Compressed-air energy storage

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compressed, the heat of compression is rapidly transferred to the thermal mass, so the gas temperature is stabilized. An external cooling circuit is then used to maintain the temperature of the thermal mass. The isothermal efficiency (Z) is a measure of where the process lies between an adiabatic and isothermal process. If the efficiency is 0%, then it is totally adiabatic; with an efficiency of 100%, it is totally isothermal. Typically with a near-isothermal process, an isothermal efficiency of 90–95% can be expected.

410:, Argentina, installed such systems. Victor Popp constructed the first systems to power clocks by sending a pulse of air every minute to change their pointer arms. They quickly evolved to deliver power to homes and industries. As of 1896, the Paris system had 2.2 MW of generation distributed at 550 kPa in 50 km of air pipes for motors in light and heavy industry. Usage was measured in cubic meters. The systems were the main source of house-delivered energy in those days and also powered the machines of 22: 1265: 2207:

scales and able to supply the necessary burst of extremely high power without placing a prohibitive load on the ship's electrical generators and distribution system. Compressed air is commonly also used, at lower pressures, to control the engine and act as the spring force acting on the cylinder exhaust valves, and to operate other auxiliary systems and power tools on board, sometimes including pneumatic

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its initial 20 MPa pressure down to 100 kPa (bottle completely "empty" at atmospheric pressure). Achieving high efficiency is a technical challenge both due to heat loss to the ambient and to unrecoverable internal gas heat. If the bottle above is emptied to 1 MPa, then the extractable energy is about 300 kJ at the motor shaft.

2211:. One advantage of this approach is that, in the event of an electrical blackout, ship systems powered by stored compressed air can continue functioning uninterrupted, and generators can be restarted without an electrical supply. Another is that pneumatic tools can be used in commonly-wet environments without the risk of electric shock. 1935:

example, then the thermal resistance in the intercoolers will mean that the compression occurs at a temperature somewhat higher than the ambient temperature, and the expansion will occur at a temperature somewhat lower than the ambient temperature. So a perfect isothermal storage system is impossible to achieve.

1260:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}W_{A\to B}&=\int _{V_{A}}^{V_{B}}p\,dV=\int _{V_{A}}^{V_{B}}{\frac {nRT}{V}}dV=nRT\int _{V_{A}}^{V_{B}}{\frac {1}{V}}dV\\&=nRT(\ln {V_{B}}-\ln {V_{A}})=nRT\ln {\frac {V_{B}}{V_{A}}}=p_{A}V_{A}\ln {\frac {p_{A}}{p_{B}}}=p_{B}V_{B}\ln {\frac {p_{A}}{p_{B}}},\\\end{aligned}}} 2374:

storage rather than cavern storage. The ISEP was an innovative, 270-megawatt, $ 400 million compressed air energy storage (CAES) project proposed for in-service near Des Moines, Iowa, in 2015. The project was terminated after eight years in development because of site geological limitation, according

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have started using compressed air, typically stored in large bottles between 20 and 30 bar, acting directly on the pistons via special starting valves to turn the crankshaft prior to beginning fuel injection. This arrangement is more compact and cheaper than an electric starter motor would be at such

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As with most technologies, compressed air has safety concerns, mainly catastrophic tank rupture. Safety regulations make this a rare occurrence at the cost of higher weight and additional safety features such as pressure relief valves. Regulations may limit the legal working pressure to less than 40%

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loss in the heat transfer process, and so the compression work can be completely recovered as expansion work: 100% storage efficiency. However, in practice, there is always a temperature difference in any heat transfer process, and so all practical energy storage obtains efficiencies lower than 100%.

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A number of methods of nearly isothermal compression are being developed. Fluid Mechanics has a system with a heat absorbing and releasing structure (HARS) attached to a reciprocating piston. Light Sail injects a water spray into a reciprocating cylinder. SustainX uses an air-water foam mix inside a

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Deep water in lakes and the ocean can provide pressure without requiring high-pressure vessels or drilling. The air goes into inexpensive, flexible containers such as plastic bags. Obstacles include the limited number of suitable locations and the need for high-pressure pipelines between the surface

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in terms of energy density. Batteries provide nearly-constant voltage over their entire charge level, whereas the pressure varies greatly while using a pressure vessel from full to empty. It is technically challenging to design air engines to maintain high efficiency and sufficient power over a wide

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In this case, the storage vessel is kept at constant pressure, while the gas is contained in a variable-volume vessel. Many types of storage vessels have been proposed, generally relying on liquid displacement to achieve isobaric operation. In such cases, the storage vessel is positioned hundreds of

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of adiabatic storage approaches 100% with perfect insulation, but in practice, round trip efficiency is expected to be 70%. Heat can be stored in a solid such as concrete or stone, or in a fluid such as hot oil (up to 300 °C) or molten salt solutions (600 °C). Storing the heat in hot water

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Thus if 1.0 m of air from the atmosphere is very slowly compressed into a 5 L bottle at 20 MPa (200 bar), then the potential energy stored is 530 kJ. A highly efficient air motor can transfer this into kinetic energy if it runs very slowly and manages to expand the air from

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The RICAS2020 project attempts to use an abandoned mine for adiabatic CAES with heat recovery. The compression heat is stored in a tunnel section filled with loose stones, so the compressed air is nearly cool when entering the main pressure storage chamber. The cool compressed air regains the heat

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compression process, the gas in the system is kept at a constant temperature throughout. This necessarily requires an exchange of heat with the gas; otherwise, the temperature would rise during charging and drop during discharge. This heat exchange can be achieved by heat exchangers (intercooling)

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In some cases, an above-ground pipeline was tested as a storage system, giving some good results. Obviously, the cost of the system is higher, but it can be placed wherever the designer chooses, whereas an underground system needs some particular geologic formations (salt domes, aquifers, depleted

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have been proposed as thermal storage units for adiabatic systems. A study numerically simulated an adiabatic compressed air energy storage system using packed bed thermal energy storage. The efficiency of the simulated system under continuous operation was calculated to be between 70.5% and 71%.

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As explained in the thermodynamics of the gas storage section above, compressing air heats it, and expansion cools it. Therefore, practical air engines require heat exchangers in order to avoid excessively high or low temperatures, and even so do not reach ideal constant-temperature conditions or

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Energy storage systems often use large caverns. This is the preferred system design due to the very large volume and thus the large quantity of energy that can be stored with only a small pressure change. The gas is compressed adiabatically with little temperature change (approaching a reversible

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An adiabatic storage system does away with the intercooling during the compression process and simply allows the gas to heat up during compression and likewise cool down during expansion. This is attractive since the energy losses associated with the heat transfer are avoided, but the downside is

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Improvement of the energy density of the storage system because all the air contained can be used (the pressure is constant in all charge conditions, full or empty, so the turbine has no problem exploiting it, while with constant-volume systems, if the pressure goes below a safety limit, then the

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mean that they are only practical for low power levels. The theoretical efficiency of isothermal energy storage approaches 100% for perfect heat transfer to the environment. In practice, neither of these perfect thermodynamic cycles is obtainable, as some heat losses are unavoidable, leading to a

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The negative sign means that work is done on the gas by the surroundings. Process irreversibilities (such as in heat transfer) will result in less energy being recovered from the expansion process than is required for the compression process. If the environment is at a constant temperature, for

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Near-isothermal compression (and expansion) is a process in which a gas is compressed in very close proximity to a large incompressible thermal mass such as a heat-absorbing and -releasing structure (HARS) or a water spray. A HARS is usually made up of a series of parallel fins. As the gas is

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This storage system uses a chamber with specific boundaries to store large amounts of air. This means from a thermodynamic point of view that this system is a constant-volume and variable-pressure system. This causes some operational problems for the compressors and turbines, so the pressure

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Compression of air creates heat; the air is warmer after compression. Expansion removes heat. If no extra heat is added, the air will be much colder after expansion. If the heat generated during compression can be stored and used during expansion, then the efficiency of the storage improves

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compared to the speed of compression. Typically these compressors can run at speeds up to 1000 rpm. To ensure high thermal diffusivity, the average distance a gas molecule is from a heat-absorbing surface is about 0.5 mm. These nearly-isothermal compressors can also be used as

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isothermal system) and heat loss (approaching an isentropic system). This advantage is in addition to the low cost of constructing the gas storage system, using the underground walls to assist in containing the pressure. The cavern space can be insulated to improve efficiency.

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salt cavern to store air at up to 1100 psi. Although the compression phase is approximately 82% efficient, the expansion phase requires the combustion of natural gas at one-third the rate of a gas turbine producing the same amount of electricity at 54% efficiency.

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project, a 200-megawatt facility called ADELE, was planned for construction in Germany (2013) with a target of 70% efficiency by using 600 °C (1,112 °F) air at 100 bars of pressure. This project was delayed for undisclosed reasons until at least 2016.

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When one obtains perfect isothermal storage (and discharge), the process is said to be "reversible". This requires that the heat transfer between the surroundings and the gas occur over an infinitesimally small temperature difference. In that case, there is no

485:, instead adopting supercritical thermal storage, supercritical heat exchange, and high-load compression and expansion technologies. The plant can store 400 MWh with 70.4% efficiency. A 350 MW / 1.4 GWh underground salt cave project started construction in 2443:

has provided €1.4 million (£1.1 million) in funding to develop undersea air storage bags. Hydrostor in Canada is developing a commercial system of underwater storage "accumulators" for compressed air energy storage, starting at the 1- to 4-MW scale.

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While the air storage system offers a relatively low power density and vehicle range, its high efficiency is attractive for hybrid vehicles that use a conventional internal combustion engine as the main power source. The air storage can be used for

378:) air-storage tanks. In order to retain the energy stored in compressed air, this tank should be thermally isolated from the environment; otherwise, the energy stored will escape in the form of heat, because compressing air raises its temperature. 1947:

is one where there is no heat transfer between the fluid and the surroundings: the system is insulated against heat transfer. If the process is furthermore internally reversible (frictionless, to the ideal limit), then it will additionally be

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The RWE/GE Led Consortium That Is Developing an Adiabatic Form of Compressed Air Energy Storage Is to Establish Its Commercial Scale Test Plant at Stassfurt. the Testing Stage, Originally Slated for 2073, Is Not Now Expected to Start before

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heat. This degrades the efficiency of the storage-recovery cycle. While this approach is relatively simple, the burning of fuel adds to the cost of the recovered electrical energy and compromises the ecological benefits associated with most

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The time required to refill a depleted tank is important for vehicle applications. "Volume transfer" moves pre-compressed air from a stationary tank to the vehicle tank almost instantaneously. Alternatively, a stationary or on-board

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Adiabatic storage continues to store the energy produced by compression and returns it to the air as it is expanded to generate power. This is a subject of an ongoing study, with no utility-scale plants as of 2015. The theoretical

2152:. This warms the exhaust of the preceding stage and admits this preheated air to the following stage. The only exhaust gas from each stage is cold air, which can be as cold as −15 °C (5 °F); the cold air may be used for 2094:

chemistry suffer from neither of these problems. Compressed air costs are potentially lower; however, advanced pressure vessels are costly to develop and safety-test and at present are more expensive than mass-produced batteries.

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that not only reduces operational efficiency but can also lead to damage. The main difference between various architectures lies in thermal engineering. On the other hand, small-scale systems have long been used for propulsion of

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have developed a hybrid system that uses hydraulics as a way to transfer energy to and from a compressed nitrogen tank. An up-to-45% reduction in fuel consumption is claimed, corresponding to 2.9 L / 100 km (81 mpg, 69 g

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and the containers. Given the low cost of the containers, great pressure (and great depth) may not be as important. A key benefit of such systems is that charge and discharge pressures are a constant function of depth.

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The European-Union-funded RICAS (adiabatic) project in Austria was to use crushed rock to store heat from the compression process to improve efficiency (2020). The system was expected to achieve 70–80% efficiency.

133:(thus approaching isothermal compression) into the atmosphere as waste, essentially wasting the energy used to perform the work of compression. Upon removal from storage, the temperature of this compressed air is 348:

On the other hand, the cost of this storage system is higher due to the need to position the storage vessel on the bottom of the chosen water reservoir (often the ocean) and due to the cost of the vessel itself.

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Since about 1990, several companies have claimed to be developing compressed-air cars, but none is available. Typically, the main claimed advantages are no roadside pollution, low cost, use of cooking oil for

1576: 311:; use of porous and permeable rock formations (rocks that have interconnected holes, through which liquid or air can pass), such as those in which reservoirs of natural gas are found, has also been studied. 1405: 359:

daily cycle, charging at night and discharging during the day. Heating the compressed air using natural gas or geothermal heat to increase the amount of energy being extracted has been studied by the

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range of pressures. Compressed air can transfer power at very high flux rates, which meets the principal acceleration and deceleration objectives of transportation systems, particularly for

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How much energy can be stored in a 1 m storage vessel at a pressure of 70 bars (7.0 MPa), if the ambient pressure is 1 bar (0.10 MPa)? In this case, the process work is

787: 1337: 4030:"PSA Peugeot Citroën and Bosch developing hydraulic hybrid powertrain for passenger cars; 30% reduction in fuel consumption in NEDC, up to 45% urban; B-segment application in 2016" 2362:, U.S. in 1991 commissioned hybrid power plants. Both systems use off-peak energy for air compression and burn natural gas in the compressed air during the power-generating phase. 3014: 3132: 2694: 201:

by constant heat exchange to the environment. In a reciprocating compressor, this can be achieved by using a finned piston and low cycle speeds. Current challenges in effective

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A highly efficient arrangement uses high, medium, and low pressure pistons in series, with each stage followed by an airblast venturi that draws ambient air over an air-to-air

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stored in the stones when released back through a surface turbine, leading to higher overall efficiency. A two-stage process has theoretical higher efficiency of around 70%.

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inefficiencies can be increased by using multiple charge and discharge stages and using inexpensive heat sources and sinks such as cold water from rivers or hot water from

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that the storage vessel must be insulated against heat loss. It should also be mentioned that real compressors and turbines are not isentropic, but instead have an

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specific energies are from roughly 70 kJ/kg at the motor shaft for a plain steel bottle to 180 kJ/kg for an advanced fiber-wound one, whereas practical

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in 1991. The Alabama facility's $ 65 million cost equals $ 590 per kW of capacity and about $ 23 per kW-hr of storage capacity. It uses a 19 million cubic foot

4324: 3648: 157:-grade storage or with a heated metal mass. As recovery is often most needed when renewable sources are quiescent, the fuel must be burned to make up for the 4444: 2456:, a spool-tethered buoy can be pushed below the surface. When electricity demand rises, the buoy is allowed to rise towards the surface, generating power. 1991:

In order to use air storage in vehicles or aircraft for practical land or air transportation, the energy storage system must be compact and lightweight.

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meters below ground level, and the hydrostatic pressure (head) of the water column above the storage vessel maintains the pressure at the desired level.

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of the preceding stage and admits this preheated air to the following stage. This approach was widely adopted in various compressed-air vehicles such as

3899: 3583: 558:, supplying service with 2.2MW / 10MWh storage to the Ontario Grid (2019). It was the first A-CAES system to achieve commercial operation in decades. 516:

In 2010, the US Department of Energy provided $ 29.4 million in funding to conduct preliminary work on a 150-MW salt-based project being developed by

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Schematic views of a nearly isothermal compressor and expander. Left view with the piston fully retracted, right view with the piston fully inserted.

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can weigh below 2 kg in this size, consistent with the legal safety codes. One cubic meter of air at 20 °C has a mass of 1.204 kg at

3851: 3736: 2867:"Design, modeling and experimental validation of a novel finned reciprocating compressor for Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage applications" 2727: 2011:

Nevertheless, as stated above, it is useful to describe the maximum energy storable using the isothermal case, which works out to about 100 kJ/m .

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Citywide compressed air energy systems for delivering mechanical power directly via compressed air have been built since 1870. Cities such as

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gas is the preferred fluid, since other gases suffer from substantial hydrostatic pressures at even relatively modest depths (~500 meters).

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addresses the question of overall emissions from a given energy storage technology combined with a given mix of generation on a power grid.

1792:{\displaystyle W_{A\to B}=p_{A}V_{A}\ln {\frac {p_{A}}{p_{B}}}+(V_{A}-V_{B})p_{A}=p_{B}V_{B}\ln {\frac {p_{A}}{p_{B}}}+(p_{B}-p_{A})V_{B}.} 3515: 4407: 4404: 4401: 4398: 4395: 4469: 3025: 2523: 720:

and low pressure drop. Smaller compressors can approximate isothermal compression even without intercooling, due to the relatively high

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between subsequent stages in the compressor, regulator, and tank. To avoid wasted energy, the intercoolers must be optimized for high

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One implementation of isothermal CAES uses high-, medium-, and low-pressure pistons in series. Each stage is followed by an airblast

4631: 2031: 678: 4219: 1570:, the positive work of the outer pressure reduces the exploitable energy (negative value). This adds a term to the equation above: 1342: 74:

One ongoing challenge in large-scale design is the management of thermal energy, since the compression of air leads to an unwanted

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ISO 11439:2013 — Gas cylinders — High pressure cylinders for the on-board storage of natural gas as a fuel for automotive vehicles

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that draws ambient air over an air-to-air (or air-to-seawater) heat exchanger between each expansion stage. Early compressed-air

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Lund, Henrik; Salgi, Georges (2009). "The role of compressed air energy storage (CAES) in future sustainable energy systems".

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of around 85%. The result is that round-trip storage efficiency for adiabatic systems is also considerably less than perfect.

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Catching The Wind In A Bottle A group of Midwest utilities is building a plant that will store excess wind power underground

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A pneumatic motor or compressed-air engine uses the expansion of compressed air to drive the pistons of an engine, turn the

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Avoidance of mixing of heat at different temperatures in the Thermal Energy Storage system, which leads to irreversibility.

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so that most of the energy is saved in the system and can be retrieved, and losses are kept negligible, a near-reversible

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To estimate the compression/expansion work in an isothermal process, it may be assumed that the compressed air obeys the

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plant, one of the most efficient natural gas plants in operation, uses 1.85 MJ (LHV) of gas per MJ generated, a 54%

4051: 2679: 2622: 2620: 721: 110: 4449: 2464: 592: 2841: 1930:= 7.0 MPa × 1 m × ln(0.1 MPa/7.0 MPa) + (7.0 MPa − 0.1 MPa) × 1 m = −22.8 MJ. 3996: 344:

Use of various geographic locations for the positioning of the CAES plant (coastal lines, floating platforms, etc.).

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Wang, Jidai; Lu, Kunpeng; Ma, Lan; Wang, Jihong; Dooner, Mark; Miao, Shihong; Li, Jian; Wang, Dan (July 13, 2017).

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As with electric storage technology, compressed air is only as "clean" as the source of the energy that it stores.

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Undersea insulated airbags that have similar thermodynamic properties to large cavern storage have been suggested.

615: 529: 83:. Contrasted with traditional batteries, systems can store energy for longer periods of time and have less upkeep. 649: 580:, Goderich, Angas, and Rosamond (2020). Some included partial heat storage in water, improving efficiency to 65%. 4518: 4158: 243:

and trams. Here, the heat of compression is effectively stored in the atmosphere (or sea) and returned later on.

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of the amount of stored energy that remains in this air. Consequently, if the air temperature is too low for the

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of the compression chamber and the resulting improvement in heat dissipation from the compressor body itself.

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standard. High-pressure bottles are fairly strong so that they generally do not rupture in vehicle crashes.

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constant, one finds the work required for compression (negative) or done by the expansion (positive) to be

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A different approach consists of burying a large bag buried under several meters of sand instead of water.

4641: 3965: 2533: 2237: 2172: 2163:. This improves the range and speed available for a given tank volume at the cost of the additional fuel. 1981: 566: 544: 521: 456:, the world's third such project. The project uses no fuel. It appears to have stopped operating in 2016. 177:(LHV) of gas for each MJ of energy output, corresponding to an energy recovery efficiency of about 27%. A 3759: 2914:"Thermodynamic modeling, CFD analysis and parametric study of a near-isothermal reciprocating compressor" 2075: 4568: 4513: 4485: 4305: 2518: 2473:

semi-custom, 120-rpm compressor/expander. All these systems ensure that the air is compressed with high

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and to optimize the cycle of the piston engine, which is not equally efficient at all power/RPM levels.

2099: 198: 75: 55:, and is still operational as of 2024. The Huntorf plant was initially developed as a load balancer for 3419: 4249: 2583:

Zhang, Xinjing; Gao, Ziyu; Zhou, Bingqian; Guo, Huan; Xu, Yujie; Ding, Yulong; Chen, Haisheng (2024).

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Improvement of the efficiency of the turbomachinery, which will work under constant-inlet conditions.

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variations have to be kept below a certain limit, as do the stresses induced on the storage vessels.

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Constant pressure storage (underwater pressure vessels, hybrid pumped hydro / compressed air storage)

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Air storage vessels vary in the thermodynamic conditions of the storage and on the technology used:

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considerably. There are several ways in which a CAES system can deal with heat. Air storage can be

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nearly-isothermal expanders and are being developed to improve the round-trip efficiency of CAES.

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Compressed air systems have advantages over conventional batteries, including longer lifetimes of

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A standard 20-MPa, 5-L steel bottle has a mass of 7.5 kg, and a superior one 5 kg. High-

4287: 4029: 2996: 2941: 2913: 2798: 2584: 2568: 2409: 2390:, electric utility, obtained development rights to the 2,700-MW Norton project in November 2009. 2270: 2176: 1537: 712: 700: 696: 403: 236: 186: 2961:"Micron-sized water spray-cooled quasi-isothermal compression for compressed air energy storage" 166:

sources. Nevertheless, this is thus far the only system that has been implemented commercially.

4079:"Squeeze the breeze: Want to get more electricity from the wind? The key lies beneath our feet" 3253:"Ocean Compressed Air Energy Storage (OCAES) Integrated with Offshore Renewable Energy Sources" 1543:

If there is a constant pressure outside of the vessel, which is equal to the starting pressure

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system. This solution requires large pressure tanks on land (as well as underwater airbags).

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connected the world's first 100-MW "advanced" system to the grid in north China. It uses no

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Compressed-air energy storage can also be employed on a smaller scale, such as exploited by

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In 2012, General Compression completed construction of a 2-MW near-isothermal project in

4413: 3875:"Wisconsin will house an energy storage facility that's the first of its kind in the US" 3323:

Technische mislukkingen: de Planta-affaire, instortende bruggen, vliegdekschepen van ijs

3217:"Comparative Analysis of Isochoric and Isobaric Adiabatic Compressed Air Energy Storage" 2976: 2929: 2882: 2766: 2640: 2253:. The system is claimed to be much more affordable than competing electric and flywheel 4646: 4588: 4543: 3584:"'World's largest' compressed air energy storage project connects to the grid in China" 2208: 2191: 2149: 1992: 1519: 1495: 1413: 607: 308: 256: 202: 182: 41: 37: 33: 2816: 231:

designs used a similar approach, substituting seawater for air. The venturi warms the

4725: 4578: 3737:"Grid-connected advanced compressed air energy storage plant comes online in Ontario" 3000: 2945: 2495: 2453: 2429: 2317: 2297: 2056: 2052: 1957: 737: 717: 445: 280: 64: 3829: 3115: 3082: 2802: 4538: 3852:"Why Goldman Sachs thinks advanced compressed air is worthy of US$ 250m investment" 3446: 3133:"Compressed Air Energy Storage: Theory, Resources, And Applications For Wind Power" 3050: 2775: 2750: 2728:"Why Goldman Sachs thinks advanced compressed air is worthy of US$ 250m investment" 2648: 2379: 2265: 2023: 482: 407: 375: 224: 3301: 501:

awarded $ 24.9 million in matching funds for phase one of a 300-MW, $ 356 million

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renewed interest in CAES systems, to help highly intermittent energy sources like

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A 110-megawatt plant with a capacity of 26 hours (2,860 MWh energy) was built in

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New York Times Article: Technology; Using Compressed Air To Store Up Electricity

2751:"Adiabatic Compressed Air Energy Storage with packed bed thermal energy storage" 2387: 2383: 2329: 2250: 2183: 2138: 638: 596: 478: 240: 232: 150: 141:

process, then the air must be substantially re-heated prior to expansion in the

130: 4008: 2937: 2585:"Advanced Compressed Air Energy Storage Systems: Fundamentals and Applications" 4677: 4309: 4133: 2601: 2528: 2485: 2413: 2333: 2042:

specific energies for the same containers would be from 40 to 100 kJ/kg.

1949: 525: 415: 371: 260: 117: 97: 68: 4055: 3602:"World's largest compressed air energy storage project comes online in China" 2992: 2898: 2817:

History of First U.S. Compressed-Air Energy Storage (CAES) Plant (110 MW 26h)

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scale, energy generated during periods of low demand can be released during

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Solution to some of country's energy woes might be little more than hot air

4306:"How Hydrostor Aims To Change The Power Game By Storing Energy Under Water" 4220:"Wind plus compressed air equals efficient energy storage in Iowa proposal" 3565:"Construction starts on 1.4GWh compressed air energy storage unit in China" 2350:

promoted its Pne-PHEV or Pneumatic Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle-system.

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Advances in Energy Storage: Latest Developments from R&D to the Market

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and lower material toxicity. Newer battery designs such as those based on

513:. The goals of the project were to build and validate an advanced design. 25:

A pressurized air tank used to start a diesel generator set in Paris Metro

2433: 2347: 1920:{\displaystyle W=p_{B}V_{B}\ln {\frac {p_{A}}{p_{B}}}+(p_{B}-p_{A})V_{B}} 1431: 548: 486: 471: 52: 4454: 3539:"China turns on the world's largest compressed air energy storage plant" 4523: 4204: 4187: 3233: 3216: 3168: 2912:

Mohammadi-Amin, Meysam; Jahangiri, Ali Reza; Bustanchy, Mohsen (2020).

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Barbour, Edward; Mignard, Dimitri; Ding, Yulong; Li, Yongliang (2015).

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installation using a saline porous rock formation being developed near

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caverns, above-ground vessels, aquifers, automotive applications, etc.)

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The first utility-scale CAES project was in the Huntorf power plant in

4188:"Overview of Compressed Air Energy Storage and Technology Development" 3378:, Dresser-Rand Corporation, 2010, brochure form# 85230, archived from 2959:

Guanwei, Jia; Weiqing, Xu; Maolin, Cai; Yan, Shi (September 1, 2018).

2288:, pumps, drills, and trams, via centralized, city-level distribution. 4271:(Press release). Nottingham University. June 18, 2008. Archived from 2865:

Heidari, Mahbod; Mortazavi, Mehdi; Rufer, Alfred (December 1, 2017).

2325: 2282: 2027: 1462: 729: 419: 2159:

Additional heat can be supplied by burning fuel, as in 1904 for the

197:

Isothermal compression and expansion approaches attempt to maintain

489:

at a cost of $ 208 million, operating in 2024 with 64% efficiency.

3803: 2463: 2264: 387: 20: 4252:, Oliver Laing, "Energy storage for off-peak electricity" 621:

Compressed air energy storage may be stored in undersea caves in

173:, CAES plant requires 2.5 MJ of electricity and 1.2 MJ 129:

Diabatic storage dissipates much of the heat of compression with

4325:"New Compressed Air Energy Storage Systems Vs. Li-ion Batteries" 3997:"Navies in Transition: A History of the Torpedo; The Early Days" 3927:"Energy Bags Under the Sea to be Tested to Store Off-Shore Wind" 3676:"Adiabatic Compressed-air Energy Storage For Electricity Supply" 2440: 2254: 2117: 335:

Removal of the requirement of throttling prior to the expansion.

4458: 3721: 3497:"China's compressed air energy storage industry makes progress" 1999:

are the engineering terms that define these desired qualities.

2194:

can compress air on demand, possibly requiring several hours.

632: 3350:

Electricity Storage and Renewables: Costs and Markets to 2030

3303:

Chambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge

1400:{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{B}}{V_{A}}}={\frac {p_{A}}{p_{B}}}} 4373:"Technology Performance Report, SustainX Smart Grid Program" 2428:

solution is possible by using the compressed gas to drive a

3443:"What We Do – Texas Dispatchable [sic] Wind 1, LLC" 3108:"Distributed Energy Program: Compressed Air Energy Storage" 2281:

Air engines have been used since the 19th century to power

429:

compressed air energy storage project was the 290-megawatt

307:(salt is dissolved in water for extraction) or by using an 2320:

engines compress and heat air with a fuel suitable for an

554:

Hydrostor completed the first commercial A-CAES system in

3193: 618:. It will be the first of its kind in the United States. 459:

A 60 MW / 300 MWh facility with 60% efficiency opened in

2071:

Advanced fiber-reinforced bottles are comparable to the

2675:"Global Clean Energy: A Storage Solution Is in the Air" 3516:"Energy Dome launches world's first multi-megawatt 'CO 4450:

Compressed Air Energy Storage, Entropy and Efficiency

3700:"Adele CAES Pilot: Site Selected but Project Delayed" 3418:. PowerSouth Energy Cooperative. 2010. Archived from 2835:"Natural Gas Combined-cycle Gas Turbine Power Plants" 1818: 1579: 1549: 1522: 1498: 1471: 1440: 1416: 1345: 1276: 858: 809: 749: 3306:. W. & R. Chambers, LTD. 1896. pp. 252–253. 3277:"Dansk projekt vil lagre vindenergi under 25 m sand" 2668: 2666: 610:

announced plans to construct a 200-MWh compressed CO

551:, UK, with 800 MWh of storage capacity (2017). 4655: 4587: 4506: 4499: 4492: 4226:. Western Area Power Administration. Archived from 3943:Heat loss of practical systems is explained in the 3196:. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. April 2013 2452:When excess wind energy is available from offshore 2370:The Iowa Stored Energy Park (ISEP) would have used 2055:

of 2.5) and less than 20% for fiber-wound bottles (

16:

Method for matching variable production with demand

3760:"Creating renewable energy storage out of hot air" 1919: 1791: 1562: 1528: 1504: 1484: 1453: 1422: 1399: 1331: 1259: 841: 781: 251:Compression can be done with electrically-powered 4391:Compressed Air System of Paris – technical notes 4159:"FORSKNING: Luft kan bli verdens neste "batteri"" 3073: 3071: 2823:(Report). Vol. 2: Construction. May 7, 1994. 2786:20.500.11820/31a2a7f9-5fc6-4452-8bd8-b08614bebae2 2131:A continuous expansion turbine at high efficiency 2051:of the rupture pressure for steel bottles (for a 437:cavern with 580 MWh energy and a 42% efficiency. 4410:(Special supplement, Scientific American, 1921) 3650:NYSEG considering Compressed Air Energy Storage 2378:Additional facilities are under development in 2127:The following methods can increase efficiency: 2003:Specific energy, energy density, and efficiency 3398:"Using Compressed Air To Store Up Electricity" 3079:"3-stage propulsion with intermediate heating" 2328:heats compressed air, and then a conventional 2257:systems and is expected on road cars by 2016. 4470: 3653:, Energy Overviews Publishing, archived from 8: 4001:Journal of the Royal Navy Scientific Service 3344: 3342: 595:, was planned to be 400 MW / 3,200 MWh. The 149:. This reheating can be accomplished with a 4350:"Near Isothermal Compression and Expansion" 3900:"Can energy be stored in air-filled caves?" 3706:on March 9, 2016 – via highbeam.com. 3292: 3290: 614:facility based on the Sardinia facility in 4704: 4503: 4496: 4477: 4463: 4455: 3617: 3615: 3188: 3186: 3127: 3125: 543:Storelectric Ltd planned to build a 40-MW 4203: 3232: 2784: 2774: 2600: 1911: 1898: 1885: 1867: 1857: 1851: 1839: 1829: 1817: 1780: 1767: 1754: 1736: 1726: 1720: 1708: 1698: 1685: 1672: 1659: 1641: 1631: 1625: 1613: 1603: 1584: 1578: 1554: 1548: 1521: 1497: 1476: 1470: 1445: 1439: 1415: 1389: 1379: 1373: 1362: 1352: 1346: 1344: 1323: 1313: 1300: 1290: 1275: 1242: 1232: 1226: 1214: 1204: 1189: 1179: 1173: 1161: 1151: 1136: 1126: 1120: 1092: 1087: 1071: 1066: 1022: 1014: 1009: 1002: 997: 957: 949: 944: 937: 932: 918: 907: 902: 895: 890: 867: 859: 857: 833: 820: 808: 782:{\displaystyle pV=nRT={\text{constant}}.} 771: 748: 679:Learn how and when to remove this message 71:satisfy fluctuating electricity demands. 4429:Cities to Store Wind Power for Later Use 3246: 3244: 2918:Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 1332:{\displaystyle pV=p_{A}V_{A}=p_{B}V_{B}} 576:planned to build four Advance plants in 433:plant opened in 1978 in Germany using a 3786:"Anderson County getting energy center" 3747:from the original on December 23, 2019. 3102: 3100: 2554: 2137:Use of waste heat, notably in a hybrid 1987:Practical constraints in transportation 4032:. Green Car Congress. January 22, 2013 3702:. Modern Power Systems. Archived from 2965:Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 2564:"Wind Drives Growing Use of Batteries" 2324:. For example, burning natural gas or 4114:. Firstenergycorp.com. March 20, 2014 4077:Pendick, Daniel (November 17, 2007). 3830:"Toronto A-CAES Facility – Hydrostor" 3357:International Renewable Energy Agency 463:, China, using a salt cavern (2022). 361:Pacific Northwest National Laboratory 7: 3850:Colthorpe, Andy (January 20, 2022). 3563:Murray, Cameron (October 26, 2022). 3520:Battery' project in Sardinia, Italy" 3396:Wald, Matthew (September 29, 1991). 3114:. September 14, 2005. Archived from 2985:10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2018.03.032 2726:Colthorpe, Andy (January 20, 2022). 2439:European electrical utility company 792:For a process from an initial state 693:thermodynamically-reversible process 661:adding citations to reliable sources 603:, Australia was 200 MW / 1,600 MWh. 114:may yield an efficiency around 65%. 3995:Kirby, Geoff (September 18, 1999). 3215:Pottie, Daniel (February 2, 2023). 3015:"Calculating Isothermal Efficiency" 2738:from the original on April 3, 2022. 2695:"German AACAES project information" 2524:List of energy storage power plants 2186:, and integrated air conditioning. 1964:Large storage system thermodynamics 374:, and can use high-strength (e.g., 3873:Schulz, Joe (September 25, 2023). 3862:from the original on May 27, 2022. 3688:from the original on May 22, 2022. 3624:ARRA Energy Storage Demonstrations 3582:Murray, Cameron (April 10, 2024). 2562:Wald, Matthew L. (July 28, 2010). 2375:to the U.S. Department of Energy. 2292:use compressed air to start their 14: 4632:Research in lithium-ion batteries 4269:"Energy bags and super batteries" 4167:(in Norwegian). February 20, 2017 3958:"Air Density and Specific Weight" 3925:Kraemer, Susan (April 18, 2011). 3468:Hauer, Andreas (April 27, 2022). 2059:5). Commercial designs adopt the 2032:standard temperature and pressure 57:fossil-fuel-generated electricity 4703: 4224:Energy Services Bulletin website 4052:"Energine PHEV-system schematic" 3758:Lee, Lisa-Ann (March 29, 2017). 3514:Murray, Cameron (June 8, 2022). 3495:Colthorpe, Andy (June 1, 2022). 3283:(in Danish). September 25, 2009. 2840:. August 8, 2002. Archived from 2629:Energy Conversion and Management 2488: 2332:engine or the rear portion of a 2249:(NEDC) for a compact frame like 637: 528:technology to balance renewable 503:Pacific Gas and Electric Company 4371:B R Bollinger (April 1, 2015). 4286:Haran, Brady (March 26, 2008). 3964:. March 2, 2006. Archived from 3194:"Compressed Air Energy Storage" 2673:Gies, Erica (October 1, 2012). 2269:A compressed air locomotive by 722:ratio of surface area to volume 648:needs additional citations for 583:As of 2022, the Gem project at 59:, but the global shift towards 4617:Lithium iron phosphate battery 4054:. Energine.com. Archived from 3630:, Sandia National Laboratories 3537:Blain, Loz (October 5, 2022). 2776:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.06.019 2649:10.1016/j.enconman.2009.01.032 2358:Huntorf, Germany in 1978, and 1939:Adiabatic (isentropic) storage 1904: 1878: 1773: 1747: 1678: 1652: 1588: 1099: 1057: 871: 470:facility started operating in 466:A 2.5 MW / 4 MWh compressed CO 299:The storage vessel is often a 1: 4597:Compressed-air energy storage 3784:STONE, PAUL (July 11, 2012). 3372:Compressed Air Storage (CAES) 2635:(5). Elsevier BV: 1172–1179. 2460:Nearly isothermal compression 1492:is the volume of the vessel, 842:{\displaystyle T=T_{A}=T_{B}} 524:. The goal is to incorporate 30:Compressed-air energy storage 4323:Casey, Tina (June 3, 2024). 4288:"The man making 'wind bags'" 3944: 2891:10.1016/j.energy.2017.09.031 2680:International Herald Tribune 2336:expands it to produce work. 4435:Power storage: Trapped wind 3416:"CAES:McIntosh Power Plant" 3055:"Compressed-Air Propulsion" 691:In order to achieve a near- 593:San Luis Obispo, California 530:intermittent energy sources 418:, printing facilities, and 327:This configuration allows: 4753: 3441:General Compression, Inc. 3251:Dong, Lim (May 17, 2013). 3165:"Solution Mining for Salt" 2938:10.1016/j.tsep.2020.100624 2322:internal combustion engine 2294:internal combustion engine 2247:New European Driving Cycle 2218: 2170: 2109: 2008:ideal thermal insulation. 1979: 616:Columbia County, Wisconsin 4699: 4519:Artificial photosynthesis 3474:. John Wiley & Sons. 2602:10.1016/j.eng.2023.12.008 2346:. The apparently-defunct 2144:Use of environmental heat 2134:Multiple expansion stages 2067:Comparison with batteries 565:Apex planned a plant for 319:Constant-pressure storage 279:Constant volume storage ( 247:Compressors and expanders 206:near-isothermal process. 4668:Battery electric vehicle 4663:Alternative fuel vehicle 4534:Concentrated solar power 4109:"FirstEnergy Corp. Home" 3022:www.fluidmechanics.co.uk 2761:. Elsevier BV: 804–815. 2683:– via NYTimes.com. 2539:Cryogenic energy storage 2504:Alternative fuel vehicle 2221:Hydraulic hybrid vehicle 425:The first utility-scale 267:to produce electricity. 4673:Hybrid electric vehicle 4602:Flywheel energy storage 4574:Space-based solar power 2354:Existing hybrid systems 589:Kern County, California 511:Kern County, California 499:US Department of Energy 291:Constant-volume storage 4642:Thermal energy storage 3962:engineeringtoolbox.com 3879:Wisconsin Public Radio 3804:"Bethel Energy Center" 3024:. 2015. Archived from 2534:Zero-emissions vehicle 2469: 2340:Compressed air engines 2278: 2277:between 1928 and 1961. 2261:History of air engines 2173:Compressed-air vehicle 2092:lithium iron phosphate 1982:Compressed-air vehicle 1921: 1793: 1564: 1530: 1506: 1486: 1455: 1424: 1401: 1333: 1261: 843: 783: 629:Storage thermodynamics 567:Anderson County, Texas 522:Watkins Glen, New York 332:system needs to stop). 100:, or near-isothermal. 26: 4569:Photovoltaic pavement 4514:Airborne wind turbine 4486:Emerging technologies 4250:US Patent 4873828 3968:on November 22, 2012. 3743:. November 28, 2019. 3355:(Report). Abu Dhabi: 2544:Compressed-air engine 2519:Hydraulic accumulator 2467: 2366:Future hybrid systems 2268: 2204:marine diesel engines 2100:Life cycle assessment 1958:isentropic efficiency 1922: 1794: 1565: 1563:{\displaystyle p_{A}} 1531: 1507: 1487: 1485:{\displaystyle V_{B}} 1456: 1454:{\displaystyle V_{A}} 1425: 1402: 1334: 1262: 844: 784: 545:100% renewable energy 265:electrical generators 199:operating temperature 24: 4737:Compressed air power 4418:Sandia National Labs 4275:on February 3, 2011. 4134:"Project Objectives" 3723:Storelectric website 3606:Heat Exchanger World 3385:on September 7, 2012 3325:(in Dutch). Donker. 3298:"Pneumatic Dispatch" 3031:on February 14, 2019 2228:regenerative braking 1976:Vehicle applications 1816: 1577: 1547: 1520: 1496: 1469: 1438: 1414: 1343: 1274: 856: 807: 802:absolute temperature 747: 657:improve this article 454:Gaines County, Texas 355:Plants operate on a 76:temperature increase 36:for later use using 4637:Silicon–air battery 4622:Molten-salt battery 4612:Lithium–air battery 4607:Grid energy storage 4559:Molten salt reactor 4529:Carbon-neutral fuel 4007:(1). Archived from 3856:Energy Storage News 3790:Palestineherald.com 3741:Energy Storage News 3588:Energy-Storage.News 3569:Energy Storage News 3524:Energy Storage News 3501:Energy Storage News 3422:on October 18, 2011 3359:. 2017. p. 55. 3171:on October 17, 2007 3145:on January 19, 2012 3118:on August 27, 2006. 3085:on October 31, 2015 2977:2018ETFS...96..470G 2930:2020TSEP...1900624M 2883:2017Ene...140.1252H 2767:2015ApEn..155..804B 2732:Energy Storage News 2641:2009ECM....50.1172L 2514:Grid energy storage 2509:Fireless locomotive 2475:thermal diffusivity 2238:PSA Peugeot Citroën 1514:amount of substance 1465:of gas compressed, 1021: 956: 914: 315:gas fields, etc.). 255:and expansion with 175:lower heating value 32:(CAES) is a way to 4205:10.3390/en10070991 3906:. October 11, 2015 3402:The New York Times 3234:10.3390/en16062646 2707:on August 26, 2018 2569:The New York Times 2470: 2398:Underwater storage 2300:may have starting 2279: 2271:H. K. Porter, Inc. 2177:Compressed-air car 1917: 1789: 1560: 1538:ideal gas constant 1526: 1516:of gas (mol), and 1502: 1482: 1451: 1420: 1397: 1329: 1257: 1255: 993: 928: 886: 839: 779: 707:Isothermal storage 701:isentropic process 697:isothermal process 237:H. K. Porter, Inc. 187:thermal efficiency 153:-fired burner for 27: 4719: 4718: 4695: 4694: 4691: 4690: 4431:, January 4, 2006 3810:. October 8, 2013 3481:978-1-119-76010-8 3332:978-90-6100-400-4 2847:on April 11, 2008 2360:McIntosh, Alabama 2296:(ICE), and large 2161:Whitehead torpedo 2076:lead–acid battery 1945:adiabatic process 1873: 1742: 1647: 1529:{\displaystyle R} 1505:{\displaystyle n} 1461:is the (unknown) 1423:{\displaystyle p} 1395: 1368: 1248: 1195: 1142: 1030: 973: 796:to a final state 774: 689: 688: 681: 572:Canadian company 556:Goderich, Ontario 442:McIntosh, Alabama 253:turbo-compressors 171:McIntosh, Alabama 135:the one indicator 53:Elsfleth, Germany 4744: 4707: 4706: 4627:Nanowire battery 4554:Methanol economy 4549:Hydrogen economy 4504: 4497: 4479: 4472: 4465: 4456: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4368: 4362: 4361: 4359: 4357: 4346: 4340: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4302: 4296: 4295: 4283: 4277: 4276: 4265: 4259: 4258: 4257: 4253: 4246: 4240: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4207: 4183: 4177: 4176: 4174: 4172: 4155: 4149: 4148: 4146: 4144: 4130: 4124: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4113: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4074: 4068: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4048: 4042: 4041: 4039: 4037: 4026: 4020: 4019: 4017: 4016: 3992: 3986: 3985: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3954: 3948: 3941: 3935: 3934: 3922: 3916: 3915: 3913: 3911: 3896: 3890: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3870: 3864: 3863: 3847: 3841: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3826: 3820: 3819: 3817: 3815: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3781: 3775: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3755: 3749: 3748: 3733: 3727: 3726: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3696: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3681:. January 2010. 3680: 3672: 3666: 3665: 3664: 3662: 3657:on July 29, 2018 3645: 3639: 3638: 3637: 3635: 3629: 3619: 3610: 3609: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3579: 3573: 3572: 3560: 3554: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3534: 3528: 3527: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3492: 3486: 3485: 3465: 3459: 3458: 3456: 3454: 3445:. Archived from 3438: 3432: 3431: 3429: 3427: 3412: 3406: 3405: 3393: 3387: 3386: 3384: 3377: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3354: 3346: 3337: 3336: 3319:van den Ende, J. 3314: 3308: 3307: 3294: 3285: 3284: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3257: 3248: 3239: 3238: 3236: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3190: 3181: 3180: 3178: 3176: 3167:. Archived from 3161: 3155: 3154: 3152: 3150: 3144: 3138:. Archived from 3137: 3129: 3120: 3119: 3104: 3095: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3081:. Archived from 3075: 3066: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3047: 3041: 3040: 3038: 3036: 3030: 3019: 3011: 3005: 3004: 2956: 2950: 2949: 2909: 2903: 2902: 2862: 2856: 2855: 2853: 2852: 2846: 2839: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2813: 2807: 2806: 2788: 2778: 2746: 2740: 2739: 2723: 2717: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2706: 2700:. Archived from 2699: 2691: 2685: 2684: 2670: 2661: 2660: 2624: 2615: 2614: 2604: 2580: 2574: 2573: 2559: 2498: 2493: 2492: 2344:electric battery 2342:can recharge an 2308:Types of systems 2302:pneumatic motors 2273:, in use at the 2154:air conditioning 2120:, or to drive a 2088:pressure vessels 2020:tensile-strength 1926: 1924: 1923: 1918: 1916: 1915: 1903: 1902: 1890: 1889: 1874: 1872: 1871: 1862: 1861: 1852: 1844: 1843: 1834: 1833: 1798: 1796: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1784: 1772: 1771: 1759: 1758: 1743: 1741: 1740: 1731: 1730: 1721: 1713: 1712: 1703: 1702: 1690: 1689: 1677: 1676: 1664: 1663: 1648: 1646: 1645: 1636: 1635: 1626: 1618: 1617: 1608: 1607: 1595: 1594: 1569: 1567: 1566: 1561: 1559: 1558: 1535: 1533: 1532: 1527: 1511: 1509: 1508: 1503: 1491: 1489: 1488: 1483: 1481: 1480: 1460: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1450: 1449: 1430:is the absolute 1429: 1427: 1426: 1421: 1406: 1404: 1403: 1398: 1396: 1394: 1393: 1384: 1383: 1374: 1369: 1367: 1366: 1357: 1356: 1347: 1338: 1336: 1335: 1330: 1328: 1327: 1318: 1317: 1305: 1304: 1295: 1294: 1266: 1264: 1263: 1258: 1256: 1249: 1247: 1246: 1237: 1236: 1227: 1219: 1218: 1209: 1208: 1196: 1194: 1193: 1184: 1183: 1174: 1166: 1165: 1156: 1155: 1143: 1141: 1140: 1131: 1130: 1121: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1077: 1076: 1075: 1041: 1031: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1018: 1008: 1007: 1006: 974: 969: 958: 955: 954: 953: 943: 942: 941: 913: 912: 911: 901: 900: 899: 878: 877: 848: 846: 845: 840: 838: 837: 825: 824: 788: 786: 785: 780: 775: 772: 684: 677: 673: 670: 664: 641: 633: 623:Northern Ireland 474:, Italy (2022). 179:General Electric 164:renewable energy 81:mine locomotives 61:renewable energy 4752: 4751: 4747: 4746: 4745: 4743: 4742: 4741: 4722: 4721: 4720: 4715: 4687: 4651: 4583: 4488: 4483: 4427:MSNBC article, 4388: 4383: 4378:. SustainX Inc. 4375: 4370: 4369: 4365: 4355: 4353: 4348: 4347: 4343: 4333: 4331: 4322: 4321: 4317: 4312:. July 9, 2011. 4304: 4303: 4299: 4285: 4284: 4280: 4267: 4266: 4262: 4255: 4248: 4247: 4243: 4233: 4231: 4218: 4217: 4213: 4185: 4184: 4180: 4170: 4168: 4164:Teknisk Ukeblad 4157: 4156: 4152: 4142: 4140: 4132: 4131: 4127: 4117: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4092: 4090: 4076: 4075: 4071: 4061: 4059: 4058:on May 13, 2014 4050: 4049: 4045: 4035: 4033: 4028: 4027: 4023: 4014: 4012: 4011:on May 30, 2012 3994: 3993: 3989: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3956: 3955: 3951: 3942: 3938: 3924: 3923: 3919: 3909: 3907: 3898: 3897: 3893: 3883: 3881: 3872: 3871: 3867: 3849: 3848: 3844: 3834: 3832: 3828: 3827: 3823: 3813: 3811: 3802: 3801: 3797: 3783: 3782: 3778: 3768: 3766: 3757: 3756: 3752: 3735: 3734: 3730: 3720: 3719: 3715: 3698: 3697: 3693: 3685: 3678: 3674: 3673: 3669: 3660: 3658: 3647: 3646: 3642: 3633: 3631: 3627: 3621: 3620: 3613: 3608:. May 27, 2024. 3600: 3599: 3595: 3581: 3580: 3576: 3562: 3561: 3557: 3547: 3545: 3536: 3535: 3531: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3508: 3494: 3493: 3489: 3482: 3467: 3466: 3462: 3452: 3450: 3449:on May 23, 2013 3440: 3439: 3435: 3425: 3423: 3414: 3413: 3409: 3395: 3394: 3390: 3382: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3364: 3352: 3348: 3347: 3340: 3333: 3316: 3315: 3311: 3296: 3295: 3288: 3275: 3274: 3270: 3260: 3258: 3255: 3250: 3249: 3242: 3214: 3213: 3209: 3199: 3197: 3192: 3191: 3184: 3174: 3172: 3163: 3162: 3158: 3148: 3146: 3142: 3135: 3131: 3130: 3123: 3112:eere.energy.gov 3106: 3105: 3098: 3088: 3086: 3077: 3076: 3069: 3059: 3057: 3049: 3048: 3044: 3034: 3032: 3028: 3017: 3013: 3012: 3008: 2958: 2957: 2953: 2911: 2910: 2906: 2864: 2863: 2859: 2850: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2833: 2832: 2828: 2815: 2814: 2810: 2748: 2747: 2743: 2725: 2724: 2720: 2710: 2708: 2704: 2697: 2693: 2692: 2688: 2672: 2671: 2664: 2626: 2625: 2618: 2582: 2581: 2577: 2561: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2494: 2487: 2484: 2462: 2450: 2422: 2405: 2400: 2368: 2356: 2315: 2310: 2263: 2244: 2223: 2217: 2215:Hybrid vehicles 2209:PID controllers 2200: 2179: 2171:Main articles: 2169: 2114: 2112:Pneumatic motor 2108: 2081:hybrid vehicles 2069: 2048: 2022:fibers such as 2005: 1997:specific energy 1989: 1984: 1978: 1966: 1941: 1907: 1894: 1881: 1863: 1853: 1835: 1825: 1814: 1813: 1776: 1763: 1750: 1732: 1722: 1704: 1694: 1681: 1668: 1655: 1637: 1627: 1609: 1599: 1580: 1575: 1574: 1550: 1545: 1544: 1518: 1517: 1494: 1493: 1472: 1467: 1466: 1441: 1436: 1435: 1412: 1411: 1385: 1375: 1358: 1348: 1341: 1340: 1319: 1309: 1296: 1286: 1272: 1271: 1254: 1253: 1238: 1228: 1210: 1200: 1185: 1175: 1157: 1147: 1132: 1122: 1088: 1067: 1039: 1038: 1010: 998: 959: 945: 933: 903: 891: 879: 863: 854: 853: 829: 816: 805: 804: 745: 744: 709: 685: 674: 668: 665: 654: 642: 631: 613: 601:New South Wales 547:pilot plant in 495: 469: 406:, Germany; and 384: 370:and air-driven 321: 305:solution mining 293: 273: 257:turbo-expanders 249: 221: 212: 210:Near-isothermal 203:heat exchangers 195: 139:energy recovery 127: 106: 89: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4750: 4748: 4740: 4739: 4734: 4732:Energy storage 4724: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4713: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4693: 4692: 4689: 4688: 4686: 4685: 4683:Wireless power 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4652: 4650: 4649: 4647:Ultracapacitor 4644: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4593: 4591: 4585: 4584: 4582: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4544:Home fuel cell 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4510: 4508: 4501: 4494: 4490: 4489: 4484: 4482: 4481: 4474: 4467: 4459: 4453: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4425: 4411: 4387: 4386:External links 4384: 4382: 4381: 4363: 4352:. May 28, 2015 4341: 4315: 4297: 4278: 4260: 4241: 4230:on May 9, 2008 4211: 4178: 4150: 4125: 4100: 4069: 4043: 4021: 3987: 3971: 3949: 3936: 3917: 3891: 3865: 3842: 3821: 3795: 3776: 3750: 3728: 3713: 3691: 3667: 3640: 3611: 3593: 3574: 3555: 3529: 3517: 3506: 3487: 3480: 3460: 3433: 3407: 3388: 3362: 3338: 3331: 3317:Veldhoen, L.; 3309: 3286: 3268: 3240: 3207: 3182: 3156: 3121: 3096: 3067: 3042: 3006: 2951: 2904: 2857: 2826: 2808: 2755:Applied Energy 2741: 2718: 2686: 2662: 2616: 2575: 2553: 2551: 2548: 2547: 2546: 2541: 2536: 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2500: 2499: 2483: 2480: 2461: 2458: 2449: 2446: 2421: 2418: 2404: 2401: 2399: 2396: 2367: 2364: 2355: 2352: 2314: 2313:Hybrid systems 2311: 2309: 2306: 2298:diesel engines 2275:Homestake Mine 2262: 2259: 2242: 2219:Main article: 2216: 2213: 2199: 2196: 2168: 2165: 2150:heat exchanger 2146: 2145: 2142: 2135: 2132: 2110:Main article: 2107: 2104: 2068: 2065: 2047: 2044: 2004: 2001: 1993:Energy density 1988: 1985: 1980:Main article: 1977: 1974: 1965: 1962: 1940: 1937: 1932: 1931: 1928: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1877: 1870: 1866: 1860: 1856: 1850: 1847: 1842: 1838: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1821: 1807: 1806: 1800: 1799: 1788: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1746: 1739: 1735: 1729: 1725: 1719: 1716: 1711: 1707: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1651: 1644: 1640: 1634: 1630: 1624: 1621: 1616: 1612: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1593: 1590: 1587: 1583: 1557: 1553: 1525: 1501: 1479: 1475: 1448: 1444: 1419: 1392: 1388: 1382: 1378: 1372: 1365: 1361: 1355: 1351: 1326: 1322: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1303: 1299: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1268: 1267: 1252: 1245: 1241: 1235: 1231: 1225: 1222: 1217: 1213: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1192: 1188: 1182: 1178: 1172: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1139: 1135: 1129: 1125: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1083: 1080: 1074: 1070: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1040: 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B1. 2571: 2570: 2565: 2558: 2555: 2549: 2545: 2542: 2540: 2537: 2535: 2532: 2530: 2527: 2525: 2522: 2520: 2517: 2515: 2512: 2510: 2507: 2505: 2502: 2501: 2497: 2496:Energy portal 2491: 2486: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2466: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2454:wind turbines 2447: 2445: 2442: 2437: 2435: 2431: 2430:hydroelectric 2427: 2420:Hydroelectric 2419: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2402: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2373: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2318:Brayton cycle 2312: 2307: 2305: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2284: 2276: 2272: 2267: 2260: 2258: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2229: 2222: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2205: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2187: 2185: 2178: 2174: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2143: 2140: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2129: 2128: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2113: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2096: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2082: 2077: 2074: 2066: 2064: 2062: 2058: 2057:safety factor 2054: 2053:safety factor 2045: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2016: 2012: 2009: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1994: 1986: 1983: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1953: 1951: 1946: 1938: 1936: 1929: 1912: 1908: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1886: 1882: 1875: 1868: 1864: 1858: 1854: 1848: 1845: 1840: 1836: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1819: 1812: 1811: 1810: 1804: 1803: 1802: 1786: 1781: 1777: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1755: 1751: 1744: 1737: 1733: 1727: 1723: 1717: 1714: 1709: 1705: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1686: 1682: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1660: 1656: 1649: 1642: 1638: 1632: 1628: 1622: 1619: 1614: 1610: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1591: 1585: 1581: 1573: 1572: 1571: 1555: 1551: 1541: 1539: 1523: 1515: 1499: 1477: 1473: 1464: 1446: 1442: 1433: 1417: 1408: 1390: 1386: 1380: 1376: 1370: 1363: 1359: 1353: 1349: 1324: 1320: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1301: 1297: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1250: 1243: 1239: 1233: 1229: 1223: 1220: 1215: 1211: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1190: 1186: 1180: 1176: 1170: 1167: 1162: 1158: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1137: 1133: 1127: 1123: 1117: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1093: 1089: 1084: 1081: 1078: 1072: 1068: 1063: 1060: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1035: 1032: 1027: 1024: 1015: 1011: 1003: 999: 994: 990: 987: 984: 981: 978: 975: 970: 966: 963: 960: 950: 946: 938: 934: 929: 925: 922: 919: 915: 908: 904: 896: 892: 887: 883: 881: 874: 868: 864: 852: 851: 850: 834: 830: 826: 821: 817: 813: 810: 803: 799: 795: 776: 768: 765: 762: 759: 756: 753: 750: 743: 742: 741: 739: 738:ideal gas law 734: 731: 725: 723: 719: 718:heat transfer 714: 706: 704: 702: 698: 694: 683: 680: 672: 662: 658: 652: 651: 646:This section 644: 640: 635: 634: 628: 626: 624: 619: 617: 609: 604: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 581: 579: 575: 570: 568: 563: 559: 557: 552: 550: 546: 541: 538: 533: 531: 527: 523: 519: 518:Iberdrola USA 514: 512: 508: 504: 500: 497:In 2009, the 492: 490: 488: 484: 480: 475: 473: 464: 462: 457: 455: 450: 447: 443: 438: 436: 432: 428: 423: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 381: 379: 377: 373: 369: 364: 362: 358: 353: 350: 343: 340: 337: 334: 330: 329: 328: 325: 318: 316: 312: 310: 306: 302: 297: 290: 285: 282: 278: 277: 276: 270: 268: 266: 262: 258: 254: 246: 244: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 218: 216: 209: 207: 204: 200: 192: 190: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 167: 165: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 124: 122: 119: 115: 112: 103: 101: 99: 95: 86: 84: 82: 77: 72: 70: 66: 65:photovoltaics 62: 58: 54: 49: 47: 43: 39: 35: 31: 23: 19: 4708: 4596: 4539:Fusion power 4366: 4354:. 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