592:& John A. W. Caldwell (2009), comprehensible input, defined by Krashen as understanding messages, is indeed the necessary condition for acquisition, but it is not sufficient. Learners will crack the speech code only if they receive input that is comprehended at two levels. They must not only understand what is meant but also how things are quite literally expressed, i.e. how the different meaning components are put together to produce the message. This is the principle of dual comprehension. In many cases, both types of understanding can be conflated into one process, in others not. The German phrase "Wie spÀt ist es?" is perfectly understood as "What time is it?" However, learners need to know more: *How late is it? That's what the Germans say literally, which gives us the anatomy of the phrase, and the logic behind it. Only now is understanding complete, and we come into full possession of the phrase which can become a recipe for many more sentences, such as "Wie alt ist es?" / "How old is it?" etc. According to Butzkamm & Caldwell (2009:64) "dually comprehended language input is the fuel for our language learning capacities". It is both necessary and sufficient.
135:
38:
508:: Acquisition does not provide 100% language competence. There is often a small portion of grammar, punctuation, and spelling that even the most proficient native speakers may not acquire. While it is important to learn these aspects of language, since writing is the only form that requires 100% competence, these aspects of language make up only a small portion of our language competence.
502:: there is a price that is paid for the use of the monitor- the speaker is then focused on form rather than meaning, resulting in the production and exchange of less information, thus slowing the flow of conversation. Some speakers over-monitor to the point that the conversation is painfully slow and sometimes difficult to listen to.
496:: this is a difficult condition to meet, because even the best students do not learn every rule that is taught, cannot remember every rule they have learned, and can't always correctly apply the rules they do remember. Furthermore, not every rule of a language is always included in a text or taught by the teacher.
158:
in the 1970s and 1980s. Krashen originally formulated the input hypothesis as just one of the five hypotheses, but over time the term has come to refer to the five hypotheses as a group. The hypotheses are the input hypothesis, the acquisitionâlearning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural
580:
home life, as this domain is the biggest contributor to the affective filter. It is also important to take into note that those who are learning
English for the first time in the USA have many hurdles to get over. To lower the affective filter a teacher needs to not add to the hurdles to jump over.
579:
According to
Krashen (1982), there are ways to lower the affective filter. One is allowing for a silent period (not expecting the student to speak before they have received an adequate amount of comprehensible input according to their individual needs). A teacher needs to be aware of the student's
526:
The natural order hypothesis states that all learners acquire a language in roughly the same order. This order is not dependent on the ease with which a particular language feature can be taught; some features, such as third-person "-s" ("he runs") are easy to teach in a classroom setting, but are
398:
process of which individuals need not be aware. One is unaware of the process as it is happening and, when the new knowledge is acquired, the acquirer generally does not realize that they possess any new knowledge. According to
Krashen, both adults and children can subconsciously acquire language,
214:. This states that learners progress in their knowledge of the language when they comprehend language input that is slightly more advanced than their current level. Krashen called this level of input "i+1", where "i" is the learner's interlanguage and "+1" is the next stage of language acquisition.
1247:
Lin, G.H.C. & Ho, M.M.S. (2009). An exploration into foreign language writing anxiety from
Taiwanese university studentsâ perspectives. 2009 NCUE Fourth Annual Conference on Language Teaching, Literature, Linguistics, Translation, and Interpretation. National Changhua University of Education,
570:
According to the affective filter hypothesis, certain emotions, such as anxiety, self-doubt, and mere boredom interfere with the process of acquiring a second language. They function as a filter between the speaker and the listener that reduces the amount of language input the listener is able to
449:
The
Monitor model then predicts faster initial progress by adults than children, as adults use this âmonitorâ when producing L2 (target language) utterances before having acquired the ability for natural performance, and adult learners will input more into conversations earlier than children.
445:
Before the learner produces an utterance, he or she internally scans it for errors, and uses the learned system to make corrections. Self-correction occurs when the learner uses the
Monitor to correct a sentence after it is uttered. According to the hypothesis, such self-monitoring and
353:
If language models and teachers provide enough comprehensible input, then the structures that acquirers are ready to learn will be present in that input. According to
Krashen, this is a better method of developing grammatical accuracy than direct grammar
972:
441:
The monitor hypothesis asserts that a learner's learned system acts as a monitor to what they are producing. In other words, while only the acquired system is able to produce spontaneous speech, the learned system is used to check what is being spoken.
178:
cannot be used as a source of spontaneous language production. Finally, learning is seen to be heavily dependent on the mood of the learner, with learning being impaired if the learner is under stress or does not want to learn the language.
758:
Teaching and learning
English as a Second Language: Trends in Research and Practice: On TESOL '77: Selected Papers from the Eleventh Annual Convention of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Miami, Florida, April 26 â May 1,
426:
involves formal instruction and, according to
Krashen, is less effective than acquisition. Learning in this sense is conception or conceptualisation: instead of learning a language itself, students learn an abstract, conceptual
387:, there are two independent ways in which we develop our linguistic skills: acquisition and learning. This theory is at the core of modern language acquisition theory, and is perhaps the most fundamental of Krashen's theories.
674:
Teaching uses comprehensible input drawn from academic texts, but modified so that subject-matter is sheltered, or limited. (Note that sheltered subject-matter teaching is not for beginners or native speakers of the target
310:
is the next structure that should be learned. It must be stressed, however, that just any input is not sufficient; the input received must be comprehensible. According to
Krashen, there are three corollaries to his theory.
575:
prevent efficient processing of the language input. The hypothesis further states that the blockage can be reduced by sparking interest, providing low-anxiety environments, and bolstering the learner's self-esteem.
229:; Krashen saw acquisition as a purely subconscious process and learning as a conscious process, and claimed that improvement in language ability was only dependent upon acquisition and never on learning.
2014:
1545:
170:, and language output is not seen as having any effect on learners' ability. Furthermore, Krashen claimed that linguistic competence is only advanced when language is subconsciously
1347:
1633:
1491:
190:, but have received criticism from some academics. Two of the main criticisms state that the hypotheses are untestable, and that they assume a degree of separation between
466:
This is a very difficult condition to meet because it means that the speaker must have had explicit instruction on the language form that he or she is trying to produce.
166:(CI) that language learners are exposed to. Understanding spoken and written language input is seen as the only mechanism that results in the increase of underlying
1588:
294:'Comprehensible input' is the crucial and necessary ingredient for the acquisition of language. The comprehensible input hypothesis can be restated in terms of the
1643:
1368:
1074:
1031:
1042:
Krashen, S. (1979), 'The Monitor Model for second language acquisition,' in R. Gingras (ed.) Second Language Acquisition and Foreign Language Teaching, CAL
247:
states that language is acquired in a particular order, and that this order does not change between learners, and is not affected by explicit instruction.
937:
1258:
Lin, G.H.C. (2008). Pedagogies proving Krashen's theory of affective filter, Hwa Kang Journal of English Language & Literature, Vol, 14, 113â131
1565:
1051:
407:
language can be acquired. This process is similar to the process that children undergo when learning their native language. Acquisition requires
1593:
1509:
1342:
531:
by Dulay and Burt, which found that certain morphemes were predictably learned before others during the course of second-language acquisition.
512:
Due to these difficulties, Krashen recommends using the monitor at times when it does not interfere with communication, such as while writing.
950:
Butzkamm, Wolfgang, and Caldwell, John A. W. (2009) The bilingual reform. A paradigm shift in foreign language teaching. TĂŒbingen: Narr Verlag
1015:
791:
2061:
2019:
1319:
618:
329:
does not result in language acquisition. Although speaking can indirectly assist in language acquisition, the ability to speak is not the
911:
2076:
1682:
418:. New knowledge or language forms are represented consciously in the learner's mind, frequently in the form of language "rules" and "
1677:
1125:
121:
55:
2040:
1823:
716:
A small set of content vocabulary used repeatedly will be more easily acquired and allow students to acquire language structures.
862:
102:
291:
represents 'the next increment' of new knowledge or language structure that will be within the learner's capacity to acquire.
271:
represents previously acquired linguistic competence and extra-linguistic knowledge, the hypothesis claims that we move from
74:
59:
2117:
2056:
1798:
1672:
1555:
1445:
1237:
White, L. (1987). 'Against comprehensible input: the input hypothesis and the development of second language competence.'
1540:
1440:
81:
1083:
756:
Krashen, Stephen (1977). "Some issues relating to the monitor model". In Brown, H; Yorio, Carlos; Crymes, Ruth (eds.).
2096:
2066:
1888:
1328:
1284:
731:
560:
151:
1933:
1514:
1504:
1499:
1404:
1068:, TESOL Quarterly, vol. 9, Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL), pp. 173â183
88:
48:
1378:
1373:
1363:
633:
625:
1524:
1519:
1312:
70:
1853:
1481:
1383:
489:
There are many difficulties with the use of the monitor, making the monitor rather weak as a language tool.
1848:
1708:
1603:
1157:
600:
564:
284:
473:
He or she must be thinking about form, and it is difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time.
1943:
1623:
1578:
875:
629:
527:
not typically acquired until the later stages of language acquisition. This hypothesis was based on the
391:
334:
167:
159:
order hypothesis and the affective filter hypothesis. The input hypothesis was first published in 1977.
1183:
411:
interaction in the target language, during which the acquirer is focused on meaning rather than form.
1843:
1803:
1778:
1763:
1718:
1628:
1608:
1476:
1430:
1425:
1095:
726:
521:
283:. Extra-linguistic knowledge includes our knowledge of the world and of the situation, that is, the
1898:
1618:
1435:
1305:
1291:
1206:
1162:
1007:
134:
414:
Learning a language, on the other hand, is a conscious process, much like what one experiences in
1983:
1613:
1220:
1156:, Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages, Academic Press, London: Ellis, N, pp. 45â77,
1025:
362:
Instead, students will acquire the language in a natural order by receiving comprehensible input.
183:
254:
This states that learners' ability to acquire language is constrained if they are experiencing
1968:
1656:
1573:
1471:
1259:
1249:
1121:
1117:
1110:
1011:
931:
915:
787:
781:
762:
621:
was also inspired by Krashen's ideas on providing comprehensible input to language acquirers.
603:
589:
423:
299:
95:
1244:
Lightbown P. and N. Spada, How languages are learned, Oxford University Press, p. 38â40.
694:
The teacher should slow down and speak clearly and slowly, using short sentences and clauses.
458:
According to Krashen, for the Monitor to be successfully used, three conditions must be met:
2081:
2071:
1963:
1893:
1883:
1868:
1743:
1703:
1409:
1212:
645:
610:
596:
572:
528:
429:
255:
1145:
We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: additional evidence for the input hypothesis
2091:
1938:
1838:
1833:
1808:
1758:
1733:
1713:
1399:
1288:
736:
380:
326:
295:
155:
1873:
761:. Washington, DC: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. pp. 144â158.
1978:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1878:
1793:
1728:
1723:
1550:
2111:
2086:
1958:
1923:
1863:
1783:
1748:
1651:
1583:
1455:
1450:
258:
such as fear or embarrassment. At such times the affective filter is said to be "up".
187:
1224:
17:
1998:
1973:
1953:
1928:
1858:
1828:
1818:
1813:
1066:
The essential contributions of formal instruction in adult second language learning
700:
Courses should use textbooks or supporting materials that are not overly cluttered.
614:
395:
1993:
1988:
1903:
1738:
704:
606:
372:
37:
2035:
1948:
1788:
1768:
1753:
1297:
1216:
890:
Schutz, R. (2007). "Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition."
556:
506:
The rules of language make up only a small portion of our language competence
1773:
552:
1281:
766:
1211:, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, vol. 16, pp. 303â323,
865:
to learn more about the differentiations between learning and acquisition
713:
Students may read aloud, with other students paraphrasing what they said.
544:
376:
1687:
548:
446:
self-correction are the only functions of conscious language learning.
419:
400:
480:
Using the monitor requires the speaker to slow down and focus on form.
895:
415:
404:
1004:
Barron's NYSTCE: EAS, ALST, Multi-Subject CST, Overview of the edTPA
1278:
Some of Stephen D. Krashen's books and articles, available on-line.
1263:
1253:
656:
Krashen designates learners into beginner and intermediate levels:
240:
language output; it can never be the source of spontaneous speech.
133:
617:
approach, first developed in 1988, is also based on the theory.
1301:
375:, there are many theories as to how humans are able to develop
697:
The teacher needs to prepare and use graphical or visual aids.
31:
1147:, Modem Language Journal, vol. 73, nâ°4, pp. 440â464
236:
states that consciously learned language can only be used to
1112:
The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom
1056:
Gregg, K.R. (1984). 'Krashen's Monitor and Occam's Razor.'
710:
Classes should make use of multi-modal teaching techniques.
206:
The five hypotheses that Krashen proposed are as follows:
2015:
European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing
1275:
1232:
Theories in Second Language Acquisition: an Introduction
1076:
Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning
783:
Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning
433:
of a language, a "theory" about a language (a grammar).
1282:
Krashen's Comprehension Hypothesis Model of L2 learning
644:
The input hypothesis is often applied in practice with
306:
represents the last rule or language form learned, and
1097:
Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition
907:
Principles and practice in second language acquisition
878:
for more information on output theories and hypotheses
477:
The acquirer/learner must have time to use the monitor
1208:
Comprehensible Input and Second Language Acquisition
422:", and the process often involves error correction.
358:
The teaching order is not based on the natural order
2049:
2028:
2007:
1696:
1665:
1642:
1564:
1533:
1490:
1464:
1418:
1392:
1356:
1335:
62:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1109:
678:In sheltered instruction classes, the focus is on
221:claims that there is a strict separation between
1052:Krashen-Terrell's Natural Approach â An overview
325:Krashen stresses yet again that speaking in the
1248:Department of English, Taiwan, ROC, P. 307-318
844:
842:
840:
838:
836:
834:
832:
830:
690:works with the following teaching techniques:
345:When enough comprehensible input is provided,
333:of language learning or acquisition. Instead,
182:Krashen's hypotheses have been influential in
1313:
1230:VanPatten, B. and Williams, J. (eds) (2007).
1136:The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications
828:
826:
824:
822:
820:
818:
816:
814:
812:
810:
162:The hypotheses put primary importance on the
8:
1185:Explorations in Language Acquisition and Use
1116:, San Francisco: The Alemany Press, p.
886:
884:
850:Explorations in Language Acquisition and Use
1294:Vivian Cook's page on Krashen's hypotheses.
555:") responses to one's environment. It is a
470:The acquirer must be focused on correctness
1320:
1306:
1298:
1030:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
992:(work is copyrighted and cannot be copied)
786:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 413â415.
1161:
122:Learn how and when to remove this message
27:Hypotheses of second-language acquisition
959:
748:
463:The acquirer/learner must know the rule
454:Three conditions for use of the monitor
1594:Generative second-language acquisition
1064:Krashen, S.D.; Seliger, H.W.. (1975),
1023:
936:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
929:
390:Acquisition of language is a natural,
1196:Krashen, S.D.; Terrell, T.D. (1983),
1108:Krashen, S.D.; Terrell, T.D. (1983),
632:. The input hypothesis is related to
624:The most popular competitors are the
302:in a linear order (1, 2, 3...), then
279:by understanding input that contains
7:
2062:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition
619:English as a Second Language Podcast
60:adding citations to reliable sources
1154:The input hypothesis and its rivals
563:theory, and a field of interest in
315:Corollaries of the input hypothesis
198:that has not been proven to exist.
150:, is a group of five hypotheses of
2077:Journal of Second Language Writing
1082:. Oxford: Pergamon. Archived from
547:or acquisition caused by negative
321:Talking (output) is not practicing
25:
640:Applications in language teaching
595:The theory underlies Krashen and
298:. For example, if we acquire the
2041:L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer
703:For students above 2nd grade, a
630:comprehensible output hypothesis
36:
863:acquisition-learning hypothesis
385:acquisition-learning hypothesis
367:Acquisition-learning hypothesis
219:acquisitionâlearning hypothesis
138:Comprehensible input hypothesis
47:needs additional citations for
500:Having time to use the monitor
485:Difficulties using the monitor
1:
1556:Good language learner studies
1172:The case for narrow listening
1541:Language learning strategies
1191:, Portsmouth: NH: Heinemann.
252:affective filter hypothesis.
2097:The Modern Language Journal
1329:Second-language acquisition
732:Second language acquisition
561:second-language acquisition
535:Affective filter hypothesis
152:second-language acquisition
2134:
1515:Willingness to communicate
1505:Critical period hypothesis
1500:Language-learning aptitude
1287:November 24, 2019, at the
519:
154:developed by the linguist
1217:10.1017/S0272263100013103
973:"EAS Secrets Study Guide"
909:. Oxford: Pergamon Press
634:instructional scaffolding
626:skill-building hypothesis
1546:Communication strategies
1525:Metalinguistic awareness
1520:Foreign language anxiety
1205:Loschky, Lester (1994),
1002:Postman, Robert (2015).
861:Seek information on the
852:. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
516:Natural order hypothesis
341:of language acquisition.
296:natural order hypothesis
245:natural order hypothesis
1482:Word lists by frequency
780:Byram, Michael (2001).
686:As a practical matter,
584:Reception and influence
567:and general education.
1604:Interaction hypothesis
1589:Dynamic Systems Theory
1234:. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
1182:Krashen, S.D. (2003),
1170:Krashen, S.D. (1996),
1152:Krashen, S.D. (1994),
1143:Krashen, S.D. (1989),
1134:Krashen, S.D. (1985),
1094:Krashen, S.D. (1982).
1073:Krashen, S.D. (1981).
982:. 2017. pp. 22â25
892:English Made in Brazil
565:educational psychology
379:ability. According to
186:, particularly in the
139:
1624:Processability theory
1579:Comprehensible output
1348:Common misconceptions
876:comprehensible output
335:comprehensible output
174:, and that conscious
168:linguistic competence
137:
2118:Language acquisition
1634:Skill-based theories
1629:Order of acquisition
1609:Interface hypothesis
1492:Individual variation
1477:Linguistic universal
1431:Contrastive rhetoric
1426:Contrastive analysis
1200:, New York: Pergamon
1198:The Natural Approach
905:Krashen, S. (1982).
848:Krashen, S. (2003).
727:Language acquisition
688:comprehensible input
543:is an impediment to
522:Order of acquisition
164:comprehensible input
146:, also known as the
56:improve this article
18:Comprehensible input
2057:Applied Linguistics
2029:Computational tools
1697:Notable researchers
1619:Noticing hypothesis
1436:Error (linguistics)
1239:Applied Linguistics
1138:, New York: Longman
1103:. Oxford: Pergamon.
1058:Applied Linguistics
1008:Hauppauge, New York
601:comprehension-based
1614:Interface position
1465:Linguistic factors
1369:Classroom research
668:Intermediate level
571:understand. These
437:Monitor hypothesis
234:monitor hypothesis
184:language education
140:
71:"Input hypothesis"
2105:
2104:
2067:Language Learning
1657:Input enhancement
1574:Competition model
1472:Language transfer
1405:Heritage language
1089:on July 16, 2011.
1017:978-1-4380-0618-5
894:. Available from
793:978-0-415-12085-2
604:language learning
590:Wolfgang Butzkamm
573:negative emotions
424:Language learning
300:rules of language
256:negative emotions
132:
131:
124:
106:
16:(Redirected from
2125:
2072:Language Testing
1644:In the classroom
1599:Input hypothesis
1419:Learner language
1410:Multi-competence
1322:
1315:
1308:
1299:
1292:Applied linguist
1227:
1201:
1192:
1190:
1174:
1166:
1165:
1148:
1139:
1130:
1115:
1104:
1102:
1090:
1088:
1081:
1069:
1036:
1035:
1029:
1021:
1006:(4th ed.).
999:
993:
991:
989:
987:
977:
969:
963:
957:
951:
948:
942:
941:
935:
927:
925:
923:
918:on July 16, 2011
914:. Archived from
903:
897:
888:
879:
872:
866:
859:
853:
846:
805:
804:
802:
800:
777:
771:
770:
753:
646:TPR Storytelling
611:natural approach
541:affective filter
529:morpheme studies
494:Knowing the rule
263:Input hypothesis
212:input hypothesis
144:input hypothesis
127:
120:
116:
113:
107:
105:
64:
40:
32:
21:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2101:
2092:TESOL Quarterly
2045:
2024:
2003:
1692:
1661:
1638:
1560:
1529:
1486:
1460:
1446:Error treatment
1414:
1400:Multilingualism
1388:
1352:
1331:
1326:
1289:Wayback Machine
1272:
1204:
1195:
1188:
1181:
1169:
1151:
1142:
1133:
1128:
1107:
1100:
1093:
1086:
1079:
1072:
1063:
1048:
1046:Further reading
1040:
1039:
1022:
1018:
1001:
1000:
996:
985:
983:
975:
971:
970:
966:
958:
954:
949:
945:
928:
921:
919:
912:"Archived copy"
910:
904:
900:
889:
882:
873:
869:
860:
856:
847:
808:
798:
796:
794:
779:
778:
774:
755:
754:
750:
745:
737:Stephen Krashen
723:
671:
664:
661:Beginning level
654:
642:
586:
537:
524:
518:
487:
479:
472:
465:
456:
439:
381:Stephen Krashen
369:
361:
352:
327:target language
324:
317:
265:
204:
156:Stephen Krashen
128:
117:
111:
108:
65:
63:
53:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2131:
2129:
2121:
2120:
2110:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2043:
2038:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2022:
2017:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2004:
2002:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1944:Silva-Corvalan
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1844:Larsen-Freeman
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1669:
1667:
1666:Aptitude tests
1663:
1662:
1660:
1659:
1654:
1648:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1570:
1568:
1566:SLA hypotheses
1562:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1551:Code-switching
1548:
1543:
1537:
1535:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1496:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1441:Error analysis
1438:
1433:
1428:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1415:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1339:
1337:
1333:
1332:
1327:
1325:
1324:
1317:
1310:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1279:
1271:
1270:External links
1268:
1267:
1266:
1256:
1245:
1242:
1235:
1228:
1202:
1193:
1179:
1167:
1163:10.1.1.121.728
1149:
1140:
1131:
1126:
1105:
1091:
1070:
1061:
1054:
1047:
1044:
1038:
1037:
1016:
1010:. p. 39.
994:
964:
952:
943:
898:
880:
867:
854:
806:
792:
772:
747:
746:
744:
741:
740:
739:
734:
729:
722:
719:
718:
717:
714:
711:
708:
701:
698:
695:
684:
683:
676:
670:
665:
663:
658:
653:
650:
641:
638:
585:
582:
536:
533:
517:
514:
510:
509:
503:
497:
486:
483:
482:
481:
474:
467:
455:
452:
438:
435:
368:
365:
364:
363:
355:
342:
316:
313:
264:
261:
260:
259:
248:
241:
230:
215:
203:
200:
130:
129:
44:
42:
35:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2130:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2087:TESOL Journal
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2027:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2006:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1899:Myers-Scotton
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1652:Focus on form
1650:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1584:Connectionism
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1456:Silent period
1454:
1452:
1451:Interlanguage
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1323:
1318:
1316:
1311:
1309:
1304:
1303:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1276:sdkrashen.com
1274:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1255:
1251:
1246:
1243:
1241:8(2): 95â110.
1240:
1236:
1233:
1229:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1187:
1186:
1180:
1178:24(1): 97â100
1177:
1173:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1129:
1127:0-88084-005-6
1123:
1119:
1114:
1113:
1106:
1099:
1098:
1092:
1085:
1078:
1077:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1060:5(2): 79â100.
1059:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1045:
1043:
1033:
1027:
1019:
1013:
1009:
1005:
998:
995:
981:
974:
968:
965:
961:
956:
953:
947:
944:
939:
933:
917:
913:
908:
902:
899:
896:
893:
887:
885:
881:
877:
871:
868:
864:
858:
855:
851:
845:
843:
841:
839:
837:
835:
833:
831:
829:
827:
825:
823:
821:
819:
817:
815:
813:
811:
807:
799:September 14,
795:
789:
785:
784:
776:
773:
768:
764:
760:
752:
749:
742:
738:
735:
733:
730:
728:
725:
724:
720:
715:
712:
709:
706:
702:
699:
696:
693:
692:
691:
689:
681:
677:
673:
672:
669:
666:
662:
659:
657:
651:
649:
647:
639:
637:
635:
631:
627:
622:
620:
616:
612:
609:known as the
608:
605:
602:
598:
593:
591:
588:According to
583:
581:
577:
574:
568:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
534:
532:
530:
523:
515:
513:
507:
504:
501:
498:
495:
492:
491:
490:
484:
478:
475:
471:
468:
464:
461:
460:
459:
453:
451:
447:
443:
436:
434:
432:
431:
425:
421:
417:
412:
410:
406:
402:
397:
393:
388:
386:
382:
378:
374:
366:
359:
356:
350:
346:
343:
340:
336:
332:
328:
322:
319:
318:
314:
312:
309:
305:
301:
297:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
262:
257:
253:
249:
246:
242:
239:
235:
231:
228:
224:
220:
216:
213:
209:
208:
207:
201:
199:
197:
193:
189:
188:United States
185:
180:
177:
173:
169:
165:
160:
157:
153:
149:
148:monitor model
145:
136:
126:
123:
115:
104:
101:
97:
94:
90:
87:
83:
80:
76:
73: â
72:
68:
67:Find sources:
61:
57:
51:
50:
45:This article
43:
39:
34:
33:
30:
19:
2008:Associations
1598:
1238:
1231:
1207:
1197:
1184:
1175:
1171:
1153:
1144:
1135:
1111:
1096:
1084:the original
1075:
1065:
1057:
1041:
1003:
997:
984:. Retrieved
979:
967:
960:Krashen 1989
955:
946:
922:November 25,
920:. Retrieved
916:the original
906:
901:
891:
870:
857:
849:
797:. Retrieved
782:
775:
757:
751:
687:
685:
679:
667:
660:
655:
643:
623:
615:Focal Skills
613:(1983). The
594:
587:
578:
569:
540:
538:
525:
511:
505:
499:
493:
488:
476:
469:
462:
457:
448:
444:
440:
428:
413:
408:
396:subconscious
389:
384:
370:
357:
348:
344:
338:
330:
320:
307:
303:
293:
288:
280:
276:
272:
268:
266:
251:
244:
237:
233:
226:
222:
218:
211:
205:
195:
191:
181:
175:
171:
163:
161:
147:
143:
141:
118:
109:
99:
92:
85:
78:
66:
54:Please help
49:verification
46:
29:
1779:Ervin-Tripp
962:, p. 1
705:study guide
682:, not form.
607:methodology
399:and either
373:linguistics
223:acquisition
192:acquisition
2036:Coh-Metrix
1869:MacWhinney
1534:Strategies
1510:Motivation
743:References
707:is useful.
675:language.)
557:hypothesis
520:See also:
409:meaningful
371:In modern
349:is present
82:newspapers
1979:VanPatten
1794:van Geert
1714:Bialystok
1709:ArgĂŒelles
1379:Phonology
1374:Education
1364:Attrition
1357:Subfields
1158:CiteSeerX
1026:cite book
553:affective
549:emotional
392:intuitive
354:teaching.
2112:Category
2050:Journals
1984:Verspoor
1924:Pimsleur
1889:Matthews
1809:Guardado
1804:Grosjean
1759:van Dijk
1724:Crossley
1704:Alderson
1393:Learners
1285:Archived
1264:ED503681
1254:ED506178
1225:33941968
980:Metromix
932:cite web
721:See also
628:and the
545:learning
377:language
227:learning
202:Overview
196:learning
176:learning
172:acquired
112:May 2008
2020:EUROSLA
1964:Terrell
1939:Schmitt
1934:Schmidt
1884:Matsuda
1874:ManchĂłn
1834:Krashen
1824:Johnson
1814:Harding
1764:Dörnyei
1734:Cumming
1719:Carroll
1688:CANAL-F
1384:Writing
1343:Outline
1336:General
767:4037133
680:meaning
597:Terrell
420:grammar
401:written
337:is the
285:context
238:monitor
96:scholar
2082:System
1969:Ullman
1954:Storch
1949:Slobin
1929:Rivers
1909:Ortega
1904:Nation
1894:Meisel
1879:Marian
1864:Mackey
1829:Kormos
1819:Jarvis
1754:Corder
1749:Bygate
1739:de Bot
1729:Csizér
1262:
1252:
1223:
1176:System
1160:
1124:
1014:
986:May 1,
790:
765:
652:Levels
416:school
394:, and
339:effect
287:. The
98:
91:
84:
77:
69:
1989:White
1959:Swain
1919:Polio
1859:Lowie
1839:Kroll
1799:Green
1784:Flynn
1774:Ellis
1769:Ellis
1744:Brown
1221:S2CID
1189:(PDF)
1101:(PDF)
1087:(PDF)
1080:(PDF)
976:(PDF)
430:model
331:cause
103:JSTOR
89:books
1994:Wray
1974:Vaid
1914:Pica
1854:Long
1789:Gass
1683:PLAB
1678:DLAB
1673:MLAT
1260:ERIC
1250:ERIC
1122:ISBN
1032:link
1012:ISBN
988:2017
938:link
924:2010
874:See
801:2012
788:ISBN
763:OCLC
759:1977
539:The
405:oral
250:The
243:The
232:The
225:and
217:The
210:The
194:and
142:The
75:news
1999:Yip
1213:doi
1118:191
599:'s
559:of
403:or
383:'s
347:i+1
308:i+1
281:i+1
277:i+1
275:to
267:If
58:by
2114::
1849:Li
1219:,
1120:,
1028:}}
1024:{{
978:.
934:}}
930:{{
883:^
809:^
648:.
636:.
551:("
289:+1
1321:e
1314:t
1307:v
1215::
1034:)
1020:.
990:.
940:)
926:.
803:.
769:.
360:.
351:.
323:.
304:i
273:i
269:i
125:)
119:(
114:)
110:(
100:·
93:·
86:·
79:·
52:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
