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existence of systematicity or systematic relations in language cognition without the assumption that cognitive processes are causally sensitive to the classical constituent structure of mental representations. The subsymbolic paradigm, or connectionism in general, would thus have to explain the existence of systematicity and compositionality without relying on the mere implementation of a classical cognitive architecture. This challenge implies a dilemma: If the
Subsymbolic Paradigm could contribute nothing to the systematicity and compositionality of mental representations, it would be insufficient as a basis for an alternative theory of cognition. However, if the Subsymbolic Paradigm's contribution to systematicity requires mental processes grounded in the classical constituent structure of mental representations, the theory of cognition it develops would be, at best, an implementation architecture of the classical model of symbol theory and thus not a genuine alternative (connectionist) theory of cognition. The classical model of symbolism is characterized by (1) a combinatorial syntax and semantics of mental representations and (2) mental operations as structure-sensitive processes, based on the fundamental principle of syntactic and semantic constituent structure of mental representations as used in Fodor's "Language of Thought (LOT)". This can be used to explain the following closely related properties of human cognition, namely its (1) productivity, (2) systematicity, (3) compositionality, and (4) inferential coherence.
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general terms (such as specifying the learning algorithm, the number of units, etc.), or in unhelpfully low-level terms. In this sense, connectionist models may instantiate, and thereby provide evidence for, a broad theory of cognition (i.e., connectionism), without representing a helpful theory of the particular process that is being modelled. In this sense, the debate might be considered as to some extent reflecting a mere difference in the level of analysis in which particular theories are framed. Some researchers suggest that the analysis gap is the consequence of connectionist mechanisms giving rise to
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Connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds, but the debate in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to opposition between the two approaches. Throughout the debate, some researchers have argued that connectionism and computationalism are fully compatible, though full consensus on this issue
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able to read symbols on a tape and store symbols in memory. Relational
Networks, another Deep Network module published by DeepMind, are able to create object-like representations and manipulate them to answer complex questions. Relational Networks and Neural Turing Machines are further evidence that
173:
Internal states of any network change over time due to neurons sending a signal to a succeeding layer of neurons in the case of a feedforward network, or to a previous layer in the case of a recurrent network. Discovery of non-linear activation functions has enabled the second wave of connectionism.
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This challenge has been met in modern connectionism, for example, not only by
Smolensky's "Integrated Connectionist/Symbolic (ICS) Cognitive Architecture", but also by Werning and Maye's "Oscillatory Networks". An overview of this is given for example by Bechtel & Abrahamsen, Marcus and Maurer.
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Part of the appeal of computational descriptions is that they are relatively easy to interpret, and thus may be seen as contributing to our understanding of particular mental processes, whereas connectionist models are in general more opaque, to the extent that they may be describable only in very
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Despite these differences, some theorists have proposed that the connectionist architecture is simply the manner in which organic brains happen to implement the symbol-manipulation system. This is logically possible, as it is well known that connectionist models can implement symbol-manipulation
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P. Smolenky: Reply: Constituent structure and explanation in an integrated connectionist / symbolic cognitive architecture. In: C. MacDonald, G. MacDonald (Hrsg.): Connectionism: Debates on psychological explanation. Blackwell
Publishers. Oxford/UK, Cambridge/MA. Vol. 2, 1995, S. 224, 236-239,
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P. Smolensky: The constituent structure of connectionist mental states: a reply to Fodor and
Pylyshyn. In: T. Horgan, J. Tienson (Hrsg.): Spindel Conference 1987: Connectionism and the Philosophy of Mind. The Southern Journal of Philosophy. Special Issue on Connectionism and the Foundations of
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The debate was largely centred on logical arguments about whether connectionist networks could produce the syntactic structure observed in this sort of reasoning. This was later achieved although using fast-variable binding abilities outside of those standardly assumed in connectionist models.
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Smolensky's
Subsymbolic Paradigm has to meet the Fodor-Pylyshyn challenge formulated by classical symbol theory for a convincing theory of cognition in modern connectionism. In order to be an adequate alternative theory of cognition, Smolensky's Subsymbolic Paradigm would have to explain the
503:
There was some conflict among artificial intelligence researchers as to what neural networks are useful for. Around late 1960s, there was a widespread lull in research and publications on neural networks, "the neural network winter", which lasted through the 1970s, during which the field of
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systems of the kind used in computationalist models, as indeed they must be able if they are to explain the human ability to perform symbol-manipulation tasks. Several cognitive models combining both symbol-manipulative and connectionist architectures have been proposed. Among them are
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P. Smolensky, G. Legendre: The
Harmonic Mind: From Neural Computation to Optimality-Theoretic Grammar. Vol. 1: Cognitive Architecture. A Bradford Book, The MIT Press, Cambridge, London, 2006a, ISBN 0-262-19526-7, S. 65-67, 69-71, 74-75, 154-155, 159-202, 209-210, 235-267, 271-342,
266:
Connectionist work in general does not need to be biologically realistic. One area where connectionist models are thought to be biologically implausible is with respect to error-propagation networks that are needed to support learning, but error propagation can explain some of the
664:. But the debate rests on whether this symbol manipulation forms the foundation of cognition in general, so this is not a potential vindication of computationalism. Nonetheless, computational descriptions may be helpful high-level descriptions of cognition of logic, for example.
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M. Werning: Neuronal synchronization, covariation, and compositional representation. In: M. Werning, E. Machery, G. Schurz (Hrsg.): The compositionality of meaning and content. Vol. II: Applications to linguistics, psychology and neuroscience. Ontos Verlag, 2005, S.
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The central connectionist principle is that mental phenomena can be described by interconnected networks of simple and often uniform units. The form of the connections and the units can vary from model to model. For example, units in the network could represent
552:
Hopfield approached the field from the perspective of statistical mechanics, providing some early forms of mathematical rigor that increased the perceived respectability of the field. Another important series of publications proved that neural networks are
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B. McLaughlin: Can an ICS architecture meet the systematicity and productivity challenges? In: P. Calvo, J. Symons (Hrsg.): The
Architecture of Cognition. Rethinking Fodor and Pylyshyn's Systematicity Challenge. MIT Press, Cambridge/MA, London, 2014, S.
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M. Werning: Non-symbolic compositional representation and its neuronal foundation: towards an emulative semantics. In: M. Werning, W. Hinzen, E. Machery (Hrsg.): The Oxford
Handbook of Compositionality. Oxford University Press, 2012, S.
69:, which contributed to discouraging major funding agencies in the US from investing in connectionist research. With a few noteworthy deviations, most connectionist research entered a period of inactivity until the mid-1980s. The term
41:
is the name of an approach to the study of human mental processes and cognition that utilizes mathematical models known as connectionist networks or artificial neural networks. Connectionism has had many 'waves' since its beginnings.
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and others) reacted against it. They argued that connectionism, as then developing, threatened to obliterate what they saw as the progress being made in the fields of cognitive science and psychology by the classical approach of
115:. Some advantages of the second wave connectionist approach included its applicability to a broad array of functions, structural approximation to biological neurons, low requirements for innate structure, and capacity for
119:. Its disadvantages included the difficulty in deciphering how ANNs process information or account for the compositionality of mental representations, and a resultant difficulty explaining phenomena at a higher level.
624:
Computationalists posit symbolic models that are structurally similar to underlying brain structure, whereas connectionists engage in "low-level" modeling, trying to ensure that their models resemble neurological
103:, who was a key figure investigating the mathematical characteristics of sigmoid activation functions. From the late 1980s to the mid-1990s, connectionism took on an almost revolutionary tone when Schneider,
2310:
Shastri, Lokendra; Ajjanagadde, Venkat (September 1993). "From simple associations to systematic reasoning: A connectionist representation of rules, variables and dynamic bindings using temporal synchrony".
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symbolic sub-systems designed to support learning in specific areas of cognition (e.g., language, intentionality, number), whereas connectionists posit one or a small set of very general learning-mechanisms.
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Computationalists believe that internal mental activity consists of manipulation of explicit symbols, whereas connectionists believe that the manipulation of explicit symbols provides a poor model of mental
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have added a new perspective on the debate; some authors now argue that any split between connectionism and computationalism is more conclusively characterized as a split between computationalism and
130:. The success of deep-learning networks in the past decade has greatly increased the popularity of this approach, but the complexity and scale of such networks has brought with them increased
1740:
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H. Maurer: Cognitive science: Integrative synchronization mechanisms in cognitive neuroarchitectures of the modern connectionism. CRC Press, Boca Raton/FL, 2021, ISBN 978-1-351-04352-6.
257:: Different networks modify their connections differently. In general, any mathematically defined change in connection weights over time is referred to as the "learning algorithm".
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rules for their internal manipulation, whereas connectionists focus on learning from environmental stimuli and storing this information in a form of connections between neurons.
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279:, and this provides some biological support for one of the key assumptions of connectionist learning procedures. Many recurrent connectionist models also incorporate
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Complexity Letters, Band 2, S. 315-325.
382:: Their classic paper "A Logical Calculus of Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943) is important in this development here. They were influenced by the work of
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61:, while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. The first wave ended with the 1969 book about the limitations of the original perceptron idea, written by
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both focusing on comprehending neural circuitry through a formal and mathematical approach. McCulloch and Pitts showed how neural systems could implement
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based on symbolic computation, but the extent to which the two approaches are compatible has been the subject of much debate since their inception.
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335:(composed 1895) propounded connectionist or proto-connectionist theories. These tended to be speculative theories. But by the early 20th century,
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315:. Psychological theories based on knowledge about the human brain were fashionable in the late 19th century. As early as 1869, the neurologist
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Memory and learning are created by modifying the 'weights' of the connections between neural units, generally represented as an
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1193:"Organismically-inspired robotics: homeostatic adaptation and teleology beyond the closed sensorimotor loop"
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The second wave blossomed in the late 1980s, following a 1987 book about Parallel Distributed Processing by
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A method to train multilayered perceptrons with arbitrary levels of trainable weights was published by
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argued for distributed representations as a result of his failure to find anything like a localized
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contributed greatly to speculations about neural functioning, and proposed a learning principle,
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1078:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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both focusing on comprehending neural circuitry through a formal and mathematical approach, and
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604:, that is, that the mind operates by performing purely formal operations on symbols, like a
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As connectionism became increasingly popular in the late 1980s, some researchers (including
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564:(1987) learned to pronounce written English. It achieved popular success, appearing on the
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608:. Some researchers argued that the trend in connectionism represented a reversion toward
526:, the 1986 paper that popularized backpropagation, and the 1987 two-volume book about the
429:, while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. He cited Hebb, Hayek, Uttley, and
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320:
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published a series of papers describing a novel Deep Neural Network structure called the
600:. Computationalism is a specific form of cognitivism that argues that mental activity is
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Dynamical Systems Approach to Embodiment and Sociality, Advanced Knowledge International
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The research group led by Widrow empirically searched for methods to train two-layered
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2005:
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1234:"Modeling language and cognition with deep unsupervised learning: a tutorial overview"
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has not been reached. Differences between the two approaches include the following:
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469:, where useless units in hidden layers are pruned with the help of a validation set.
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1982:
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artificial intelligence turned towards symbolic methods. The publication of
155:. This principle has been seen as an alternative to GOFAI and the classical
99:
instead of the old 'all-or-nothing' function. Their work built upon that of
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The second wave begun in the early 1980s. Some key publications included (
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simulations of Ising model required the advent of computers in the 1950s.
307:
Precursors of the connectionist principles can be traced to early work in
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1349:
Pfeifer, R.; Schreter, Z.; Fogelman-Soulié, F.; Steels, L. (1989-08-23).
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Computationalists in general focus on the structure of explicit symbols (
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148:
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Generalization and information storage in networks of ADALINE "neurons"
1646:
1117:
857:
657:
656:'s Integrated Connectionist/Symbolic Cognitive Architecture (ICS). and
451:
358:(1925), though the Ising model conceived by them did not involve time.
319:
argued for multi-level, distributed systems. Following from this lead,
144:
107:
and Tienson posed the question of whether connectionism represented a
2237:"Symbolically speaking: a connectionist model of sentence production"
2119:
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1630:
1456:
1397:
1293:"Analytic and Continental Philosophy, Science, and Global Philosophy"
841:
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Some early popular demonstration projects appeared during this time.
411:
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McClelland, J.L., D.E. Rumelhart and the PDP Research Group (1986).
2686:
Rumelhart, D.E., J.L. McClelland and the PDP Research Group (1986).
243:: Activation can be defined in a variety of ways. For example, in a
1931:, Advances in Computers, vol. 37, Elsevier, pp. 335–425,
1796:
1232:
Zorzi, Marco; Testolin, Alberto; Stoianov, Ivilin P. (2013-08-20).
885:
883:
881:
879:
877:
875:
465:. This method employs incremental layer by layer training based on
2892:
A demonstration of Interactive Activation and Competition Networks
2490:
112:
29:
2904:
2734:
Rethinking Innateness: A connectionist perspective on development
287:, have argued that connectionist models will evolve toward fully
1167:
Neural Geographies: Feminism and the Microstructure of Cognition
267:
biologically-generated electrical activity seen at the scalp in
3391:
2926:
1631:"A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity"
1325:
Neural Network Perspectives on Cognition and Adaptive Robotics
842:"A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity"
1594:
Brush, Stephen G. (1967). "History of the Lenz-Ising Model".
1091:"Connective Intelligence for Childhood Mathematics Education"
34:
A 'second wave' connectionist (ANN) model with a hidden layer
2818:
1790:(2022). "Annotated History of Modern AI and Deep Learning".
204:
of numeric activation values over neural units in a network.
2169:. Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England: The MIT Press.
237:: Units can be interpreted as neurons or groups of neurons.
1072:
Garson, James (27 November 2018). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
510:(1969) is typically regarded as a catalyst of this event.
2514:
Cognitive Science. Supplement. Band 26, 1988, S. 137-161.
2120:"Approximation by superpositions of a sigmoidal function"
1925:
Olazaran, Mikel (1993-01-01), Yovits, Marshall C. (ed.),
1928:
A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy
707:
connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds.
557:, which also provided some mathematical respectability.
122:
The current (third) wave has been marked by advances in
111:
in psychology and so-called “good old-fashioned AI,” or
2865:
Dictionary of Philosophy of Mind entry on connectionism
1767:
Ivakhnenko, A. G.; Grigorʹevich Lapa, Valentin (1967).
966:
Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers
962:"Connectionism: Is it a Paradigm Shift for Psychology?"
2073:"Learning representations by back-propagating errors"
484:
to classify non-linearily separable pattern classes.
1679:"Some Reflections on F.A. Hayek's The Sensory Order"
1036:"Grammar-based Connectionist Approaches to Language"
4589:
4471:
4360:
4353:
4251:
4126:
3994:
3918:
3820:
3626:
3619:
3482:
3087:
2961:
1867:(1967). "A theory of adaptive pattern classifier".
421:The Perceptron machines were proposed and built by
2356:"Emergentism, Connectionism and Language Learning"
1744:. PhD Dissertation. University of Edinburgh, 1991.
1629:McCulloch, Warren S.; Pitts, Walter (1943-12-01).
840:McCulloch, Warren S.; Pitts, Walter (1943-12-01).
542:" now) alongside input and output units and using
1741:A historical sociology of neural network research
230:Most of the variety among the models comes from:
2190:Sammut, Claude; Webb, Geoffrey I., eds. (2010),
1728:(1st ed.). The University of Chicago Press.
1009:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. pp.
676:that may be describable in computational terms.
386:in the 1930s and symbolic logic in the style of
92:") alongside input and output units, and used a
73:was reintroduced in a 1982 paper in the journal
2649:2nd Edition. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. 2002
2484:Graves, Alex (2014). "Neural Turing Machines".
2390:"The dynamical hypothesis in cognitive science"
2010:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
935:Mind as Machine: A History of Cognitive Science
2831:
549:instead of the old 'all-or-nothing' function.
472:The first multilayered perceptrons trained by
283:. Many researchers, such as the connectionist
3403:
2938:
2198:, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 955–956,
1738:pp 124-129, Olazaran Rodriguez, Jose Miguel.
218:. The weights are adjusted according to some
192:Neural networks follow two basic principles:
8:
2953:Subfields of and cyberneticians involved in
1782:
1780:
436:Another form of connectionist model was the
2718:Pinker, Steven and Mehler, Jacques (1988).
2587:J.A. Fodor, Z.W. Pylyshyn (1988), S. 33-48.
2124:Mathematics of Control, Signals and Systems
454:networks (MADALINE), with limited success.
343:that posited a connectionist type network.
126:, which have made possible the creation of
4357:
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3410:
3396:
3388:
2945:
2931:
2923:
2489:
2252:
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2029:
1848:
1795:
1507:
1267:
1249:
1116:
1106:
1051:
977:
907:
583:Connectionism vs. computationalism debate
4574:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2848:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
346:Hopfield networks had precursors in the
2750:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
2708:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1635:The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics
1553:Neurocomputing: Foundations of Research
1075:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
846:The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics
808:
196:Any mental state can be described as a
1770:Cybernetics and forecasting techniques
461:and Valentin Lapa in 1965, called the
4787:Philosophy of artificial intelligence
4066:Psychological effects of Internet use
2786:https://doi.org/10.1201/9781351043526
2669:https://doi.org/10.1201/9781351043526
2230:
2228:
1837:The Annals of Mathematical Statistics
817:"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"
612:and the abandonment of the idea of a
7:
1067:
1065:
1063:
147:and the connections could represent
77:by Jerome Feldman and Dana Ballard.
4046:Digital media use and mental health
2910:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2884:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1833:"A Stochastic Approximation Method"
1164:Wilson, Elizabeth A. (2016-02-04).
939:. Oxford: Oxford U.P. p. 914.
892:"The Curious Case of Connectionism"
333:Project for a Scientific Psychology
251:on the sum of the inputs to a unit.
3677:Automatic and controlled processes
2763:"A Brief History of Connectionism"
711:Symbolism vs. connectionism debate
575:(1992) reached top human level in
370:The first wave begun in 1943 with
45:The first wave appeared 1943 with
25:
4086:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
4737:
4724:
4712:
4711:
4111:Mobile phones and driving safety
2830:
2400:(5): 615–28, discussion 629–65,
2196:Encyclopedia of Machine Learning
1191:Di Paolo, E.A (1 January 2003).
679:In the 2000s, the popularity of
662:CLARION (cognitive architecture)
555:universal function approximators
4014:Computer-mediated communication
3024:Cybernetics in the Soviet Union
2165:Sejnowski, Terrence J. (2018).
1965:Olazaran, Mikel (August 1996).
890:Berkeley, Istvan S. N. (2019).
528:Parallel Distributed Processing
4291:Empathising–systemising theory
3594:female intrasexual competition
3531:Evolutionarily stable strategy
2645:Bechtel, W., Abrahamsen, A.A.
1892:IEEE Transactions on Computers
1886:Amari, S.-I. (November 1972).
1817:. CCM Information Corporation.
1555:. A Bradford Book. p. 1.
1500:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2019.03.002
643:Computationalists often posit
1:
4651:Standard social science model
3704:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
2447:10.1016/s1364-6613(99)01440-0
2394:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
2313:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
2204:10.1007/978-0-387-30164-8_813
1937:10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60408-8
1814:Cybernetic Predicting Devices
491:produced an early example of
463:Group Method of Data Handling
459:Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko
4499:Missing heritability problem
4091:Social aspects of television
3714:Evolution of nervous systems
3682:Computational theory of mind
2784:, Boca Raton/FL: CRC Press,
2690:, Cambridge, Massachusetts:
2435:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
2297:10.1016/0004-3702(90)90007-M
2167:The deep learning revolution
2004:Hopfield, J J (April 1982).
1773:. American Elsevier Pub. Co.
1352:Connectionism in Perspective
4745:Evolutionary biology portal
2736:, Cambridge MA: MIT Press,
2722:, Cambridge MA: MIT Press,
1724:Hayek, F. A. (2012-09-15).
474:stochastic gradient descent
440:framework developed by the
4808:
4772:Computational neuroscience
4706:Evolutionary psychologists
4579:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
4494:Human–animal communication
4206:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
4056:Imprinted brain hypothesis
4024:Human–computer interaction
3004:Computational neuroscience
2254:10.1207/s15516709cog2605_3
2118:Cybenko, G. (1989-12-01).
1983:10.1177/030631296026003005
1811:Ivakhnenko, A. G. (1973).
1053:10.1207/s15516709cog2304_9
960:Schneider, Walter (1987).
771:Feature integration theory
522:, 1982) which popularized
327:, 3rd edition (1872), and
184:Artificial neural networks
181:
166:
27:Cognitive science approach
4700:
4626:Environmental determinism
4597:Cultural selection theory
4484:Evolutionary epistemology
4398:evolutionary neuroscience
4071:Rank theory of depression
3573:Parent–offspring conflict
3425:
2918:Critique of connectionism
2406:10.1017/S0140525X98001733
2325:10.1017/S0140525X00030910
1971:Social Studies of Science
1695:10.1007/s10818-004-5505-9
1616:10.1103/RevModPhys.39.883
1596:Reviews of Modern Physics
1549:Psychology (Brief Course)
1509:21.11116/0000-0003-474F-6
1322:Browne, A. (1997-01-01).
746:Catastrophic interference
499:The neural network winter
476:was published in 1967 by
132:interpretability problems
4519:Cultural group selection
4403:Biocultural anthropology
4096:Societal impacts of cars
4029:Media naturalness theory
3719:Fight-or-flight response
3177:Charles Geoffrey Vickers
3064:Second-order cybernetics
2770:Neural Computing Surveys
2761:David A. Medler (1998).
2746:Marcus, Gary F. (2001).
2388:Van Gelder, Tim (1998),
2276:Smolensky, Paul (1990).
2235:Chang, Franklin (2002).
1677:Caldwell, Bruce (2004).
1251:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00515
1034:Smolensky, Paul (1999).
1001:Marcus, Gary F. (2001).
979:10.1515/opphil-2019-0018
931:Boden, Margaret (2006).
909:10.1515/opphil-2019-0018
791:Pandemonium architecture
482:internal representations
372:Warren Sturgis McCulloch
325:Principles of Psychology
281:dynamical systems theory
269:event-related potentials
241:Definition of activation
47:Warren Sturgis McCulloch
4719:Evolutionary psychology
4683:Sociocultural evolution
4524:Dual inheritance theory
3981:Personality development
3442:Theoretical foundations
3419:Evolutionary psychology
3039:Engineering cybernetics
2969:Artificial intelligence
2780:Maurer, Harald (2021).
2720:Connections and Symbols
2375:10.1111/0023-8333.00063
2354:Ellis, Nick C. (1998).
2285:Artificial Intelligence
1904:10.1109/T-C.1972.223477
1850:10.1214/aoms/1177729586
1683:Journal of Bioeconomics
1238:Frontiers in Psychology
766:Eliminative materialism
736:Artificial intelligence
493:self-organizing network
235:Interpretation of units
4641:Social constructionism
4636:Psychological nativism
4611:Biological determinism
4559:Recent human evolution
4554:Punctuated equilibrium
4377:Behavioral epigenetics
4372:evolutionary economics
4341:Variability hypothesis
4286:Emotional intelligence
4019:Engineering psychology
3709:Evolution of the brain
3362:Walter Bradford Cannon
3252:Ludwig von Bertalanffy
3107:Alfred Radcliffe-Brown
3054:Management cybernetics
2979:Biomedical cybernetics
2974:Biological cybernetics
2826:
2806:Listen to this article
2597:242-244, 250-252, 282.
2031:10.1073/pnas.79.8.2554
1297:Comparative Philosophy
317:John Hughlings Jackson
222:or algorithm, such as
35:
4668:Multilineal evolution
4631:Nature versus nurture
4590:Theoretical positions
4438:Functional psychology
4433:Evolutionary medicine
4408:Biological psychiatry
4116:Texting while driving
4106:Lead–crime hypothesis
3966:Cognitive development
3951:Caregiver deprivation
3462:Gene selection theory
3322:Anthony Stafford Beer
3157:Ernst von Glasersfeld
2825:
751:Calculus of relations
704:Neural Turing Machine
389:Principia Mathematica
128:large language models
33:
4621:Cultural determinism
4428:Evolutionary biology
4413:Cognitive psychology
4361:Academic disciplines
4009:Cognitive ergonomics
3976:Language acquisition
3956:Childhood attachment
3769:Wason selection task
3663:Behavioral modernity
3452:Cognitive revolution
3435:Evolutionary thought
3352:Valentin Braitenberg
3232:Jay Wright Forrester
2857:More spoken articles
1831:; Monro, S. (1951).
1488:Cognitive Psychology
1291:Tieszen, R. (2011).
1204:University of Sussex
1141:"Encephalos Journal"
433:as main influences.
427:Psychological Review
291:, high-dimensional,
117:graceful degradation
59:Psychological Review
4688:Unilineal evolution
4453:Population genetics
4238:Sexy son hypothesis
4176:Hormonal motivation
4156:Concealed ovulation
3697:Dual process theory
3568:Parental investment
3377:William Grey Walter
3317:Sergei P. Kurdyumov
3277:N. Katherine Hayles
3059:Medical cybernetics
3019:Conversation theory
2136:1989MCSS....2..303C
2089:1986Natur.323..533R
2022:1982PNAS...79.2554H
1788:Schmidhuber, Jürgen
1608:1967RvMP...39..883B
1449:1986Natur.323..533R
1390:1989Natur.337..129C
1108:10.3916/c52-2017-03
796:Self-organizing map
614:language of thought
547:activation function
532:James L. McClelland
467:regression analysis
178:Memory and learning
169:Activation function
163:Activation function
97:activation function
82:James L. McClelland
71:connectionist model
4646:Social determinism
4529:Fisher's principle
4489:Great ape language
4479:Cultural evolution
4448:Philosophy of mind
4281:Division of labour
4243:Westermarck effect
4191:Mating preferences
4101:Distracted driving
3835:Literary criticism
3692:Domain specificity
3672:modularity of mind
3357:William Ross Ashby
3282:Natalia Bekhtereva
3257:Maleyka Abbaszadeh
3197:Heinz von Foerster
3122:Buckminster Fuller
3049:Information theory
2999:Catastrophe theory
2897:2015-07-03 at the
2827:
2144:10.1007/BF02551274
1753:Widrow, B. (1962)
1647:10.1007/BF02478259
858:10.1007/BF02478259
685:philosophy of mind
674:emergent phenomena
536:David E. Rumelhart
438:relational network
339:was writing about
311:, such as that of
262:Biological realism
255:Learning algorithm
86:David E. Rumelhart
36:
4767:Cognitive science
4754:
4753:
4732:Psychology portal
4696:
4695:
4539:Hologenome theory
4509:Unit of selection
4504:Primate cognition
4418:Cognitive science
4349:
4348:
4220:Sexual attraction
4196:Mating strategies
3961:Cinderella effect
3891:Moral foundations
3795:Visual perception
3687:Domain generality
3656:Facial expression
3604:Sexual dimorphism
3563:Natural selection
3509:Hamiltonian spite
3385:
3384:
3307:Ranulph Glanville
3222:Jakob von Uexküll
3202:Humberto Maturana
3162:Francis Heylighen
2823:
2794:978-1-351-04352-6
2756:978-0-262-63268-3
2742:978-0-262-55030-7
2728:978-0-262-66064-8
2714:978-0-262-63110-5
2700:978-0-262-68053-0
2363:Language Learning
2241:Cognitive Science
2213:978-0-387-30164-8
2176:978-0-262-03803-4
2083:(6088): 533–536.
1946:978-0-12-012137-3
1898:(11): 1197–1206.
1869:IEEE Transactions
1562:978-0-262-51048-6
1443:(6088): 533–536.
1384:(6203): 129–132.
1362:978-0-444-59876-9
1335:978-0-7503-0455-9
1177:978-1-317-95876-5
1145:www.encephalos.gr
1040:Cognitive Science
1020:978-0-262-63268-3
946:978-0-262-63268-3
776:Genetic algorithm
689:dynamical systems
681:dynamical systems
524:Hopfield networks
384:Nicolas Rashevsky
380:first-order logic
249:logistic function
245:Boltzmann machine
109:fundamental shift
75:Cognitive Science
16:(Redirected from
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4354:Related subjects
4141:Adult attachment
3668:Cognitive module
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3611:Social selection
3585:Costly signaling
3580:Sexual selection
3467:Modern synthesis
3412:
3405:
3398:
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3372:Warren McCulloch
3347:Valentin Turchin
3297:Pyotr Grigorenko
3242:John N. Warfield
3167:Francisco Varela
3127:Charles François
3097:Alexander Lerner
3074:Sociocybernetics
2994:Neurocybernetics
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2879:Zalta, Edward N.
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3187:Gordon S. Brown
3172:Frederic Vester
3152:Erich von Holst
3112:Allenna Leonard
3102:Alexey Lyapunov
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3029:Decision theory
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2905:"Connectionism"
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2899:Wayback Machine
2875:"Connectionism"
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1149:
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1139:
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1134:
1088:
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1083:
1071:
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1061:
1033:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1000:
999:
995:
959:
958:
954:
947:
930:
929:
925:
896:Open Philosophy
889:
888:
873:
839:
838:
834:
825:
823:
815:
814:
810:
805:
800:
726:
713:
645:domain specific
585:
516:
514:The second wave
501:
489:Shun'ichi Amari
478:Shun'ichi Amari
416:Friedrich Hayek
368:
341:human learning
321:Herbert Spencer
305:
297:dynamic systems
264:
190:
182:Main articles:
180:
171:
165:
140:
138:Basic principle
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4805:
4803:
4795:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4777:Theory of mind
4774:
4769:
4759:
4758:
4752:
4751:
4749:
4748:
4735:
4722:
4709:
4701:
4698:
4697:
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4693:
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4690:
4685:
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4675:
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4383:
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4364:
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4138:
4132:
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4124:
4123:
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4119:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4061:Mind-blindness
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4037:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4005:
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3818:
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3813:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3773:
3772:
3771:
3766:
3756:
3754:theory of mind
3747:
3738:
3737:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3700:
3699:
3694:
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3575:
3565:
3560:
3555:
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3549:
3548:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3521:Baldwin effect
3518:
3517:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3496:
3490:
3488:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3476:
3471:
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3464:
3459:
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3407:
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3383:
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3380:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3332:Stuart Umpleby
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3292:Norbert Wiener
3289:
3287:Niklas Luhmann
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3262:Manfred Clynes
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3237:Jennifer Wilby
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3207:I. A. Richards
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3142:Claude Bernard
3139:
3137:Margaret Boden
3134:
3132:Genevieve Bell
3129:
3124:
3119:
3117:Anthony Wilden
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3093:
3091:
3089:Cyberneticians
3085:
3084:
3082:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3069:Cybersemiotics
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3014:Control theory
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2958:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2942:
2935:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2915:
2901:
2889:
2867:
2850:
2836:
2829:
2817:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2800:External links
2798:
2797:
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2744:
2730:
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2425:
2380:
2369:(4): 631–664.
2346:
2319:(3): 417–451.
2302:
2268:
2247:(5): 609–651.
2224:
2212:
2182:
2175:
2157:
2130:(4): 303–314.
2110:
2063:
1996:
1977:(3): 611–659.
1957:
1945:
1917:
1878:
1875:(16): 279–307.
1856:
1820:
1803:
1776:
1759:
1746:
1731:
1716:
1689:(3): 239–254.
1669:
1660:
1641:(4): 115–133.
1621:
1602:(4): 883–893.
1586:
1581:Human Learning
1568:
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1478:
1427:
1368:
1361:
1341:
1334:
1314:
1283:
1224:
1183:
1176:
1156:
1132:
1097:(in Spanish).
1081:
1059:
1046:(4): 589–613.
1026:
1019:
993:
952:
945:
923:
902:(2): 190–205.
871:
852:(4): 115–133.
832:
807:
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758:
753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
731:Associationism
727:
725:
722:
712:
709:
654:Paul Smolensky
649:
648:
641:
637:
626:
610:associationism
606:Turing machine
584:
581:
515:
512:
500:
497:
447:in the 1960s.
367:
366:The first wave
364:
304:
301:
285:Paul Smolensky
263:
260:
259:
258:
252:
238:
228:
227:
205:
179:
176:
167:Main article:
164:
161:
139:
136:
105:Terence Horgan
67:Seymour Papert
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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4710:
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4707:
4703:
4702:
4699:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4673:Neo-Darwinism
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4658:Functionalism
4656:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4616:Connectionism
4614:
4612:
4609:
4608:
4607:
4606:indeterminism
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4594:
4592:
4588:
4580:
4577:
4575:
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4527:
4525:
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4517:
4515:
4512:
4511:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
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4474:
4470:
4464:
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4459:
4456:
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4451:
4449:
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4436:
4434:
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4411:
4409:
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4395:
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4387:
4384:
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4378:
4375:
4373:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4363:
4359:
4356:
4352:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4326:Schizophrenia
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4311:Mental health
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
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4274:
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4269:
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4264:
4262:
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4258:
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4234:
4230:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4186:Mate guarding
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4146:Age disparity
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4131:
4129:
4125:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4098:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4076:Schizophrenia
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
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4035:
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4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4006:
4004:
4002:
4001:Mental health
3997:
3996:Human factors
3993:
3987:
3986:Socialization
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3946:paternal bond
3943:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3925:
3923:
3921:
3917:
3911:
3908:
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3887:
3884:
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3877:
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3872:
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3857:
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3849:
3848:
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3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3831:
3828:
3827:
3825:
3823:
3819:
3811:
3810:Naïve physics
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3777:
3776:Motor control
3774:
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3767:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3742:
3739:
3735:
3734:Ophidiophobia
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3724:Arachnophobia
3722:
3721:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3698:
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3674:
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3652:
3651:Display rules
3649:
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3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3553:Kin selection
3551:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
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3475:
3472:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3447:Adaptationism
3445:
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3436:
3433:
3432:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3424:
3420:
3413:
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3358:
3355:
3353:
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3348:
3345:
3343:
3342:Ulla Mitzdorf
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3312:Robert Trappl
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3267:Margaret Mead
3265:
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3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3247:Kevin Warwick
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
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3225:
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3218:
3217:Jacque Fresco
3215:
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3027:
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3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3009:Connectionism
3007:
3005:
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3000:
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2990:
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2880:
2876:
2872:
2871:Garson, James
2868:
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2015:
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1968:
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1328:. CRC Press.
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1170:. Routledge.
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630:mental models
627:
623:
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602:computational
599:
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593:Steven Pinker
590:
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540:hidden layers
537:
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520:John Hopfield
513:
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414:experiments.
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338:
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330:
329:Sigmund Freud
326:
322:
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313:William James
310:
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220:learning rule
217:
214:
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200:-dimensional
199:
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188:Deep learning
185:
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175:
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162:
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125:
124:deep learning
120:
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101:John Hopfield
98:
95:
91:
90:hidden layers
87:
83:
78:
76:
72:
68:
64:
63:Marvin Minsky
60:
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39:Connectionism
32:
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18:Connectionist
4743:
4730:
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4463:Sociobiology
4321:Neuroscience
4301:Intelligence
3847:Anthropology
3800:Color vision
3785:Multitasking
3764:Flynn effect
3759:Intelligence
3741:Folk biology
3484:Evolutionary
3367:Walter Pitts
3272:Marian Mazur
3147:Cliff Joslyn
3008:
2989:Biosemiotics
2908:
2882:
2781:
2773:
2769:
2747:
2733:
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2528:
2519:
2509:
2500:
2479:
2441:(3): 91–99.
2438:
2434:
2428:
2417:, retrieved
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2305:
2288:
2284:
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2240:
2217:, retrieved
2195:
2185:
2166:
2160:
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2123:
2113:
2080:
2076:
2066:
2013:
2009:
1999:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1950:, retrieved
1927:
1920:
1895:
1891:
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1872:
1868:
1859:
1840:
1836:
1823:
1813:
1806:
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1371:
1355:. Elsevier.
1351:
1344:
1324:
1317:
1305:. Retrieved
1300:
1296:
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1237:
1227:
1215:. Retrieved
1199:
1186:
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1159:
1148:. Retrieved
1144:
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969:
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820:
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505:
502:
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435:
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420:
410:in years of
394:
387:
376:Walter Pitts
369:
352:Wilhelm Lenz
345:
332:
324:
306:
299:approaches.
271:such as the
265:
254:
240:
234:
229:
212:
208:
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191:
172:
151:, as in the
141:
121:
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74:
70:
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51:Walter Pitts
44:
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37:
4602:Determinism
4514:Coevolution
4458:Primatology
4296:Gender role
4201:Orientation
4081:Screen time
3938:Affectional
3920:Development
3599:Mate choice
3526:By-products
3494:Adaptations
3457:Cognitivism
3302:Qian Xuesen
3182:Gordon Pask
3079:Synergetics
3044:Homeostasis
2984:Biorobotics
2955:cybernetics
2192:"TD-Gammon"
1829:Robbins, H.
1307:29 December
1217:29 December
1118:10272/14085
821:iep.utm.edu
756:Cybernetics
741:Behaviorism
696:Alex Graves
634:syntactical
625:structures.
589:Jerry Fodor
507:Perceptrons
445:Sydney Lamb
360:Monte Carlo
356:Ernst Ising
354:(1920) and
348:Ising model
153:human brain
4761:Categories
4549:Population
4544:Lamarckism
4390:behavioral
4368:Behavioral
4316:Narcissism
4261:Aggression
4051:Hypophobia
4041:Depression
3928:Attachment
3910:Universals
3874:Psychology
3852:Biological
3840:Musicology
3830:Aesthetics
3729:Basophobia
3536:Exaptation
3514:Reciprocal
2853:Audio help
2844:2011-11-26
2678:References
2219:2023-12-25
1952:2024-08-07
1843:(3): 400.
1797:2212.11279
1584:, page 122
1150:2018-02-20
826:2023-08-19
577:backgammon
309:psychology
303:Precursors
293:non-linear
289:continuous
4792:Emergence
4394:cognitive
4386:Affective
4271:Cognition
4225:Sexuality
4211:Pair bond
3971:Education
3628:Cognition
3546:Inclusive
3486:processes
3474:Criticism
3034:Emergence
2962:Subfields
2776:: 61–101.
2692:MIT Press
2491:1410.5401
2455:1364-6613
2333:1469-1825
2263:1551-6709
2152:1435-568X
2105:1476-4687
2040:0027-8424
1991:0306-3127
1912:0018-9340
1711:144437624
1703:1387-6996
1655:1522-9602
1518:0010-0285
1494:: 15–52.
1473:205001834
1465:1476-4687
1406:1476-4687
1303:(2): 4–22
1260:1664-1078
1127:1134-3478
1095:Comunicar
988:201061823
972:: 73–83.
918:201061823
866:1522-9602
694:In 2014,
640:activity.
573:TD-Gammon
530:(PDP) by
487:In 1972,
4782:Learning
4663:Memetics
4423:Ethology
4381:genetics
4216:Physical
4181:Jealousy
4136:Activity
3942:maternal
3898:Religion
3886:Morality
3864:Language
3745:taxonomy
3558:Mismatch
3504:Cheating
3499:Altruism
2895:Archived
2855: ·
2627:633-654.
2617:283-312.
2471:16515284
2463:10689343
2414:10097022
2341:14973656
1534:85501792
1526:30921626
1278:23970869
1212:15349751
724:See also
700:DeepMind
442:linguist
149:synapses
4564:Species
4336:Suicide
4171:Fantasy
4151:Arousal
3933:Bonding
3822:Culture
3646:Display
3633:Emotion
3541:Fitness
3430:History
2881:(ed.).
2842: (
2813:minutes
2132:Bibcode
2085:Bibcode
2058:6953413
2018:Bibcode
1604:Bibcode
1578:(1931)
1445:Bibcode
1422:5892527
1414:2911347
1386:Bibcode
1269:3747356
1244:: 515.
658:Ron Sun
562:NETtalk
544:sigmoid
452:ADALINE
404:Lashley
350:due to
145:neurons
94:sigmoid
4742:
4729:
4716:
4306:Memory
4266:Autism
4233:female
4166:Desire
3903:Origin
3879:Speech
3869:Origin
3641:Affect
2792:
2754:
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2551:31-76.
2469:
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2419:28 May
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412:lesion
408:engram
216:matrix
202:vector
4276:Crime
3859:Crime
3790:Sleep
3780:skill
3620:Areas
2877:. In
2766:(PDF)
2486:arXiv
2467:S2CID
2359:(PDF)
2337:S2CID
2281:(PDF)
1792:arXiv
1707:S2CID
1530:S2CID
1469:S2CID
1418:S2CID
1208:S2CID
1196:(PDF)
1013:–28.
984:S2CID
914:S2CID
803:Notes
567:Today
431:Ashby
113:GOFAI
4229:male
3590:Male
2790:ISBN
2752:ISBN
2738:ISBN
2724:ISBN
2710:ISBN
2696:ISBN
2607:513.
2459:PMID
2451:ISSN
2421:2022
2410:PMID
2329:ISSN
2259:ISSN
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2148:ISSN
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2054:PMID
2036:ISSN
1987:ISSN
1941:ISBN
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1896:C-21
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900:2019
862:ISSN
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396:Hebb
374:and
277:P600
275:and
273:N400
186:and
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