are
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The most recent developments in light microscope largely centre on the rise of
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1872:"Photon-sparse microscopy: visible light imaging using infrared illumination"
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to view the slide. This microscope technique made it possible to study the
591:
1827:
Pennycook, S.J.; Varela, M.; Hetherington, C.J.D.; Kirkland, A.I. (2011).
1043:
Transmission electron micrograph of a dividing cell undergoing cytokinesis
62:
cited. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed.
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The Lying Stones of Marrakech: Penultimate Reflections in Natural History
992:
991:. In addition to, or instead of, directly viewing the object through the
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822:
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662:
503:
312:
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1507:. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 392.
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use sound waves to measure variations in acoustic impedance. Similar to
657:. During the last decades of the 20th century, particularly in the post-
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in 1955; both of which allow imaging of unstained, transparent samples.
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uoregon.edu, Galileo Galilei (Excerpt from the Encyclopedia Britannica)
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in the light passing through a transparent specimen are converted into
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can improve resolution by around two to four times and techniques like
654:
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295:
Although objects resembling lenses date back 4,000 years and there are
232:
196:
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987:
The traditional optical microscope has more recently evolved into the
774:
Types of microscopes illustrated by the principles of their beam paths
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2686:
2088:
1829:"Materials Advances through Aberration-Corrected Electron Microscopy"
946:, which allows viewing by eye or with specifically sensitive cameras.
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872:
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1929:(3rd rev. & extended ed.). Berlin: Springer. p. 620.
1080:
map. The three most common types of scanning probe microscopes are
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The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the
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of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope.
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changes in the image. The use of phase contrast does not require
616:, then Binnig's and Rohrer's Nobel Prize in Physics for the SPM.
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and the technique rapidly gained popularity through the 1980s.
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and his postgraduate student Gary Stewart, and marketed by the
536:
Transmission electron microscopes became popular following the
518:, developed the first prototype electron microscope in 1931, a
203:
means being invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.
1548:"Early Microscopes Revealed a New World of Tiny Living Things"
1219:
Bardell, David (May 2004). "The Invention of the Microscope".
674:
587:
31:
2019:
1590:"Modern Uses of Electron Microscopy for Detection of Viruses"
1397:
Reading the Book of Nature in the Dutch Golden Age, 1575-1715
1135:, are often limited to 40x, and the resolution limits of the
677:, use of antibodies conjugated to fluorescent reporters, see
187:
used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the
2126:
1088:(NSOM or SNOM, scanning near-field optical microscopy), and
1741:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2014 – Scientific Background"
925:
substrates for cross-polarized reflected light microscopy.
607:
and D.R. Hamann, while at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in
1649:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
2870:
Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRF)
1299:
Fundamentals of light microscopy and electronic imaging
1233:
10.1893/0005-3155(2004)75<78:tiotm>2.0.co;2
910:) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is
1723:"Looking at the Structure of Cells in the Microscope"
1588:
Goldsmith, Cynthia S.; Miller, Sara E. (2009-10-01).
1099:
Leaf surface viewed by a scanning electron microscope
354:
for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the
342:, who was noted to have a version in London in 1619.
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Photo-activated localization microscopy (PALM/STORM)
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Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010).
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598:phenomenon. They created a practical instrument, a
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1523:Bad medicine: doctors doing harm since Hippocrates
1460:
1345:. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 32–36, 43.
456:developed a key principle of sample illumination,
1525:. Oxford : Oxford University Press. p. 110.
1297:Murphy, Douglas B.; Davidson, Michael W. (2011).
1053:The two major types of electron microscopes are
1007:(CCD) technology, depending on the application.
303:) dates back to the widespread use of lenses in
1804:Modern developments in X-ray and neutron optics
740:stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy
335:patent in 1608), and claims it was invented by
995:, a type of sensor similar to those used in a
386:Carl Zeiss binocular compound microscope, 1914
323:, including claims it was invented in 1590 by
2971:
2811:Interference reflection microscopy (IRM/RICM)
2702:
2346:
2049:
1150:Fluorescence interference contrast microscopy
355:
183: 'to look (at); examine, inspect') is a
8:
2027:Exploring the World of Optics and Microscopy
734:analysis of fluorescently labelled samples.
726:Microscopy § Sub-diffraction techniques
510:to generate an image. The German physicist,
92:
3931:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
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1727:Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th Edition
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1301:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
1198:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience. 2008.
1196:Characterization and Analysis of Polymers
78:Learn how and when to remove this message
4296:Instruments used in medical laboratories
2781:Differential interference contrast (DIC)
1950:Sakurai, T.; Watanabe, Y., eds. (2000).
1292:
1290:
777:
692:. The principle was patented in 1957 by
3812:Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
2020:Nikon MicroscopyU, tutorials from Nikon
1976:"Quantum Microscope for Living Biology"
1797:
1795:
1187:
1086:near-field scanning optical microscopes
1030:Modern transmission electron microscope
833:in these microscopes is limited by the
3860:Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
2776:Quantitative phase-contrast microscopy
2605:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
2131:Typical atomic force microscopy set-up
1127:microscopes can optionally be used as
964:illumination technique in which small
916:near-field scanning optical microscope
845:electron microscopes described above.
91:
2393:High-performance liquid chromatograph
1952:Advances in scanning probe microscopy
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1666:
661:era, many techniques for fluorescent
7:
2938:
2903:Stimulated emission depletion (STED)
2645:
1647:Roadmap of Scanning Probe Microscopy
681:, and fluorescent proteins, such as
2669:
1927:Springer handbook of nanotechnology
1776:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2014"
1695:Molecular Cell Biology. 4th Edition
514:, working with electrical engineer
494:Electron microscope constructed by
362:in 1625 (Galileo had called it the
3855:Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
1691:"Microscopy and Cell Architecture"
710:confocal laser scanning microscope
470:differential interference contrast
390:The first detailed account of the
284:18th-century microscopes from the
14:
2875:Lightsheet microscopy (LSFM/SPIM)
1571:Zeitschrift für Technische Physik
1055:transmission electron microscopes
276:Optical microscope § History
272:Timeline of microscope technology
3900:Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA)
3710:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
2937:
2926:
2925:
2824:
2668:
2656:
2644:
2633:
2632:
520:transmission electron microscope
378:Rise of modern light microscopes
252:transmission electron microscope
36:
2238:Scanning quantum dot microscopy
886:glass (occasionally plastic or
2880:Lattice light-sheet microscopy
2791:Second harmonic imaging (SHIM)
2378:Atomic absorption spectrometer
2193:Photothermal microspectroscopy
2005:Milestones in Light Microscopy
1367:"Who Invented the Microscope?"
1090:scanning tunneling microscopes
708:developed the first practical
1:
2025:Molecular Expressions :
1925:Bhushan, Bharat, ed. (2010).
1594:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
1155:Laser capture microdissection
1109:Scanning acoustic microscopes
1059:scanning electron microscopes
574:First atomic force microscope
53:secondary or tertiary sources
1342:The Origins of the Telescope
1262:The history of the telescope
904:scanning confocal microscopy
716:Super resolution microscopes
550:Cambridge Instrument Company
527:scanning electron microscope
256:scanning electron microscope
2383:Flame emission spectrometer
2176:Near-field scanning optical
2146:Ballistic electron emission
2029:, Florida State University.
1546:Liz Logan (27 April 2016).
1322:Sir Norman Lockyer (1876).
1175:Royal Microscopical Society
1170:Multifocal plane microscopy
1160:Microscope image processing
722:Super-resolution microscopy
594:, Switzerland to study the
331:(who applied for the first
25:Microscope (disambiguation)
4346:
2274:Scanning probe lithography
2014:FAQ on Optical Microscopes
1394:Eric Jorink (2010-10-25).
1072:
1046:
852:
805:for light microscopes and
750:
719:
626:
563:
560:Scanning probe microscopes
540:. Ernst Ruska, working at
483:
311:near the specimen with an
269:
260:scanning probe microscopes
169:
166: 'small' and
152:
18:
4293:
4161:
4144:
4133:
4055:Time-domain reflectometer
3965:
3952:
3822:Liquid chromatograph (LC)
3785:
3772:
3445:
3432:
3004:
2993:
2921:
2822:
2724:
2628:
2459:Ion mobility spectrometry
2449:Electroanalytical methods
2284:Feature-oriented scanning
2248:Scanning SQUID microscopy
2243:Scanning SQUID microscope
2124:
2065:Scanning probe microscopy
1075:Scanning probe microscopy
958:Phase-contrast microscopy
760:micro-computed tomography
683:green fluorescent protein
600:scanning probe microscope
566:scanning probe microscope
556:way to detect pathogens.
356:
286:Musée des Arts et Métiers
97:
60:primary research articles
2228:Scanning joule expansion
2223:Scanning ion-conductance
2208:Scanning electrochemical
2171:Magnetic resonance force
1082:atomic force microscopes
1063:basic optical microscopy
623:Fluorescence microscopes
215:through a sample in its
110:Small sample observation
45:This scientific article
3890:Melting-point apparatus
3271:Cryogenic storage dewar
2841:Fluorescence microscopy
2801:Structured illumination
2756:Bright-field microscopy
2619:Analytical Biochemistry
2408:Melting point apparatus
2279:Dip-pen nanolithography
2016:(archived 4 April 2009)
1900:10.1364/OPTICA.2.001049
1521:Wootton, David (2006).
1504:Encyclopædia Britannica
940:fluorescence microscopy
878:containing one or more
794:(optical microscopes),
736:Structured illumination
651:fluorescence microscopy
629:fluorescence microscope
614:atomic force microscope
609:Murray Hill, New Jersey
452:light sources. In 1893
426:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
409:, called the father of
258:) and various types of
244:fluorescence microscope
4330:Scientific instruments
4315:Microbiology equipment
3827:Mass spectrometer (MS)
3817:Gas chromatograph (GC)
2913:Near-field (NSOM/SNOM)
2851:Multiphoton microscopy
2598:Analytica Chimica Acta
2132:
1645:Morita, Seizo (2007).
1100:
1044:
1031:
954:
783:
775:
646:
575:
499:
387:
292:
238:that passed through a
23:. For other uses, see
4202:Acid-resistant gloves
3883:differential scanning
2766:Dark-field microscopy
2490:Coning and quartering
2398:Infrared spectrometer
2233:Scanning Kelvin probe
2130:
1491:Henker, Otto (1911).
1467:. New York: Harmony.
1098:
1042:
1029:
1005:charge-coupled device
952:
894:of around 0.250
781:
773:
644:
573:
552:as the "Stereoscan".
493:
385:
283:
270:Further information:
185:laboratory instrument
16:Scientific instrument
3779:Analytical chemistry
3281:Laminar flow cabinet
2987:Laboratory equipment
2834:Fluorescence methods
2612:Analytical Chemistry
2454:Gravimetric analysis
2418:Optical spectrometer
2362:Analytical chemistry
2320:Vibrational analysis
2203:Scanning capacitance
1954:. Berlin: Springer.
1806:. Berlin: Springer.
1606:10.1128/cmr.00027-09
827:electron microscopes
480:Electron microscopes
396:L'occhio della mosca
358:Accademia dei Lincei
4151:Personal protective
3060:Meker–Fisher burner
2865:Image deconvolution
2846:Confocal microscopy
2786:Dispersion staining
2761:Köhler illumination
2218:Scanning Hall probe
2198:Piezoresponse force
2156:Electrostatic force
1891:2015Optic...2.1049A
1375:. 14 September 2013
1049:Electron microscope
1035:Electron microscope
962:optical microscopic
819:optical microscopes
690:confocal microscope
637:confocal microscope
486:electron microscope
458:Köhler illumination
392:microscopic anatomy
248:electron microscope
134:electron microscope
115:Notable experiments
94:
3994:Function generator
3977:Bench power supply
3916:Analytical balance
3677:Ostwald viscometer
3672:Graduated cylinder
3411:Inoculation needle
2737:Optical microscopy
2718:Optical microscopy
2525:Separation process
2520:Sample preparation
2161:Kelvin probe force
2133:
2106:Scanning tunneling
1780:www.nobelprize.org
1748:www.nobelprize.org
1494:"Microscope"
1129:optical microscope
1101:
1045:
1032:
989:digital microscope
955:
869:optical microscope
859:Digital microscope
855:Optical microscope
849:Optical microscope
784:
776:
679:immunofluorescence
647:
633:immunofluorescence
596:quantum tunnelling
578:From 1981 to 1983
576:
500:
388:
301:magnifying glasses
293:
225:optical microscope
130:Optical microscope
21:Optical microscope
4302:
4301:
4289:
4288:
4285:
4284:
4262:Fire extinguisher
4252:Biosafety cabinet
4240:
4239:
4129:
4128:
4125:
4124:
4060:Transistor tester
4050:Spectrum analyzer
3948:
3947:
3944:
3943:
3768:
3767:
3764:
3763:
3640:Measuring devices
3462:Soxhlet extractor
3428:
3427:
3424:
3423:
3376:Spectrophotometer
3371:Pipeclay triangle
3123:Mortar and pestle
2953:
2952:
2898:Diffraction limit
2684:
2683:
2566:Standard addition
2561:Internal standard
2551:Calibration curve
2464:Mass spectrometry
2423:Spectrophotometer
2403:Mass spectrometer
2388:Gas chromatograph
2328:
2327:
2009:Nature Publishing
1982:. 4 February 2013
1961:978-3-642-56949-4
1936:978-3-642-02525-9
1848:10.1557/mrs2006.4
1813:978-3-540-74561-7
1802:Erko, A. (2008).
1656:978-3-540-34315-8
1550:. Smithsonian.com
1532:978-0-19-280355-9
1474:978-0-224-05044-9
1407:978-90-04-18671-2
1352:978-90-6984-615-6
1308:978-0-471-69214-0
1274:978-0-486-43265-6
1205:978-0-470-23300-9
1016:entangled photons
747:X-ray microscopes
407:Marcello Malpighi
325:Zacharias Janssen
139:
138:
88:
87:
80:
47:needs additional
4337:
4159:
4146:
4135:
4040:Network analyzer
3967:
3954:
3787:
3774:
3447:
3434:
3416:Inoculation loop
3286:Microtiter plate
3226:Test tube holder
3118:Magnetic stirrer
3006:
2995:
2980:
2973:
2966:
2957:
2941:
2940:
2929:
2928:
2891:limit techniques
2828:
2749:contrast methods
2747:Illumination and
2711:
2704:
2697:
2688:
2672:
2671:
2660:
2648:
2647:
2636:
2635:
2571:Isotope dilution
2355:
2348:
2341:
2332:
2289:Millipede memory
2258:Scanning voltage
2253:Scanning thermal
2058:
2051:
2044:
2035:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1947:
1941:
1940:
1922:
1913:
1912:
1902:
1876:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1833:
1824:
1818:
1817:
1799:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1762:
1756:
1750:. Archived from
1745:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1718:
1699:
1698:
1686:
1661:
1660:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1625:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1518:
1509:
1508:
1496:
1488:
1479:
1478:
1466:
1456:
1450:
1445:
1439:
1436:
1430:
1427:
1421:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1363:
1357:
1356:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1325:Nature Volume 14
1319:
1313:
1312:
1294:
1285:
1282:
1276:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1192:
1165:Microscope slide
892:resolution limit
753:X-ray microscope
706:Christoph Cremer
538:Second World War
474:Georges Nomarski
472:illumination by
361:
360:
350:coined the name
340:Cornelis Drebbel
240:thinly sectioned
221:photon emissions
180:
173:
163:
156:
102:
95:
83:
76:
72:
69:
63:
40:
39:
32:
4345:
4344:
4340:
4339:
4338:
4336:
4335:
4334:
4305:
4304:
4303:
4298:
4281:
4277:Solvent cabinet
4236:
4207:Eyewash station
4190:
4155:
4153:equipment (PPE)
4152:
4140:
4121:
4100:
4069:
4013:
4004:Pulse generator
3970:Control devices
3961:
3940:
3904:
3870:Thermochemistry
3864:
3841:
3781:
3760:
3729:
3686:
3652:Conical measure
3635:
3604:
3541:
3510:
3487:
3471:
3441:
3420:
3401:Test tube brush
3311:
3296:Picotiter plate
3259:
3245:
3241:Lab drying rack
3200:Extension clamp
3176:
3157:
3096:
3082:
3018:
3000:
2989:
2984:
2954:
2949:
2917:
2890:
2889:Sub-diffraction
2884:
2829:
2820:
2748:
2742:
2720:
2715:
2685:
2680:
2624:
2575:
2534:
2478:
2427:
2370:Instrumentation
2364:
2359:
2329:
2324:
2293:
2262:
2188:Photon scanning
2134:
2122:
2111:Electrochemical
2099:Photoconductive
2067:
2062:
2001:
1996:
1995:
1985:
1983:
1974:
1973:
1969:
1962:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1937:
1924:
1923:
1916:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1831:
1826:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1801:
1800:
1793:
1784:
1782:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1760:
1758:
1754:
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1734:
1720:
1719:
1702:
1688:
1687:
1664:
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1587:
1586:
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1568:
1567:
1563:
1553:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1520:
1519:
1512:
1490:
1489:
1482:
1475:
1458:
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1437:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1408:
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1392:
1388:
1378:
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1360:
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1338:
1337:
1333:
1321:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1296:
1295:
1288:
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1279:
1260:
1256:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1206:
1194:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1145:
1122:
1106:
1077:
1071:
1051:
1037:
1012:photon-counting
984:in live cells.
865:
853:Main articles:
851:
815:electromagnetic
768:
755:
749:
732:superresolution
728:
720:Main articles:
718:
639:
625:
584:Heinrich Rohrer
568:
562:
488:
482:
434:red blood cells
380:
366:'little eye').
344:Galileo Galilei
329:Hans Lippershey
278:
268:
219:, by detecting
84:
73:
67:
64:
57:
41:
37:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4343:
4341:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4307:
4306:
4300:
4299:
4294:
4291:
4290:
4287:
4286:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4279:
4274:
4272:Safety cabinet
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4248:
4246:
4242:
4241:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4234:
4232:Safety goggles
4229:
4227:Safety glasses
4224:
4222:Nitrile gloves
4219:
4217:Medical gloves
4214:
4209:
4204:
4198:
4196:
4192:
4191:
4189:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4162:
4156:
4149:
4142:
4141:
4138:
4131:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4119:
4114:
4112:Alligator clip
4108:
4106:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4086:Soldering iron
4083:
4077:
4075:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4030:Logic analyzer
4027:
4021:
4019:
4015:
4014:
4012:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3990:
3989:
3987:Voltage source
3984:
3982:Current source
3973:
3971:
3963:
3962:
3957:
3950:
3949:
3946:
3945:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3921:Colony counter
3918:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3886:
3885:
3874:
3872:
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3862:
3857:
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3809:
3804:
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3765:
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3712:
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3687:
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3684:
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3669:
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3643:
3641:
3637:
3636:
3634:
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3628:
3623:
3618:
3612:
3610:
3606:
3605:
3603:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3560:Vacuum (Dewar)
3557:
3551:
3549:
3543:
3542:
3540:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3518:
3516:
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3333:
3330:
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3319:
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3313:
3312:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3257:
3254:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3244:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3231:Test tube rack
3228:
3223:
3220:
3215:
3212:
3207:
3206:Funnel support
3204:
3201:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3171:
3166:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3113:Liquid whistle
3110:
3105:
3099:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3091:
3087:
3084:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3078:Vacuum dry box
3075:
3070:
3065:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3040:Heating mantle
3037:
3032:
3027:
3025:Alcohol burner
3021:
3019:
3017:
3016:
3013:
3009:
3002:
3001:
2998:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2983:
2982:
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2843:
2837:
2835:
2831:
2830:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2796:4Pi microscope
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2771:Phase contrast
2768:
2763:
2758:
2752:
2750:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2733:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2716:
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2586:
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2577:
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2574:
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2568:
2563:
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2553:
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2444:Chromatography
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1073:Main article:
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1069:Scanning probe
1067:
1047:Main article:
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997:digital camera
863:USB microscope
850:
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767:
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751:Main article:
748:
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546:Charles Oatley
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462:phase contrast
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3308:Weighing dish
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3305:Weighing boat
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2515:Pulverization
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2213:Scanning gate
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1980:Science Daily
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1757:on 2018-03-20
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1270:0-486-43265-3
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1234:
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1024:
1021:
1020:ghost imaging
1017:
1013:
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1006:
1002:
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990:
985:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
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951:
947:
945:
941:
936:
934:
933:Near infrared
930:
926:
923:
919:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
874:
871:. This is an
870:
864:
860:
856:
848:
846:
842:
838:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
807:electromagnet
804:
799:
797:
793:
789:
780:
772:
765:
763:
761:
754:
746:
744:
741:
737:
733:
727:
723:
715:
713:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
694:Marvin Minsky
691:
686:
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676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
643:
638:
634:
630:
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615:
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606:
605:Jerry Tersoff
601:
597:
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589:
585:
581:
572:
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539:
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528:
523:
521:
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497:
492:
487:
479:
477:
475:
471:
468:in 1953, and
467:
466:Frits Zernike
463:
459:
455:
454:August Köhler
450:
445:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
422:
421:
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408:
403:
401:
400:The Fly's Eye
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384:
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359:
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263:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
236:visible light
234:
230:
227:, which uses
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214:
210:
204:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
179:
172:
168:
165:
162:
155:
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148:
147:Ancient Greek
144:
135:
131:
128:
126:Related items
124:
121:
118:Discovery of
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
96:
90:
82:
79:
71:
61:
55:
54:
50:
43:
34:
33:
30:
26:
22:
4257:Fire blanket
4195:Eye and hand
4181:Rubber apron
4045:Oscilloscope
4009:Potentiostat
3936:Plate reader
3832:pH indicator
3802:CHN analyzer
3797:AutoAnalyzer
3590:Round-bottom
3483:Boston round
3365:
3346:Filter paper
3301:Refrigerator
3218:Retort stand
3186:Clamp holder
3182:Beaker clamp
3148:Vortex mixer
3143:Stirring rod
3138:Static mixer
3068:Teclu burner
2942:
2930:
2859:Three-photon
2735:
2729:
2728:
2673:
2661:
2649:
2637:
2617:
2610:
2603:
2596:
2589:
2582:publications
2546:Chemometrics
2530:Sub-sampling
2469:Spectroscopy
2412:
2309:
2267:Applications
2079:Atomic force
2026:
2008:
1984:. Retrieved
1979:
1970:
1951:
1945:
1926:
1885:(12): 1049.
1882:
1878:
1864:
1839:
1836:MRS Bulletin
1835:
1822:
1803:
1783:. Retrieved
1779:
1770:
1759:. Retrieved
1752:the original
1747:
1735:
1726:
1694:
1646:
1640:
1597:
1593:
1583:
1574:
1570:
1564:
1552:. Retrieved
1541:
1522:
1502:
1462:
1454:
1443:
1434:
1425:
1416:
1396:
1389:
1377:. Retrieved
1372:Live Science
1370:
1361:
1341:
1334:
1324:
1317:
1298:
1280:
1261:
1257:
1227:(2): 78–84.
1224:
1220:
1214:
1195:
1190:
1123:
1107:
1078:
1052:
1009:
986:
966:phase shifts
956:
937:
927:
920:
898:or 250
866:
843:
839:
800:
785:
756:
729:
687:
648:
618:
577:
554:
535:
524:
506:rather than
501:
446:
420:Micrographia
418:
415:Robert Hooke
404:
399:
395:
389:
371:
363:
351:
294:
217:optical path
205:
177:
174:
167:
160:
157:
150:
142:
140:
89:
74:
65:
46:
29:
4320:Microscopes
4245:Other items
4171:Face shield
4018:Measurement
3999:Galvanostat
3959:Electronics
3909:Other items
3895:Thermometer
3878:Calorimeter
3807:Colorimeter
3751:Gas syringe
3734:Other items
3662:Eye dropper
3537:Watch glass
3522:Evaporating
3501:Cold finger
3316:Other items
3222:Screw clamp
3214:Pinch clamp
3203:Flask clamp
3153:Wash bottle
3108:Homogenizer
2675:WikiProject
2539:Calibration
2500:Dissolution
2439:Calorimetry
2094:Non-contact
1137:camera lens
1120:Mobile apps
1104:Other types
1057:(TEMs) and
929:Ultraviolet
912:diffraction
908:Vertico SMI
896:micrometres
696:, although
580:Gerd Binnig
512:Ernst Ruska
496:Ernst Ruska
442:spermatozoa
321:Netherlands
201:Microscopic
4325:Microscopy
4309:Categories
4176:Respirator
4117:Test probe
4035:Multimeter
3847:Microscopy
3667:Eudiometer
3631:Separatory
3600:Volumetric
3565:Erlenmeyer
3493:Condensers
3457:Dean–Stark
3406:Wire brush
3366:Microscope
3361:Centrifuge
3336:Cork borer
3291:Petri dish
3266:Agar plate
3253:Containers
3236:Wire gauze
3073:Water bath
3035:Desiccator
2855:Two-photon
2730:Microscope
2580:Prominent
2505:Filtration
2432:Techniques
2413:Microscope
2315:Microscopy
2310:Microscope
2084:Conductive
1986:5 February
1785:2018-03-20
1761:2018-03-20
1577:: 467–475.
1182:References
1125:Mobile app
982:cell cycle
900:nanometres
884:refractive
876:instrument
835:wavelength
831:Resolution
825:beams (in
627:See also:
586:worked at
564:See also:
484:See also:
372:Dioptrique
364:occhiolino
352:microscope
337:expatriate
317:real image
315:to view a
305:eyeglasses
250:(both the
193:Microscopy
145:(from
143:microscope
93:Microscope
68:April 2017
4267:Fume hood
4212:Glove box
4065:Voltmeter
3450:Apparatus
3439:Glassware
3328:Autoclave
3323:Aspirator
3276:Incubator
3210:Iron ring
3133:Sonicator
3103:Chemostat
3045:Hot plate
2474:Titration
2181:Nano-FTIR
1909:2334-2536
1842:: 36–43.
1614:0893-8512
1400:. BRILL.
993:eyepieces
970:amplitude
944:fluoresce
796:electrons
673:to label
531:Max Knoll
516:Max Knoll
504:electrons
449:condensor
430:ball lens
411:histology
333:telescope
213:electrons
189:naked eye
49:citations
4166:Lab coat
4091:Tweezers
4081:Heat gun
3837:pH meter
3746:Bell jar
3626:Dropping
3580:Florence
3570:Fernbach
3532:Syracuse
3391:Scoopula
3341:Crucible
3050:Lab oven
2932:Category
2639:Category
2495:Dilution
2483:Sampling
2298:See also
2089:Infrared
1856:41889433
1632:19822888
1379:31 March
1249:96668398
1143:See also
1139:itself.
978:staining
974:contrast
823:electron
667:cellular
663:staining
313:eyepiece
254:and the
4105:General
4025:Ammeter
3725:Thistle
3682:Pipette
3657:Cuvette
3647:Burette
3616:Büchner
3609:Funnels
3595:Schlenk
3575:Fleaker
3555:Büchner
3476:Bottles
3396:Spatula
3386:Stopper
3356:Forceps
3256:Storage
3173:Holders
3093:Shakers
3064:Striker
3012:Heaters
2999:General
2944:Commons
2651:Commons
2591:Analyst
2510:Masking
1887:Bibcode
1623:2772359
1501:(ed.).
1241:4608700
1084:(AFM),
873:optical
792:photons
659:genomic
655:biology
542:Siemens
498:in 1933
436:(after
266:History
233:refract
197:science
195:is the
4139:Safety
3741:Beaker
3720:Thiele
3705:Cragie
3700:Drying
3621:Hirsch
3585:Retort
3547:Flasks
3515:Dishes
3506:Liebig
3467:Kipp's
3381:Splint
3191:Tripod
3169:Clamps
3165:Stands
3128:Shaker
3090:Mixers
3015:Dryers
2806:Sarfus
2663:Portal
2072:Common
1958:
1933:
1907:
1879:Optica
1854:
1810:
1653:
1630:
1620:
1612:
1554:3 June
1529:
1471:
1404:
1349:
1305:
1268:
1247:
1239:
1202:
960:is an
922:Sarfus
888:quartz
880:lenses
861:, and
803:optics
702:Thomas
635:, and
592:Zürich
440:) and
229:lenses
178:skopéō
171:σκοπέω
161:mikrós
154:μικρός
4074:Tools
3692:Tubes
3527:Petri
2816:Raman
2139:Other
1875:(PDF)
1852:S2CID
1832:(PDF)
1755:(PDF)
1744:(PDF)
1497:. In
1245:S2CID
1237:JSTOR
1133:noise
1113:Sonar
821:) or
788:light
766:Types
698:laser
508:light
398:, or
297:Greek
290:Paris
209:light
149:
120:cells
3756:Vial
3715:Test
3351:File
3055:Kiln
1988:2013
1956:ISBN
1931:ISBN
1905:ISSN
1808:ISBN
1651:ISBN
1628:PMID
1610:ISSN
1556:2016
1527:ISBN
1469:ISBN
1402:ISBN
1381:2017
1347:ISBN
1303:ISBN
1266:ISBN
1221:BIOS
1200:ISBN
1001:CMOS
817:(in
811:wave
724:and
704:and
671:DAPI
582:and
274:and
107:Uses
1895:doi
1844:doi
1618:PMC
1602:doi
1229:doi
1003:or
972:or
938:In
829:).
790:or
675:DNA
665:of
653:in
590:in
588:IBM
529:by
464:by
417:'s
231:to
211:or
51:to
4311::
2857:,
2007:,
1978:.
1917:^
1903:.
1893:.
1881:.
1877:.
1850:.
1840:31
1838:.
1834:.
1794:^
1778:.
1746:.
1725:.
1703:^
1693:.
1665:^
1626:.
1616:.
1608:.
1598:22
1596:.
1592:.
1575:16
1573:.
1513:^
1483:^
1369:.
1289:^
1272:,
1243:.
1235:.
1225:75
1223:.
918:.
906:,
857:,
631:,
402:.
288:,
262:.
246:,
191:.
141:A
132:,
2979:e
2972:t
2965:v
2861:)
2853:(
2710:e
2703:t
2696:v
2354:e
2347:t
2340:v
2057:e
2050:t
2043:v
1990:.
1964:.
1939:.
1911:.
1897::
1889::
1883:2
1858:.
1846::
1816:.
1788:.
1764:.
1729:.
1697:.
1659:.
1634:.
1604::
1558:.
1535:.
1477:.
1410:.
1383:.
1355:.
1328:.
1311:.
1251:.
1231::
1208:.
370:(
181:)
175:(
164:)
158:(
81:)
75:(
70:)
66:(
56:.
27:.
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