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nature of the identities and interests of the actors in the system, and the meaning that social institutions (including anarchy) have for such actors, Wendt argues neorealism's "structure" reveals very little: "it does not predict whether two states will be friends or foes, will recognize each other's sovereignty, will have dynastic ties, will be revisionist or status quo powers, and so on". Because such features of behavior are not explained by anarchy, and require instead the incorporation of evidence about the interests and identities held by key actors, neorealism's focus on the material structure of the system (anarchy) is misplaced. Wendt goes further than this – arguing that because the way in which anarchy constrains states depends on the way in which states conceive of anarchy, and conceive of their own identities and interests, anarchy is not necessarily even a self-help system. It only forces states to self-help if they conform to neorealist assumptions about states as seeing security as a competitive, relative concept, where the gain of security for any one state means the loss of security for another. If states instead hold alternative conceptions of security, either "co-operative", where states can maximise their security without negatively affecting the security of another, or "collective" where states identify the security of other states as being valuable to themselves, anarchy will not lead to self-help at all. Neorealist conclusions, as such, depend entirely on unspoken and unquestioned assumptions about the way in which the meaning of social institutions are constructed by actors. Crucially, because neorealists fail to recognize this dependence, they falsely assume that such meanings are unchangeable, and exclude the study of the processes of social construction which actually do the key explanatory work behind neorealist observations.
837:, and constructivists. These scholars hold that research oriented around causal explanations and constitutive explanations is appropriate. Wendt refers to this form of constructivism as "thin" constructivism. On the other hand, there are "critical" radical constructivists who take discourse and linguistics more seriously, and adopt non-positivist methodologies and epistemologies.A third strand, known as critical constructivism, takes conventional constructivists to task for systematically downplaying or omitting class factors. Despite their differences, all strands of constructivism agree that neorealism and neoliberalism pay insufficient attention to social construction in world politics.
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international system. But it is important to note that despite this refocus onto identities and interests—properties of states—constructivists are not necessarily wedded to focusing their analysis at the unit-level of international politics: the state. Constructivists such as
Finnemore and Wendt both emphasize that while ideas and processes tend to explain the social construction of identities and interests, such ideas and processes form a structure of their own which impact upon international actors. Their central difference from neorealists is to see the structure of international politics in primarily ideational, rather than material, terms.
1019:, have argued that states act on security choices not only in the context of their physical capabilities but also on the basis of normative understandings. Martha Finnemore has suggested that international organizations like the World Bank or UNESCO help diffuse norms which, in turn, influence how states define their national interests. Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink have explored how norms affect political change. In doing so, they have stressed the connections between norms and rationality, rather than their opposition to each other. They have also highlighted the importance of “norm entrepreneurs” in advocating and spreading certain norms.
716:), constructivists see identities and interests of actors as socially constructed and changeable; identities are not static and cannot be exogenously assumed. Similar to rational choice, constructivism does not make broad and specific predictions about international relations; it is an approach to studying international politics, not a substantive theory of international politics. Constructivist analysis can only provide substantive explanations or predictions once the relevant actors and their interests have been identified, as well as the content of social structures.
922:) which are formally equal – they are all sovereign over their own territory. Such anarchy, neorealists argue, forces States to act in certain ways, specifically, they can only rely on themselves for security (they have to self-help). The way in which anarchy forces them to act in such ways, to defend their own self-interest in terms of power, neorealists argue, explains most of international politics. Because of this, neorealists tend to disregard explanations of international politics at the "unit" or "state" level. Kenneth Waltz attacked such a focus as being
964:, Finnemore attempts to "develop a systemic approach to understanding state interests and state behavior by investigating an international structure, not of power, but of meaning and social value". "Interests", she explains, "are not just 'out there' waiting to be discovered; they are constructed through social interaction". Finnemore provides three case studies of such construction – the creation of Science Bureaucracies in states due to the influence of the
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1012:”. That means that actors follow “internalized prescriptions of what is socially defined as normal, true, right, or good, without, or in spite of calculation of consequences and expected utility”. This logic of appropriateness stands in contrast to the rational choice “logic of consequences”, where actors are assumed to choose the most efficient means to reach their goals on the basis of a cost-benefit analysis.
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in theorising international relations. Now that actors are not simply governed by the imperatives of a self-help system, their identities and interests become important in analysing how they behave. Like the nature of the international system, constructivists see such identities and interests as not objectively grounded in material forces (such as dictates of the human nature that underpins
33:
1027:, i.e., a norm against the use of nuclear weapons. She has argued that this norm has become so deeply embedded in American political and social culture that nuclear weapons have not been employed, even in cases when their use would have made strategic or tactical sense. Michael Barnett has taken an evolutionary approach to trace how the norm of political humanitarianism emerged.
739:(the notion that individual units can be studied apart from the broader systems that they are embedded in). Whereas other prominent approaches conceptualize power in material terms (e.g. military and economic capabilities), constructivist analyses also see power as the ability to structure and constitute the nature of social relations among actors.
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physiological dynamics of emotions. Psychologists and neurologists have shown that emotions are based on bodily processes over which individuals have only limited control. They are inextricably intertwined with people's brain functions and autonomic nervous systems, which are typically outside the scope of standard constructivist models.
801:" is socially constructed—that is, not given by nature and hence, capable of being transformed by human practice—Wendt opened the way for a generation of international relations scholars to pursue work on a wide range of issues from a constructivist perspective. Wendt further developed these ideas in his central work,
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to adhere to them. Rules that cease to resonate at an affective level, however, often come to lose their prescriptive power. Emotional choice theorists note that recent findings in neurology suggest that humans generally feel before they think. So emotions may lead them to prioritize the constructivist “
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The significance of emotions in decision-making has generally been ignored by constructivist perspectives, according to these critics. Moreover, emotional choice theorists contend that the constructivist paradigm has difficulty incorporating emotions into its models, because it cannot account for the
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scholars, such as the existence of anarchy and the centrality of states in the international system. However, Wendt renders anarchy in cultural rather than materialist terms; he also offers a sophisticated theoretical defense of the state-as-actor assumption in international relations theory. This is
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Some scholars have investigated the role of individual norms in world politics. For instance, Audie Klotz has examined how the global norm against apartheid developed across different states (the United
Kingdom, the United States, and Zimbabwe) and institutions (the Commonwealth, the Organization of
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Constructivist research is focused both on causal explanations for phenomena, as well as analyses of how things are constituted. In the study of national security, the emphasis is on the conditioning that culture and identity exert on security policies and related behaviors. Identities are necessary
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calls two increasingly accepted basic tenets of constructivism "that the structures of human association are determined primarily by shared ideas rather than material forces, and that the identities and interests of purposive actors are constructed by these shared ideas rather than given by nature."
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Emotional choice theory seeks to capture not only the social but also the physiological and dynamic character of emotions. It posits that emotion plays a key role in normative action. Emotions endow norms and identities with meaning. If people feel strongly about norms, they are particularly likely
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As constructivists reject neorealism's conclusions about the determining effect of anarchy on the behavior of international actors, and move away from neorealism's underlying materialism, they create the necessary room for the identities and interests of international actors to take a central place
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and others. Scholars have employed ANT in order to disrupt traditional world political binaries (civilised/barbarian, democratic/autocratic, etc.), consider the implications of a posthuman understanding of IR, explore the infrastructures of world politics, and consider the effects of technological
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As a criticism of neorealism and neoliberalism (which were the dominant strands of IR theory during the 1980s), constructivism tended to be lumped in with all approaches that criticized the so-called "neo-neo" debate. Constructivism has therefore often been conflated with critical theory. However,
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Constructivism, particularly in the formative work of Wendt, challenges this assumption by showing that the causal powers attributed to "structure" by neorealists are in fact not "given", but rest on the way in which structure is constructed by social practice. Removed from presumptions about the
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is What States Make of It: the Social
Construction of Power Politics" laid the theoretical groundwork for challenging what he considered to be a flaw shared by both neorealists and neoliberal institutionalists, namely, a commitment to a (crude) form of materialism. By attempting to show that even
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After establishing that norms mattered in international politics, later veins of constructivism focused on explaining the circumstances under which some norms mattered and others did not. Swathes of constructivist research have focused on norm entrepreneurs: international organizations and law:
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Studies of such processes are examples of the constructivist attitude towards state interests and identities. Such interests and identities are central determinants of state behaviour, as such studying their nature and their formation is integral in constructivist methodology to explaining the
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African Unity, and the United
Nations). The emergence and institutionalization of this norm, she argued, has contributed to the end of the apartheid regime in South Africa. Nina Tannenwald has made the case that the non-use of nuclear weapons since 1945 can be attributed to the strength of a
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have defined “norms” as “a broad class of prescriptive statements – rules, standards, principles, and so forth – both procedural and substantive” that are “prescriptions for action in situations of choice, carrying a sense of obligation, a sense that they ought to be followed”.
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is a social theory that asserts that significant aspects of international relations are shaped by ideational factors. The most important ideational factors are those that are collectively held; these collectively held beliefs construct the interests and identities of actors.
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loyal to a purely materialist ontology, but a growing number of constructivists question the "liberal" character of constructivist thought and express greater sympathy for realist pessimism concerning the possibility of emancipation from power politics.
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in order to ensure at least some minimal level of predictability and order. The object of the constructivist discourse can be conceived as the arrival, a fundamental factor in the field of international relations, of the recent debate on epistemology, the
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argue that constructivist approaches neglect the emotional underpinnings of social interactions, normative behavior, and decision-making in general. They point out that the constructivist paradigm is generally based on the assumption that
829:, Elizabeth Kier, Martha Finnemore, and Alexander Wendt, who use widely accepted methodologies and epistemologies. Their work has been widely accepted within the mainstream IR community and generated vibrant scholarly discussions among
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Stephen Walt writes on the back cover of
Finnemore's book "Many writers have asserted that social structures assert a powerful impact on national preferences...but Finnemore is the first to present sophisticated evidence for this
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A significant group of scholars who study processes of social construction self-consciously eschew the label "constructivist". They argue that "mainstream" constructivism has abandoned many of the most important insights from
1254:. Sterling-Folker argued that the U.S. shift towards unilateralism is partially accounted for by realism's emphasis of an anarchic system, but constructivism helps to account for important factors from the domestic or second
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compiled works by numerous prominent and emerging constructivists, showing that constructivist insights were important in the field of security studies, an area of
International Relations in which realists had been dominant.
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By focusing on how language and rhetoric are used to construct the social reality of the international system, constructivists are often seen as more optimistic about progress in international relations than versions of
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Simon
Frankel Pratt (2016). "Pragmatism as Ontology, Not (Just) Epistemology: Exploring the Full Horizon of Pragmatism as an Approach to IR Theory" in 'International Studies Review', 18(3), pp. 508–527,
1246:, vol. 30, 2004). It has been argued that progress in IR theory will be achieved when Realism and Constructivism can be aligned or even synthesized. An early example of such synthesis was
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In a response to constructivism, John
Mearsheimer has argued that ideas and norms only matter on the margins, and that appeals by leaders to norms and morals often reflect self-interest.
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has been influential in examining the way in which international organizations are involved in these processes of the social construction of actor's perceptions of their interests. In
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was the dominant discourse of international relations. Much of constructivism's initial theoretical work challenged basic neorealist assumptions. Neorealists are fundamentally causal
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and social-constructionist theory in the pursuit of respectability as a "scientific" approach to international relations. Even some putatively "mainstream" constructivists, such as
1484:” over the rationalist “logic of consequences,” or vice versa. Emotions may also infuse the logic of appropriateness and inform actors how to adjudicate between different norms.
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This does not mean that constructivists believe international politics is "ideas all the way down", but rather is characterized both by material factors and ideational factors.
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suggests that only a small part of the brain's activities operate at the level of conscious thinking. The vast majority of its activities consist of unconscious appraisals and
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Constructivist norm scholarship has investigated a wide range of issue areas in world politics. For example, Peter
Katzenstein and the contributors to his edited volume,
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character of international relations. Since the late 1980s to early 1990s, constructivism has become one of the major schools of thought within international relations.
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is a conscious process based on thoughts and beliefs. It presumes that people decide on the basis of reflection and deliberation. However, cumulative research in
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a contentious issue within segments of the IR community as some constructivists challenge Wendt on some of these assumptions (see, for example, exchanges in
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The notion that international relations are not only affected by power politics, but also by ideas, is shared by writers who describe themselves as
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applied constructivist approaches to understand the evolution of state sovereignty as a central theme in international relations, and works by
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to argue that changes in the nature of social interaction between states can bring a fundamental shift towards greater international security.
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and Daniel
Philpott (among others) developed constructivist theories of major transformations in the dynamics of international politics. In
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epistemic communities; speech, argument, and persuasion; and structural configuration as mechanisms and processes for social construction.
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Theories of International Cooperation and the Primacy of Anarchy: Explaining U.S. International Monetary Policy-Making after Bretton Wood
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According to this view, the fundamental structures of international politics are social rather than strictly material. This leads to
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while constructivism may use aspects of critical theory and vice versa, the mainstream variants of constructivism are positivist.
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Constructivism primarily seeks to demonstrate how core aspects of international relations are, contrary to the assumptions of
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John Gerard Ruggie (1998). "What Makes the World Hang Together? Neo-utilitarianism and the Social Constructivist Challenge".
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Central to constructivism are the notions that ideas matter, and that agents are socially constructed (rather than given).
1207:, the application of constructivism has been less frequent. Notable examples of constructivist work in this area include
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See, for example, David D. Franks (2014), "Emotions and Neurosociology," in Jan E. Stets and Jonathan H. Turner, eds.,
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There are several strands of constructivism. On the one hand, there are "conventional" constructivist scholars such as
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Jonathan Luke Austin (2015). "We have never been civilized: Torture and the Materiality of World Political Binaries,"
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Jennifer Sterling-Folker (2002). "Realism and the Constructivist Challenge: Rejecting, Reconstructing, or Rereading,"
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1083:: norms that make general claims (rather than localized and particularistic claims) are more likely to be effective
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1966:"TRIP AROUND THE WORLD: Teaching, Research, and Policy Views of International Relations Faculty in 20 Countries"
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Leander, A., 2013. “Technological agency in the co-constitution of legal expertise and the US drone program.”
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Constructivism is often presented as an alternative to the two leading theories of international relations,
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and others have argued that the robustness (or effectiveness) of norms can be measured by factors such as:
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Alexander Wendt (1992). "Anarchy is What States Make of It: the Social Construction of Power Politics" in
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Alexander Wendt (1992). "Anarchy is What States Make of It: the Social Construction of Power Politics" in
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A growing number of constructivists contend that current theories pay inadequate attention to the role of
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http://www.palgrave.com/page/detail/theories-of-international-relations-scott-burchill/?isb=978023036222
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offered the first "sustained, systematic empirical argument in support of the constructivist claim that
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Social Construction of International Politics: Identities & Foreign Policies, Moscow, 1955 and 1999
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Andrew Moravscik (1997). "Taking Preferences Seriously: A Liberal Theory of International Politics" in
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Patrick Thaddeus Jackson, ed. (2004). "Bridging the Gap: Towards a Realist-Constructivist Dialogue" in
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Vincent Pouliot (2008). "The Logic of Practicality: A Theory of Practice of Security Communities" in
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by looking at goals, threats, fears, cultures, identities, and other elements of "social reality" as
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E. Cudworth and S. Hobden (2013). "Of parts and wholes: International Relations beyond the human,"
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Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes (1994). "Regime Architecture: Elements and Principles", in
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Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink (1998). "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change",
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In terms of specific norms, constructivist scholars have shown how the following norms emerged:
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Iver B. Neumann (2002). "Returning Practice to the Linguistic Turn: The Case of Diplomacy" in
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David M. McCourt (2016). "Practice Theory and Relationalism as the New Constructivism," in
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Monitoring Democracy: When International Election Observation Works, and why it Often Fails
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International Relations' Last Synthesis?: Decoupling Constructivist and Critical Approaches
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Cornelia Beyer (2009). "Hegemony, Equilibrium and Counterpower: A Synthetic Approach", in
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Michael Barnett (2009). "Evolution without Progress? Humanitarianism in a World of Hurt",
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Great Transformations: Economic Ideas and Institutional Change in the Twentieth Century
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Norm-based constructivist approaches generally assume that actors tend to adhere to a “
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1089:: norms that are widely accepted among powerful actors are more likely to be effective
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Jeffrey Checkel (2004). "Social Constructivisms in Global and European Politics", in
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Katzenstein, Peter J. Keohane, Robert Owen, 1941- Krasner, Stephen D., 1942- (2002).
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Constructivist scholars have explored in-depth the role of norms in world politics.
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735:(the notion that the physical world determines political behavior on its own), and
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2087:"Duelling Constructivisms: A Post-Mortem on the Ideas Debate in Mainstream IR?IPE"
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argues that there are two common types of explanations for the efficacy of norms:
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The Power of Words in International Relations: Birth of an Anti-Whaling Discourse
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1984:"Book Reviews: National Interests in International Society.By Martha Finnemore"
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Constructivism was introduced to IR by Nicholas Onuf (1989) who coined the term
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Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Non-Use of Nuclear Weapons since 1945
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1689:"Anarchy is what States Make of it: The Social Construction of Power Politics"
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Introduction to International Relations: Theories and Approaches, 4th Edition
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Barnett, Michael L. (2018). Gheciu, Alexandra; Wohlforth, William C (eds.).
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Revolutions in Sovereignty: How Ideas Shaped Modern International Relations
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2885:"Reversing the Gun Sights: Transnational Civil Society Targets Land Mines"
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James G. March and Johan P. Olsen (2011). "The Logic of Appropriateness",
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1301:(ANT), which extends the early focus of the Practice Turn on the work of
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International Politics and Inner Worlds: Masks of Reason Under Scrutiny
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2364:. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. 2019-03-25. pp. 1–6.
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2126:"Institutions, Roles, and Disorder: The Case of the Arab States System"
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918:– it lacks any overarching authority, instead it is composed of units (
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The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics
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Emotional Choices: How the Logic of Affect Shapes Coercive Diplomacy
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The Purpose of Intervention: Changing Beliefs About the Use of Force
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2141:
1851:
3022:"Water and Warfare: The Evolution and Operation of the Water Taboo"
2173:"Norms, Institutions, and National Identity in Contemporary Europe"
1999:
1109:: actors comply with norms due to social learning and socialization
1071:: norms that are clear and specific are more likely to be effective
708:
In contrast to other prominent IR approaches and theories (such as
3815:
3572:
3286:
Constructivism in International Relations: The Politics of Reality
2737:"Which Norms Matter? Revisiting the "Failure" of Internationalism"
1836:"The Promise of Constructivism in International Relations Theory"
3592:
2626:
Norms in International Relations: The Struggle against Apartheid
2421:
Why Leaders Lie: The Truth About Lying in International Politics
719:
The main theories competing with constructivism are variants of
3509:
2561:
Global Engagement: Cooperation and Security in the 21st Century
2385:
Dunne, Tim; Kurki, Milja; Smith, Steve, eds. (September 2017).
1289:
Advocates of the "practice turn" take inspiration from work in
1282:
and unreflective behavior in world politics, the centrality of
761:
The earliest constructivist works focused on establishing that
3872:
3435:
A. Barry (2013). “Material Politics.” Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
3195:
The Currency of Ideas: Monetary Politics in the European Union
1050:: they "create new actors, interests, or categories of action"
26:
2940:"Norms and Security: The Case of International Assassination"
3501:
Read an Interview with Social Constructivist Alexander Wendt
2508:
2506:
2220:
Exploration and contestation in the study of world politics
2792:"Why Comply? Social Learning and European Identity Change"
2051:"Theoretical Pluralism in IR: Possibilities and Limits"
3088:
Vik, Hanne Hagtvedt; Østberg, Skage Alexander (2021).
1126:: A norm against nuclear weapons developed since 1945.
1077:: norms with a history are more likely to be effective
3472:
Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain
3151:
Thomas J. Biersteker and Cynthia Weber, eds. (1996).
910:
and fully elucidated in his core text of neorealism,
2533:(New York: Cornell University Press, 1996), pp. 6-7.
3929:
3881:
3679:
3636:
3611:
3565:
3556:
2546:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 29-33.
57:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2676:"International Norm Dynamics and Political Change"
1314:Notable constructivists in international relations
2447:"The False Promise of International Institutions"
1793:"Rationalism v. Constructivism: A Skeptical View"
2297:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.8-15
1509:English school of international relations theory
3578:Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)
1293:, as well as that of social theorists such as
3521:
1609:The Oxford Handbook of International Security
677:
66:"Constructivism" international relations
8:
3424:Millennium: Journal of International Studies
3337:Millennium: Journal of International Studies
3184:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
2674:Finnemore, Martha; Sikkink, Kathryn (1998).
2310:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Publishing, pp.40-43
2273:. Oxford University Press Inc. p. 237.
2250:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1661:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–4.
1559:Finnemore, Martha; Sikkink, Kathryn (2001).
817:National Interests in International Society.
3405:European Journal of International Relations
2600:National Interests in International Society
2531:National Interests In International Society
2514:National Interests In International Society
962:National Interests In International Society
815:matter in world politics" in her 1996 book
3562:
3528:
3514:
3506:
2254:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1881:Barnett, Michael; Duvall, Raymond (2005).
1056:: they have an "oughtness" quality to them
1037:distinguish between three types of norms:
892:During constructivism's formative period,
684:
670:
131:
3593:North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
3487:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 26.
3115:
3105:
3037:
2323:. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
1898:
1576:
1286:in constructing world politics, or both.
380:Chinese school of international relations
117:Learn how and when to remove this message
18:Constructivism in international relations
3998:Constructivism (international relations)
3288:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3210:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3155:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2878:
2876:
2574:The Oxford Handbook of Political Science
2389:. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press.
1941:. Oxford University Press. p. 166.
1791:Fearon, James; Wendt, Alexander (2002),
1152:Taboo against the weaponization of water
750:has been credited with coining the term
3598:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)
3381:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
3197:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
2644:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2628:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
2544:Social Theory of International Politics
2295:Social Theory of International Politics
1740:
1738:
1658:Social Theory of International Politics
1530:
804:Social Theory of International Politics
134:
3171:. New York: Columbia University Press.
3142:. New York: Columbia University Press.
2727:
2725:
2669:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2589:. New York: Columbia University Press.
2243:
1494:Constructivism (philosophy of science)
1451:Critique by emotional choice theorists
3461:, vol. 2. New York: Springer, p. 267.
3459:Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions
3275:, State University of New York Press.
3153:State Sovereignty As Social Construct
2636:
2634:
2563:. Washington, D.C.: Brookings, p. 65.
2308:Understanding International Relations
1554:
1499:Constructivism (psychological school)
1044:: they "order and constrain behavior"
754:to describe theories that stress the
7:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1682:
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1650:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1617:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198777854.013.7
1598:
1596:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
55:adding citations to reliable sources
3446:Leiden Journal of International Law
2602:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
2395:10.1093/hepl/9780198707561.001.0001
2271:The Globalization of World Politics
2055:Handbook of International Relations
1797:Handbook of International Relations
3671:International relations since 1989
3661:Diplomatic history of World War II
3583:International Criminal Court (ICC)
1565:Annual Review of Political Science
813:international normative structures
784:is the most prominent advocate of
636:
25:
3967:International political sociology
3271:Jennifer Sterling-Folker (2002).
1883:"Power in International Politics"
1183:. In an important edited volume,
1054:Evaluative and prescriptive norms
129:Theory of international relations
3140:The Culture of National Security
3094:The International History Review
2387:International Relations Theories
2321:Theory of International Politics
1633:from the original on 2018-09-06.
1185:The Culture of National Security
1017:The Culture of National Security
912:Theory of International Politics
797:such a core realist concept as "
771:The Culture of National Security
653:
31:
3962:International political economy
3470:See Antonio R. Damasio (1994),
3363:International Studies Quarterly
3324:Review of International Studies
3138:Peter Katzenstein, ed. (1996).
3020:Grech-Madin, Charlotte (2021).
2585:Peter Katzenstein, ed. (1996).
2177:International Studies Quarterly
2130:International Studies Quarterly
2091:Review of International Studies
2085:Jacobsen, Kurt (January 2003).
1578:10.1146/annurev.polisci.4.1.391
1243:Review of International Studies
1205:international political economy
807:(1999). Following up on Wendt,
330:International political economy
222:Uneven and combined development
42:needs additional citations for
4003:International relations theory
2999:. Princeton University Press.
136:International relations theory
1:
3193:Kathleen R. McNamara (1999).
3107:10.1080/07075332.2021.1955726
2445:Mearsheimer, John J. (1994).
2418:Mearsheimer, John J. (2011).
1988:American Journal of Sociology
1175:Many constructivists analyse
980:'s influence of attitudes to
3930:Related fields and subfields
3409:doi:10.1177/1354066115616466
3351://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viv003
3260:International Studies Review
3221:International Studies Review
3169:National Collective Identity
2851:. Cornell University Press.
2790:Checkel, Jeffrey T. (2001).
2171:Checkel, Jeffrey T. (1999).
2049:Checkel, Jeffrey T. (2013),
1514:International legal theories
1142:Norms against assassination.
324:liberal intergovernmentalism
3483:See Robin Markwica (2018),
3061:Epstein, Charlotte (2008).
2424:. Oxford University Press.
765:in international politics.
4019:
3972:Peace and conflict studies
3588:Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
3392:International Organization
3367:doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqw036
3234:International Organization
2993:Kelley, Judith G. (2012).
2889:International Organization
2845:Finnemore, Martha (2003).
2796:International Organization
2741:International Organization
2680:International Organization
2655:International Organization
2613:International Organization
2347:International Organization
2334:International Organization
1887:International Organization
1747:International Organization
1693:International Organization
345:Hegemonic stability theory
3543:
2808:10.1162/00208180152507551
2598:Martha Finnemore (1996).
2124:Barnett, Michael (1993).
2103:10.1017/S0260210503000032
1900:10.1017/S0020818305050010
1705:10.1017/S0020818300027764
1687:Wendt, Alexander (1992).
1655:Wendt, Alexander (1999).
1118:Humanitarian intervention
878:constructivist theorists.
305:Critical security studies
3180:Daniel Philpott (2001).
2640:Nina Tannenwald (2007).
2542:Alexander Wendt (1999).
2518:Cornell University Press
2293:Alexander Wendt (1999).
1805:10.4135/9781848608290.n3
1799:, SAGE, pp. 52–72,
1519:Logic of appropriateness
1482:logic of appropriateness
1248:Jennifer Sterling-Folker
1010:logic of appropriateness
941:Identities and interests
792:. Wendt's 1992 article "
272:Territorial peace theory
192:Liberal institutionalism
3947:Foreign policy analysis
3759:International community
3537:International relations
3474:, New York: Avon Books.
3298:Jacobsen, Kurt (2017).
3247:International Relations
2956:10.1162/016228800560408
2901:10.1162/002081898550671
2883:Price, Richard (1998).
2753:10.1162/002081897550294
2692:10.1162/002081898550789
2189:10.1111/0020-8833.00112
1982:Dessler, David (1997).
1759:10.1162/002081898550770
1504:Emotional choice theory
1457:emotional choice theory
1284:relations and processes
1177:international relations
907:Man, the State, and War
790:international relations
698:international relations
640:International relations
277:Democratic peace theory
217:Theories of imperialism
177:Democratic peace theory
152:Feminist constructivism
3026:International Security
2944:International Security
2451:International Security
2319:Kenneth Waltz (1979).
1840:International Security
1215:in the United States.
1002:Antonia Handler Chayes
882:social constructivists
871:sociology of knowledge
3284:Maja Zehfuss (2002).
2938:Thomas, Ward (2000).
2615:, 52(4), pp. 887–917.
2269:Baylis, John (2011).
2063:10.4135/9781446247587
2057:, SAGE, p. 222,
1931:Robert Howard Jackson
1025:nuclear weapons taboo
786:social constructivism
420:Inter-paradigm debate
187:Republican liberalism
3937:Comparative politics
3448:, 26(4), pp.811-831.
3426:, 41(3), pp.430-450.
3039:10.1162/isec_a_00404
2657:, 63(4), pp. 621–63.
2624:Audie Klotz (1995).
2349:(46:2), pp. 396–399.
2306:Chris Brown (2005).
1385:Friedrich Kratochwil
1370:Peter J. Katzenstein
1330:Thomas J. Biersteker
1299:Actor-Network Theory
1252:Bretton Woods system
1209:Kathleen R. McNamara
1193:Thomas J. Biersteker
1147:Election monitoring.
1136:Norms of sovereignty
1060:Finnemore, Sikkink,
855:socially constructed
767:Peter J. Katzenstein
756:socially constructed
591:Immanuel Wallerstein
541:Peter J. Katzenstein
526:Samuel P. Huntington
443:Historical sociology
438:International ethics
320:Intergovernmentalism
252:Neoclassical realism
227:World-systems theory
51:improve this article
3719:Collective security
3603:United Nations (UN)
3365:60(3), pp. 475–485
3223:vol. 6, pp. 337-352
3206:Mark Blyth (1992).
2867:10.7591/j.ctt24hg32
1262:Recent developments
888:Challenging realism
660:Politics portal
481:Zbigniew Brzezinski
453:State cartel theory
3262:, 4(1), pp. 73–97.
2529:Martha Finnemore,
2512:Martha Finnemore,
2035:2020-09-26 at the
1834:Hopf, Ted (1998).
1611:. pp. 85–99.
1340:Jeffrey T. Checkel
1048:Constitutive norms
974:Geneva Conventions
968:, the role of the
952:social interaction
556:Stephen D. Krasner
3985:
3984:
3957:International law
3826:Right of conquest
3791:National interest
3734:Deterrence theory
3632:
3631:
3619:League of Nations
3377:Ted Hopf (2002).
3165:Rodney Bruce Hall
3074:978-0-262-26267-5
3006:978-0-691-15278-3
2858:978-0-8014-3845-5
2733:Legro, Jeffrey W.
2431:978-0-19-979286-3
2280:978-0-19-956909-0
1948:978-0-19-954884-2
1668:978-0-521-46960-9
1626:978-0-19-877785-4
1390:Richard Ned Lebow
1256:level of analysis
1201:Rodney Bruce Hall
1189:Peter Katzenstein
1164:Anti-torture norm
1158:Anti-whaling norm
948:classical realism
827:Peter Katzenstein
769:'s edited volume
694:
693:
350:Copenhagen School
267:Defensive realism
262:Offensive realism
247:Classical realism
212:Dependency theory
127:
126:
119:
101:
16:(Redirected from
4010:
3977:Security studies
3769:Internationality
3764:Internationalism
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1605:"Constructivism"
1600:
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1345:Martha Finnemore
1305:towards that of
1130:Ban on landmines
1062:Jeffrey W. Legro
1042:Regulative norms
1031:Martha Finnemore
958:Martha Finnemore
809:Martha Finnemore
788:in the field of
686:
679:
672:
658:
657:
638:
561:John Mearsheimer
516:Martha Finnemore
501:Michael W. Doyle
432:Other approaches
375:Intercommunalism
359:neofunctionalism
300:Neo-Gramscianism
182:Capitalist peace
132:
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3801:Non-belligerent
3796:Neutral country
3781:Interventionism
3714:Co-belligerence
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2037:Wayback Machine
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1445:Alexander Wendt
1430:Kathryn Sikkink
1425:Chris Reus-Smit
1395:Daniel H. Nexon
1325:Michael Barnett
1316:
1303:Pierre Bourdieu
1295:Pierre Bourdieu
1273:Jeffrey Checkel
1269:linguistic turn
1264:
1173:
1094:Jeffrey Checkel
1035:Kathryn Sikkink
994:
943:
890:
859:Alexander Wendt
843:
823:Kathryn Sikkink
782:Alexander Wendt
745:
731:that emphasize
729:rational choice
714:rational choice
690:
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645:
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566:Hans Morgenthau
551:Henry Kissinger
476:Michael Barnett
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3070:
3067:. MIT Press.
3066:
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3057:
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3045:
3040:
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3032:(4): 84–125.
3031:
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2222:. MIT Press.
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2198:
2194:
2190:
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2183:(1): 83–114.
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1405:Nicholas Onuf
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1398:
1396:
1393:
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1386:
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1380:Judith Kelley
1378:
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1375:Margaret Keck
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1355:Peter M. Haas
1353:
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1350:Ernst B. Haas
1348:
1346:
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1323:
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1320:Emanuel Adler
1318:
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1197:Cynthia Weber
1194:
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1153:
1150:
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1137:
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1131:
1128:
1125:
1124:Nuclear taboo
1122:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1095:
1088:
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949:
940:
938:
935:
931:
927:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
908:
903:
902:Kenneth Waltz
899:
895:
887:
885:
883:
879:
874:
872:
866:
863:
860:
856:
852:
851:neoliberalism
848:
840:
838:
836:
832:
828:
824:
819:
818:
814:
810:
806:
805:
800:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
772:
768:
764:
759:
757:
753:
749:
748:Nicholas Onuf
742:
740:
738:
737:individualism
734:
730:
726:
722:
717:
715:
711:
706:
703:
699:
687:
682:
680:
675:
673:
668:
667:
665:
664:
661:
656:
651:
650:
641:
637:
625:
624:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
601:Kenneth Waltz
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
581:Susan Strange
579:
577:
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572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
536:Robert Jervis
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
521:Robert Gilpin
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
506:Cynthia Enloe
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
473:
467:
466:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
448:Regime theory
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
435:
429:
428:
421:
418:
415:
414:Great Debates
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
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396:
395:
389:
388:
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378:
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371:
368:
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365:Postmodernism
363:
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355:Functionalism
353:
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71:
68: –
67:
63:
62:Find sources:
56:
52:
46:
45:
40:This article
38:
34:
29:
28:
19:
3890:
3856:Multilateral
3786:Isolationism
3739:Expansionism
3484:
3479:
3471:
3466:
3458:
3453:
3445:
3440:
3431:
3423:
3418:
3404:
3399:
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3386:
3378:
3373:
3362:
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3344:
3336:
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3323:
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3259:
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3176:
3168:
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3134:
3097:
3093:
3083:
3063:
3056:
3029:
3025:
3015:
2995:
2988:
2947:
2943:
2933:
2892:
2888:
2847:
2840:
2799:
2795:
2785:
2747:(1): 31–63.
2744:
2740:
2683:
2679:
2654:
2649:
2641:
2625:
2620:
2612:
2607:
2599:
2594:
2586:
2581:
2573:
2568:
2560:
2551:
2543:
2538:
2530:
2525:
2513:
2495:
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2440:
2420:
2413:
2386:
2380:
2360:
2354:
2346:
2341:
2333:
2328:
2320:
2315:
2307:
2302:
2294:
2289:
2270:
2264:
2219:
2213:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2133:
2129:
2119:
2094:
2090:
2080:
2054:
2044:
2024:
1991:
1987:
1977:
1960:
1952:
1938:
1925:
1893:(1): 39–75.
1890:
1886:
1876:
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1307:Bruno Latour
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49:Please help
44:verification
41:
3952:Geopolitics
3831:Sovereignty
3811:Imperialism
3724:Colonialism
3709:Appeasement
3624:Warsaw Pact
3249:, vol 23:3.
3117:10852/93126
2516:(New York:
2457:(3): 5–49.
1420:John Ruggie
1360:Ian Hacking
1213:Reaganomics
1101:Rationalism
1069:specificity
743:Development
733:materialism
611:Yan Xuetong
486:Hedley Bull
458:Geopolitics
403:Rationalism
282:Realpolitik
107:August 2023
3992:Categories
3906:Liberalism
3851:Friendship
3836:Suzerainty
2229:0262611449
1525:References
1400:Qin Yaqing
1335:Mark Blyth
1237:neorealist
1233:liberalism
1087:prominence
978:World Bank
894:neorealism
847:neorealism
725:liberalism
628:Categories
616:Qin Yaqing
571:Joseph Nye
491:E. H. Carr
257:Neorealism
165:Liberalism
77:newspapers
3942:Diplomacy
3846:Bilateral
3744:Grey-zone
3697:Coalition
3656:1919–1939
3651:1814–1919
3646:1648–1814
3126:0707-5332
3048:0162-2889
2964:0162-2889
2925:154517018
2909:0020-8183
2832:143511229
2816:0020-8183
2777:154368865
2761:0020-8183
2700:0020-8183
2487:153472054
2471:0162-2889
2246:cite book
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2197:0020-8833
2150:0020-8833
2111:145398848
2016:151346679
2008:0002-9602
1909:1531-5088
1860:0162-2889
1767:144740155
1729:221990913
1713:0020-8183
1440:Ole Wæver
1075:longevity
970:Red Cross
3901:Feminism
3754:Idealism
3749:Hegemony
3702:Military
3687:Alliance
3680:Concepts
3666:Cold War
3548:Glossary
3394:vol. 62.
3339:vol. 31.
3236:vol. 51.
3167:(1999).
2980:57572213
2735:(1997).
2716:10950888
2033:Archived
1937:(2010).
1631:Archived
1488:See also
1470:emotions
1365:Ted Hopf
1310:agency.
1280:habitual
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916:anarchic
835:liberals
831:realists
470:Scholars
335:Feminism
172:Idealism
3921:Realism
3911:Marxism
3774:Liberal
3692:Entente
3638:History
3566:Present
3326:Vol.30.
2972:2626775
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2559:, ed.,
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1221:realism
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794:Anarchy
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240:Realism
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91:scholar
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3866:Peace
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3816:Peace
3573:BRICS
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