Consumer arbitration - Knowledge (XXG)

290:) when the arbitration clause is not hidden or there are competitors that offer similar products or services without requiring arbitration. Alan Kaplinsky and Mark Levin wrote in a May 1999 article that "relatively few consumer arbitration provisions have actually been struck down by courts as 'unfair' or 'unconscionable'". Charles L. Knapp, in a 2009 article, noted that Speidel only cited one case where an arbitration clause was unconscionable, and, in that case, it was based on what the Court described as "unique facts". Aaron-Andrew P. Bruhl wrote that courts are not allowed to refuse to enforce an arbitration clause because of the nature of arbitration, but courts have considered whether specific arbitration terms are unconscionable. Knapp wrote that since Speidel's 1998 paper, more cases have arisen where a party successfully asserted unconscionability as a defense to the enforcement of an arbitration agreement. According to Bruhl, unconscionability was an issue in about 15 to 20 percent of cases in the mid 2000s, up from 1 percent a decade earlier. Bruhl posited that the rise in unconscionability defenses may have arisen from the Supreme Court's arbitration jurisprudence striking down other defenses to the enforcement of arbitration agreements. Bruhl wrote that some unconscionability challenges to arbitration terms (such as punitive damages limitations) do not fit in the mold of classical unconscionability cases. According to Bruhl, scholars have seen the unconscionability doctrine as a check against the Supreme Court's pro-arbitration jurisprudence. Bruhl suggested that courts opposing arbitration turned to fact-specific unconscionability inquiries as opposed to categorical rules to make their decisions more likely to stand after appeal. Overall, Bruhl concluded that "nconscionability might operate as a sort of safety valve that makes arbitration politically sustainable" since courts can use unconscionability to strike egregiously unfair terms, while the threat that an arbitration provision may be found unconscionable can encourage businesses not to include unfair arbitration terms. 1497:) would impose a number of regulations on arbitration agreements in general, including regulating how conspicuous arbitration agreements are, requiring arbitration to be conducted by "an independent, neutral alternative dispute resolution organization", and mandating that "ach party shall have a vote in the selection of the arbitrator", who would be required to meet certain qualifications and provide broad neutrality disclosures. The 2007 bill would also regulate the arbitration process itself by setting time limits on the process, requiring application of the law of the state where the nondrafting party of the agreement resides, and demanding that the arbitrator grant "relevant and necessary prehearing depositions". The 2007 bill would also require arbitration agreements to allow either party to pursue an action in small claims court instead of arbitration. According to Stipanowich, the bill was opposed by "commercial clients and practitioners" who saw the bill as making it difficult for the parties to adapt the arbitration process. Jean Sternlight criticized that the Fair Arbitration Act would only outlaw specific unfair practices and businesses could therefore devise and implement new unfair arbitration practices not covered by the Fair Arbitration Act. According to Sternlight, consumer and employee advocacy groups opposed the Fair Arbitration Act because it would legitimize pre-dispute agreements to arbitrate consumer and employee disputes. Sam Luttrell criticized the Fair Arbitration Act's neutrality requirements, saying they would prevent familiar arbitrators with expertise, who do not meet the neutrality requirements of the Fair Arbitration Act, from presiding over commercial arbitrations. According to Thomas V. Burch, the Fair Arbitration Act "received little, if any, widespread support": none of the 2000, 2002, or 2007 versions had cosponsors. 808:

if pre-dispute class action waivers could not be enforced because they believe arbitration is "more readily accessible to and provid greater protections to consumers". Jeff Sovern said that the financial industry's argument that the CFPB's proposed ban on class action waivers would lead to the industry abandoning arbitration suggested that its "love of arbitration is about barring class actions". F. Paul Bland and Claire Prestel wrote that, for businesses, a class action waiver is "the most valuable provision in an arbitration clause". Nancy Welsh described the Supreme Court's arbitration jurisprudence as giving businesses the benefit of blocking class actions as an incentive to "provide and fund a national private small claims court". In a 2013 article giving advice to businesses on drafting arbitration clauses, Nicole F. Munro and Peter L. Cockrell wrote, "The class action waiver is the focal point of any arbitration clause. Without a class action waiver, one need not engage in arbitration." Rutledge and Drahozal wrote that although nearly all credit card contracts contain class action waivers, very few contain other provisions identified as unfair to the consumer, which they concluded is due to businesses wanting to avoid a ruling that the class action waiver, together with those other unfair provisions, is unenforceable. Jean Sternlight said that if an arbitration clause contains a class action waiver, any other terms are irrelevant, as no consumers will actually pursue individual arbitration.

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consumer agreements for the arbitration study. On December 12, 2013, the CFPB published preliminary results of its arbitration study. The CFPB stated that it intended to conduct further research focusing on consumer awareness of arbitration provisions, as well as whether consumers consider arbitration provisions in deciding what financial products to buy or use. The CFPB published its final report on arbitration in March 2015. In October 2015, the CFPB announced that its proposed rulemaking on arbitration would include a ban on class action waivers in arbitration agreements and a requirement for businesses to submit arbitration filings to the CFPB. The CFPB stated that it considered but rejected options of a complete ban on enforcement of arbitration clauses or requiring arbitration clauses to "have procedures to ensure that individual arbitrations are administered in accordance with principles of fundamental fairness". The rules will be presented to a small business panel, after which a public comment period will follow. The CFPB announced publication of a proposed rule on May 5, 2016.

1606:, consumer arbitration agreements are revocable by the consumer at any time up to the arbitration hearing. In Canada, consumer arbitration is a matter of provincial jurisdiction and three provinces (Ontario, Quebec and Alberta) have passed legislation expressly preserving consumer access to the courts. Ontario and Quebec consumer protection statutes limit enforcement of consumer arbitration clauses and class action waivers. In Alberta, only arbitration clauses approved by the government will be enforced. In the remaining provinces and territories consumer arbitration clauses will block court access for all claims except some statutory “public interest” causes of action. In the 2011 case of Seidel v. TELUS Communications Inc., the Supreme Court of Canada held that where the text, context or purpose of a statute reveals a legislative intention to preserve court access for a statutory cause of action, access to the courts will be retained notwithstanding a mandatory arbitration clause. 880:. According to David Horton, following court decisions striking class action waivers, some businesses unilaterally added "elaborate schemes" that would provide an incentive for consumers to bring low-value claims in arbitration, such as paying all arbitration costs and automatically awarding successful plaintiffs attorney's fees. Horton wrote that such provisions were designed primarily to convince courts that arbitration provisions were not unconscionable, rather than to attract customers from competitors on the basis of such arbitration terms. Horton also suggested, though, that decisions upholding a class action waiver would cause businesses to remove consumer-friendly clauses to reduce the incentive for consumers to bring claims. Myriam Gilles said that businesses' usage of consumer-friendly arbitration provisions could avoid outright bans on consumer arbitration by the federal government. 743:. According to the Searle Civil Justice Institute, this difference could be either due to the enhanced advocacy of an attorney or due to attorneys screening cases for ones that are likely to succeed. According to the preliminary results of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau's arbitration study, which examined consumer financial services cases from 2010 through 2012 filed with the American Arbitration Association, in the 522 debt collection cases studied, consumers were represented in 220 cases (42.1%) and businesses were represented in 518 cases (99.2%). In the 719 non-debt collection cases, consumers were represented in 435 cases (60.5%) and businesses were represented in 637 cases (88.6%). The CFPB stated that the high proportion of cases where a business is represented by an attorney may be due to state laws regarding the 1698:

appointment of arbitrators" and "impose" the "party-arbitrator system". Alexander wrote that the Fair Arbitration Act would require parties to have "a voice ... in the selection of the arbitrator". In a statement made on April 17, 2007, upon the introduction of the 2007 bill, Sen. Sessions said that "All parties to the arbitration will have an equal voice in selecting a neutral arbitrator. This ensures that the large company who sold a consumer a product will not select the arbitrator itself, because the consumer with a grievance will have the right to nominate potential arbitrators, too. As a result, the final arbitrator selected will have to have the explicit approval of both parties to the dispute. This helps ensure that the arbitrator will be a neutral party with no allegiance to either party."

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hundred" consumer cases each year, most of which are preemptive arbitrations by alleged credit card debtors seeking to avoid debt collection litigation, and that AAA conducted about a thousand consumer arbitrations a year. Sternlight said that this was a very small number of arbitrations compared to the number of consumers required to arbitrate disputes. According to the preliminary results of the CFPB's arbitration study, 1,241 cases were filed with the AAA from 2010 to 2012 concerning "credit cards, checking account, and payday loans", compared to an estimated 80 million credit card holders subject to arbitration clauses. Of the 326 AAA cases where a debt was not in dispute, consumers pursued claims for $ 1,000 or less in arbitration only 23 times. According to

668:$ 74,999), plus a $ 20 fee for each objection, a $ 100 fee to submit a post-hearing memorandum or a request for an explained decision, and up to $ 250 for a participatory hearing. For larger claims, the NAF charged higher fees, including fees for making requests to the arbitrator or the NAF. Sarah R. Cole and Kristen M. Blankley said that many contracts have different arrangements for who pays the arbitration fees, so consumers often paid less than the amount listed in the NAF fee schedule. Cole and Blankley said that, in the data set of about 34,000 cases studied, there were only five cases where a consumer paid more than $ 500 in arbitration fees; in all of those cases, the consumer brought a claim and was represented by counsel. 1187: 841:

as a means for consumers to obtain relief for claims pertaining to online transactions, saying that online arbitration is superior than other online dispute resolution methods since both parties are required to participate in the process. Schmitz added that conducting arbitration online may free consumers from having to travel a great distance to pursue arbitration or litigation. Peter Rutledge wrote that one advantage for consumer defendants in arbitration is that they do not have to make a personal appearance, in contrast with small claims court. Jill Gross wrote that simplified arbitration procedures that resolve small claims on the basis of written submissions are inadequate for

555:, NAF Managing Director Edward Anderson described the NAF's rule barring arbitrators from awarding more than the stated amount of the claim as an advantage for corporations to implement arbitration, as compared to court where plaintiffs need not state an amount demanded and can persuade a jury to award a large amount of punitive damages. Anderson added that the NAF has a rule allowing the arbitrator to award the winning party its arbitration costs and attorney's fees, which he said eliminates "'no risk' arbitration" and prevents "'extortion' actions". In its 2007 article "The Arbitration Trap", Public Citizen criticized this marketing by the NAF to corporations. Stephanie Mencimer of 652:

most deserve injunctive relief from seeking it. The AAA changed its consumer fee schedule effective March 1, 2013. Under the current schedule, the AAA charges consumers a maximum fee of $ 200 (which is used to pay the AAA administrative fee), regardless of the type or amount of the consumer's claim; the business is responsible for the arbitrator fee, the hearing fee, and an AAA administrative fee. Further, the arbitrator is not allowed to reallocate the fees unless it is done "pursuant to applicable law" or if the arbitrator finds that "a claim or counterclaim was filed for purposes of harassment or is patently frivolous".

1513:(CFPB) to conduct a study of pre-dispute arbitration agreements in consumer financial services contracts. The CFPB can restrict or ban the usage of arbitration clauses in consumer financial services contracts based on the results of the study. The CFPB has no authority to regulate other consumer arbitration agreements, or post-dispute arbitration agreements. The CFPB could also bring enforcement actions against financial businesses that abuse arbitration clauses, according to bankers. On April 24, 2012, the CFPB published a request for information on conducting the study; comments were due June 23, 2012. 350:, alleging that AT&T improperly advertised its phones as free when purchasers had to pay sales tax on them. In March 2008, AT&T moved to compel individual arbitration on the basis of its agreement with the Concepcions. The District Court denied AT&T's motion, stating that although AT&T's arbitration provision was likely to grant the Concepcions at least full relief, it was unconscionable and could not be enforced "because AT&T had not shown that bilateral arbitration adequately substituted for the deterrent effects of class actions". The District Court relied on the 581:

representing itself as an impartial forum. According to the complaint, Accretive and the NAF worked to promote arbitration and oppose the Arbitration Fairness Act in Congress. Swanson also alleged that the NAF improperly assisted credit card companies by drafting arbitration clauses and claims against consumers. Further, according to the complaint, the NAF also advertised its services to creditors by suggesting that arbitration is more favorable to them than litigation. On July 17, the NAF settled the Minnesota case by agreeing not to conduct any new consumer arbitrations.

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AAA's 2001 caseload and only 2.6% of its 2002 caseload. Maltby wrote that employers have an incentive not to agree to post-dispute arbitration of small claims since they know that employees would not be able to pursue those claims in litigation due to the costs of retaining counsel. A survey of attorneys representing employers showed that 11 out of 20 employment attorneys would consider the financial status of a represented employee plaintiff in deciding whether to agree to post-dispute arbitration, and 13 out of 20 would do so for

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value of the complaint if "a beneficial result in arbitration" for the consumer was possible. Gibbs also considered AT&T's agreement to pay all of the consumer's arbitration costs as an acknowledgment that few consumers would bring cases in arbitration. David Korn and David Rosenberg suggested that the alternative payment provision would have a "perverse" effect of increasing the motivation for the business to spend more for a better chance of winning at arbitration and reducing its total liability to all its customers.

892:, said that those opt-out provisions are illusory since consumers would not likely opt out before a dispute arises. Plaintiffs and lawyers attributed the lack of opt-outs to consumers not being aware of the existence of the arbitration clause or not understanding the ramifications of not opting out. Charles Gibbs wrote that consumers who opt out would only be able to join in a class action with other consumers who also opted out, and therefore such a class action would have less of a deterrent effect against the business. 767:, arbitrators are prohibited from assisting unrepresented parties in arbitration, in contrast to judges who are allowed and encouraged to assist unrepresented parties in court. Jean Sternlight said that consumers cannot effectively present what she termed "procedurally difficult" claims in individual arbitration Aaron Blumenthal wrote that, since simpler claims are likely to be resolved by customer service, claims brought in arbitration are more likely to be procedurally difficult claims requiring an attorney to present. 1297: 855:. Gross added that arbitrations based solely on written submissions favor businesses who have greater access to documents and make it difficult for the arbitrator to resolve disputed facts based solely on affidavits. Gross stated that requiring a business representative to make a personal appearance increases the likelihood of settlement, and that allowing consumers to present their arguments in-person to an arbitrator provides them greater confidence in the legitimacy of the arbitration. 1113:

which an award was issued between April and December 2007, 76.6% of the cases had arbitration agreements that fully complied with the Consumer Due Process Protocol, and only five cases were conducted despite "unwaived protocol violations." In addition, over 150 businesses modified their arbitration clauses in response to a request by the AAA to conform to the Consumer Due Process Protocol. Michael L. Rustad, Richard Buckingham, Diane D'Angelo, and Katherine Durlacher stated that numerous

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arbitration administrators. In 2007, Martin H. Malin wrote in the context of pre-dispute employment arbitration agreements that the concern that "rogue arbitration agencies" could "place competitive pressure on AAA and JAMS to deviate from their rules and policies" was "not a widespread problem," in part due to the reputations of AAA and JAMS. Although Malin in 2012 commended the AAA and JAMS employment protocols as positive examples of self-regulation, he criticized the decision of the

1493:) has introduced bills modifying the Federal Arbitration Act, all substantially the same. The bill was titled the "Fair Arbitration Act" in 2007 and 2011; it was previously introduced in 2000 (under the title "Consumer and Employee Arbitration Bill of Rights") and 2002 (under the title "Arbitration Fairness Act"). The Fair Arbitration Act would impose standards on arbitration proceedings based on the AAA Consumer Due Process Protocol. The 2007 version of the bill (S. 1135 in the 884:(which may be inconspicuously placed in a contract and difficult to understand) than would affirmatively agree to arbitrate, citing consumer optimism that disputes will not arise and transaction costs. They added that having an opt-out option would only affect procedural unconscionability and would not apply to other defenses, nor would it prevent a ruling of unconscionability in jurisdictions where substantive unconscionability alone can make a contract term unenforceable. 360:(2005), which held that arbitration agreements prohibiting class actions were exculpatory and unconscionable when they appear as part of an adhesion contract where an individual consumer's damages would be "predictably small" and the consumer has alleged a scheme where the business has "deliberately cheat large numbers of consumers out of individually small sums of money". California courts regularly refused enforcement of class action waivers in arbitration prior to 1291: 1566:'s arbitration practice, said that the Supreme Court would find the proposed CFPB rule banning class action waivers in arbitration agreements to be invalid since, he argued, the Dodd-Frank Act did not explicitly amend the FAA and the CFPB lacks expertise to make rules about arbitration. F. Paul Bland responded that the express delegation of arbitration rulemaking authority to the CFPB was consistent with other laws authorizing executive agencies to make rules. 747:, which prohibit corporations from self-representing in arbitration. Jean Sternlight wrote that in mandatory arbitration, one side may be represented while the other side is not, which may pressure both parties to retain an attorney to avoid the situation where only the opposing party is represented. Kristen M. Blankley described the possibility that businesses could subsidize counsel for a consumer party who would otherwise proceed without representation. 161:. Closing arguments may be presented at the hearing, or submitted afterwards in the form of a post-hearing brief. The arbitrator's award consists of a written decision, which may simply consist of a statement of the relief awarded to each party, or it may include a written explanation. Appeal of an arbitration decision is very limited; under the Federal Arbitration Act, an awarded may be vacated only if one of the following conditions is satisfied: 1536:" would cause a "dash to insert waivers that will follow any rulemaking", and they say that it would have an effect on credit card agreements where cardholders are subject to contracts that are in effect for a long period of time. Alan Kaplinsky wrote in April 2016 that "companies who do not presently use arbitration agreements in their financial services contracts should strongly consider adding them" to take advantage of the grandfather clause. 1118:

Protocol have been cited by courts resolving disputes over the enforceability of arbitration agreements. In 2003, Reginald Alleyne wrote that courts tended to enforce arbitration agreements if they complied with "minimum 'due process' standards". Jean Sternlight, though, wrote that courts have rarely referenced consumer arbitration standards, and when they do, it is to defeat a challenge that an arbitration clause is unfair.

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nondisclosure obligations on parties to the dispute, although arbitrator ethics rules do impose confidentiality obligations on the arbitrator." Arbitration agreements may also contain a confidentiality clause barring the parties from disclosing a dispute or the arbitration proceedings. Satz wrote that the private nature of arbitration eliminates the incentive for businesses not to engage in practices jeopardizing goodwill.

298:, described the continued existence of the defense of unconscionability as preventing an "anything goes" approach to the enforcement of arbitration clauses. Rutledge and Drahozal wrote that the savings clause of §2 of the FAA may be sufficient to prevent the application of unfair arbitration terms, which may make specific legislation banning those terms unnecessary. Arpan A. Sura and Robert A. DeRise wrote that, after 110:), arbitration clauses are not conspicuous, and for many classes of consumer goods and services, nearly all providers require arbitration. Proponents of consumer arbitration cite "consumer-friendly" terms that lower the dispute resolution costs of consumers and provide incentives for consumers to bring claims in arbitration. Most arbitration clauses require parties to waive their right to proceed on a 660:

while consumer claimants seeking at least $ 10,000 but less than or equal to $ 75,000 paid an average of $ 15 in administrative fees and $ 204 in arbitrator fees. Consumer claimants seeking more than $ 75,000 paid an average of $ 1,448 in administrative fees and $ 1,256 in arbitrator fees. However, the report also says that because only awarded cases were considered, there may be a

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objection to an arbitrator, the AAA attempts to find another arbitrator both sides find acceptable. Under the JAMS rules, if the parties do not agree on an arbitrator, JAMS provides the parties with the names of five arbitrators, and each party may strike up to two names and rank the remainder; of the arbitrators not struck, the one with the "highest composite ranking" is selected.

1342:(D- MN) introduced the "Restoring Statutory Rights Act." If enacted, the legislation "would prevent companies from imposing forced arbitration in cases covered by consumer protection laws, as well as in employment discrimination and other civil rights matters." In addition to the primary sponsors, several other senators agreed to cosponsor the legislation in honor of 538:

JAMS stated that the arbitrator would have the authority to determine whether class arbitration would be permitted. Following JAMS's adoption of this policy, several businesses, including Discover and Citibank, removed JAMS as an arbitration administrator. JAMS rescinded the policy in March 2005, which Gilles suggests was the result of influence by businesses.

210:, the Supreme Court stated that by enacting §2 of the FAA, Congress made a "declaration of a liberal federal policy favoring arbitration agreements". Later decisions by the Supreme Court in the 1990s established that the FAA preempts state laws regulating arbitration agreements and that statutory claims may be arbitrated pursuant to an arbitration agreement. 1558:, Michael Harmon and Larry Childs suggested that any CFPB regulations limiting the ability for banks to include arbitration provisions in their consumer contracts could result in "a big showdown over the power of the CFPB". Janet Cooper Alexander wrote that if the CFPB issues regulations that have the effect of reversing 330: 713:

he says, the entire cost of pursuing a claim in arbitration will likely be lower than the entire cost of pursuing a claim in litigation. Peter Rutledge criticized making a distinction between attorney's fees and arbitration fees, saying that, overall, they both represent out-of-pocket expenses for a consumer.

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Sources disagree as to the effect of this provision. Stipanowich interpreted the provision to bar "list selection of arbitrators" and require the appointment of a three arbitrator panel, where each party selects one arbitrator. Sam Luttrell wrote that the provision would prohibit "the institutional

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Reception of the proposed rules was mixed. Consumer groups praised the proposed rules but criticized the CFPB's decision not to ban arbitration entirely. According to Ken Sweet of the Associated Press, arbitration experts believe that the ban on class action waivers would cause businesses to remove

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The AAA requires businesses with consumer arbitration clauses inconsistent with the Consumer Due Process Protocol to waive the offending provisions for all disputes or remove the AAA from their clause. Christopher R. Drahozal and Samantha Zyontz wrote that, in a sample of 299 cases before the AAA in

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have criteria that a pre-dispute consumer arbitration agreement must satisfy as a condition of the organization agreeing to administer the arbitration. Examples include the right for the consumer to be represented by an attorney, the right for a consumer to pursue a claim in small claims court, caps

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agreements. Christopher R. Drahozal said that upfront arbitration costs should not affect the ability for consumers represented by lawyers on a contingent fee basis to bring claims in arbitration. Stephen Ware said that it is erroneous to only compare arbitration forum fees with court fees because,

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Commentators have criticized reliance on arbitration fees to suggest unfairness towards the consumer. Edward A. Dauer said that the lowered costs of arbitration as compared to litigation may be more beneficial to businesses who tend to hire counsel at an hourly rate rather than consumers whose legal

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and other dispositive motions to be unavailable or denied in arbitration may increase these costs such that they are no longer cheaper in arbitration than in litigation. To reinforce the viability of the consumer arbitration system, many companies commit to reimburse the cost of filing an arbitration

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The National Arbitration Forum assessed fees based on the size of the claim, according to a published fee schedule. According to the 2008 fee schedule, consumers claiming less than $ 75,000 were charged filing fees of $ 19 (for a claim of $ 1,500 or less) to $ 242 (for claims valued from $ 55,000 to

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In 2004 JAMS promulgated a policy that required the availability of class arbitration in consumer arbitration, even if the arbitration agreement barred class arbitration. Under the policy, JAMS would accept filed arbitration cases but would then refuse to enforce class action waivers. Subsequently,

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Consumer arbitration clauses typically name one or more third-party arbitration administrators that may conduct a dispute. These organizations assist in the arbitration process by maintaining a roster of neutrals, managing the arbitrator selection process, and maintaining rules for arbitrations they

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is a defense to the enforcement of a contract. Most jurisdictions in the United States determine unconscionability based on two prongs: procedural unconscionability and substantive unconscionability. Procedural unconscionability arises from "contract formation" issues such as inconspicuous terms or

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In the United States, there is an ongoing debate over the use of arbitration clauses in consumer contracts. Differences between arbitration and litigation include the costs of resolving a case, the speed of resolution, and the procedure of resolving a case, including how and where the arbitration is

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Under the American Arbitration Association Supplementary Procedures for Consumer-Related Disputes, the AAA appoints the arbitrator, and each party has the right to submit "factual objections" to the arbitrator handling the case. AAA Senior Vice President Richard Naimark stated that when there is an

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for allowing businesses to circumvent such protocols by stating that the arbitration provider's rules would only apply "except as provided in" the arbitration agreement. Jeffrey W. Stempel wrote that courts have refused to consider consumer protection policies as part of arbitration agreements even

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Commentators have cited statistics about the number of arbitrations filed by consumers in answering the question of whether consumers can effectively pursue claims in arbitration. Jean Sternlight wrote in a 2012 article that, according to JAMS Executive Vice President Jay Welsh, JAMS handles a "few

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The American Arbitration Association charges two types of fees to parties in an arbitration: administrative fees to the AAA for its case management services and arbitrator fees to pay for the services of the arbitrator. Prior to March 1, 2013, the AAA had a tiered fee structure that capped the fees

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described confidential presentations by the NAF to corporations which stated that NAF arbitration has a "marked increase in recovery rates over existing collection methods", highlighted a rule allowing the claimant to stay or dismiss an arbitration proceeding without charge, and stated that 93.7% of

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rule as one that essentially applies to require consumers to be able to demand class arbitration to resolve all consumer disputes. Scalia focused on the result of the "Discover Bank" rule - since its application was invalidating a large number of arbitration agreements, it must violate the policy in

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where a consumer would have to pay $ 2,000 to file a claim, would have to mail the claim to a Paris address, and would have to travel to Chicago for arbitration hearings. However, in 2001, Christopher R. Drahozal wrote that "unfair arbitration clauses" are less prevalent than thought, and that even

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had arbitration agreements that violated the AAA Consumer Due Process Protocol. The authors determined that many of the clauses did not adequately inform users about the existence of an arbitration agreement or the consequences of agreeing to arbitration. The standards of the Consumer Due Process

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In a 2003 article, Lewis L. Maltby discussed the feasibility of post-dispute arbitration, where both parties agree to arbitrate a specific dispute that has already arisen, in the context of employment relationships. Arbitrations conducted pursuant to a post-dispute agreement made up only 6% of the

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Commentators, though, have criticized whether or not these terms would guarantee consumers relief. Myriam Gilles and Gary Friedman wrote that because the settlement would only be the amount of the claim, the attorney would have a difficult case in justifying a relatively large amount of attorney's

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Philippe Gillieron wrote that online dispute resolution (ODR) could facilitate the pursuit of small claims for transactions conducted on the Internet; the alternative would be to obtain a court judgment in a foreign country or have a judgment enforced there. Amy Schmitz proposed online arbitration

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Commentators have viewed the ability to prevent consumers from obtaining relief on a classwide basis as a principal reason for businesses to add arbitration provisions to their consumer contracts. Lisa Renee Pomerantz wrote that there was speculation that large businesses would abandon arbitration

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In a 2012 article, Miles B. Farmer wrote that one of the greatest advantages of arbitration is that cases are resolved faster than in litigation. George Padis wrote that the speed of arbitration benefits consumer claimants with small claims, who would be forced to settle for smaller amounts if the

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According to a 2009 paper by the Searle Civil Justice Institute, in a sample of 301 cases by the American Arbitration Association that resulted in an award in 2007, the median length of time from the filing of a case to an award was 207 days. Only seven of those cases took more than one and a half

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in 2009, one presentation by the NAF to a financial services company included a slide of quotes from unnamed customer service representatives suggesting that arbitration is more advantageous to creditors than litigation because creditors "have all the leverage" and consumers are unfamiliar with the

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In a consumer arbitration agreement, the business typically lists one or more third-party arbitration administrators that may conduct the arbitration. Critics of consumer arbitration say that this selection is done to select a forum that favors the business. Critics also argue (as detailed below)

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law professor, as a consultant on the study. In June 2013, the CFPB proposed a telephone survey of credit card holders regarding their awareness and perception of arbitration agreements in credit card contracts. The CFPB has also issued an order for financial companies to provide copies of their

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interpreting those terms, and additionally, even outside those areas, a party seeking to avoid or delay arbitration could cast the dispute as a consumer, employment, or civil rights dispute, forcing a court to issue a decision on the applicability of the FAA. Gomm-Santos and Smith also write that

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introduced the Arbitration Fairness Act, which would have the effect of barring pre-dispute agreements requiring arbitration of consumer, employee, or "civil rights" disputes. It would also require courts, rather than arbitrators, to determine the applicability of the Federal Arbitration Act to a

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Some commentators have raised concerns over the limitations of private self-regulation by arbitration forums in the form of consumer standards. In 2004, Mark E. Budnitz expressed concern that businesses can circumvent consumer protection policies of arbitration organizations by naming alternative

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described consumer arbitration as "a process set up so that hiring an attorney offers little value to a consumer and is often unnecessary" and said that the CFPB's arbitration study's results were consistent with this hypothesis. Travis Crabtree said unrepresented consumers are "less likely to be

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According to a 2009 report by the Searle Civil Justice Institute, in a sample of 301 consumer cases where the AAA issued an award from April to December 2007, consumers were represented by counsel in 151 cases (50.2%). In arbitration, consumers represented by counsel generally won some relief and

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These costs tend to be lower for individual arbitration as compared to individual litigation. Because discovery is traditionally more limited in arbitration, discovery expenses (which make up the bulk of litigation expenses) tend to be lower in arbitration. Depending on the specific terms of the

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In 2004, Mark Budnitz criticized the exclusion of claims for injunctive relief from the caps on consumer fees, saying that the laws pertaining to injunctive relief are straightforward for an arbitrator to apply and that the added fees for requesting injunctive relief would discourage consumers who

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arbitration rather than an arbitration organization, and therefore she suggested that Congress legislatively require all consumer arbitration to satisfy the due process protocols. American Arbitration Association Senior Vice President Richard Naimark said that the AAA has suggested that Congress

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attorneys Alan Kaplinsky and Mark Levin wrote in a 2006 article that "nce rare, class action waivers are today included in millions of credit card and other financial services agreements nationwide". According to the preliminary results of the CFPB's arbitration study, released in 2013, 93.9% of

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stated that about 95% of consumer arbitrations in California are administered by AAA, JAMS, or "Kaiser's independent administrator", according to "a lobbyist for the California arbitration industry". AAA and JAMS primarily hear disputes between businesses and employment disputes. Consumer cases

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A written provision in any maritime transaction or a contract evidencing a transaction involving commerce to settle by arbitration a controversy thereafter arising out of such contract or transaction, or the refusal to perform the whole or any part thereof, or an agreement in writing to submit to

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In arbitration, a claimant submits a claim to a neutral arbitrator, and the opposing party (the respondent) responds to the claim. A neutral arbitrator collects evidence and hears arguments from both parties, and then issues an award. Pre-hearing conferences determine procedural matters for the

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Thanks to a Supreme Court ruling last year, tech companies are allowed to block class action lawsuits in their terms of service. The ruling allowed AT&T to force customers into arbitration, which tends to favor companies over consumers. Since that court decision, several companies have taken

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Bills have been proposed that would carve out some disputes from the applicability of the FAA, nullifying arbitration clauses as applied to those disputes. The first example of such a carve-out was the Motor Vehicle Franchise Arbitration Act, signed into law in 2002, which nullified arbitration

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would not alleviate this issue, as a settlement offer could be made just prior to arbitration. Gibbs wrote that AT&T's alternative payment would not have the same deterrence effect as a class action, and that it would be highly unlikely to ever occur, given that AT&T could offer the face

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To avoid a ruling of procedural unconscionability, some businesses began allowing consumers to reject ("opt out" of) arbitration agreements at the time of entering into a contract without penalty. F. Paul Bland and Claire Prestel wrote that more consumers will fail to exercise an opt-out option

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Theodore Eisenberg, Geoffrey P. Miller, and Emily Sherwin said that none of the contracts they researched had standalone waivers of class actions without arbitration clauses because, outside of arbitration clauses, class action waivers "are legally vulnerable and also politically controversial".

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In March 2009, the Searle Civil Justice Institute published an analysis of consumer cases in AAA resulting in an award from April to December 2007. According to the analysis, consumer claimants seeking less than $ 10,000 paid an average of $ 1 in administrative fees and $ 95 in arbitrator fees,

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has significant differences from litigation. Additional issues pertaining specifically to the nature of consumer arbitration have been discussed. Commentators have considered all these issues and their effect on consumers' and businesses' handling of legal claims and the enforcement of laws in

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Scalia then stated that the Federal Arbitration Act preempts not only state law that "prohibits outright the arbitration of a particular type of claim", but also "generally applicable" doctrines "applied in a fashion that disfavors arbitration". Scalia discussed particular examples, such as law

580:

filed a complaint on July 14, 2009 alleging that the National Arbitration Forum engaged in several deceptive practices. Swanson alleged that the NAF was partially owned by Accretive, a firm with ties to major debt collection law firms; Swanson alleged that the NAF covered up those ties while

266:

in arbitration (requiring the availability of class proceedings, applying a universal cap on consumer fees without a case-by-case determination of whether the consumer can afford those fees, "requiring substantial discovery", or requiring businesses and consumers to arbitrate the same types of

402:

Justice Thomas concurred. Thomas stated that only challenges to the formation of an arbitration agreement could be used to refuse to enforce arbitration clauses, and that states could not refuse enforcement of arbitration clauses on public policy grounds. Justice Breyer dissented, joined by

1456:

Commentators have criticized the Arbitration Fairness Act on several fronts. According to Mauricio Gomm-Santos and Quinn Smith, because the Arbitration Fairness Act uses the new terms "consumer dispute", "employment dispute", and "civil rights dispute", litigation would be needed to develop

1135:

when the named administrator requires compliance with those policies as a condition of administering an arbitration. J. Watson Hamilton and Jean Sternlight wrote that consumers have no recourse if an arbitration organization or an arbitrator chooses not to follow its own consumer standards.

1083:

Other commentators disagree with the argument that post-dispute arbitration agreements would be rare. Thomas E. Carbonneau wrote that businesses could offer incentives to entice consumers to arbitrate a dispute after it arises; such incentives may include paying all of the arbitration fees,

828:

Commentators have discussed whether businesses select arbitration locations that are inconvenient for consumers to discourage consumer claims. Jean Sternlight wrote that consumer arbitration could be held in locations inconvenient for the consumer that would contravene state law, citing the

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Arbitrations are also generally private: unlike in court trials, members of the public cannot generally attend an arbitration hearing or obtain a copy of the award. The CFPB's preliminary report on arbitration states that "rbitration rules typically do not impose express confidentiality or

1169:

contracts. Subsequent legislation carved-out disputes involving high-interest loans to military members, poultry and livestock farmers, and defense contractors bringing claims about civil rights or alleged sexual assault. In 2014 Barack Obama issued an executive order prohibiting federal

376:

This saving clause permits agreements to arbitrate to be invalidated by "generally applicable contract defenses, such as fraud, duress, or unconscionability," but not by defenses that apply only to arbitration or that derive their meaning from the fact that an agreement to arbitrate is at

252:

According to Ramona L. Lampley, the first generation of consumer arbitration clauses was characterized by drafters including not only class action waivers but also damages limitations, bars on recovery of attorney fees, requirements that consumers pay half or all of the arbitration fees,

791:

Most consumer arbitration agreements contain clauses that disallow arbitration on a classwide basis. These clauses, which have the effect of preventing parties from seeking relief on a classwide basis in either court or arbitration, are commonly referred to as "class action waivers".

993:

s analysis of data from multiple arbitration firms, from 2010 through 2014, there were 505 arbitration cases where a consumer brought a dispute for no more than $ 2,500. In June 2017, AT&T stated that 412 arbitration cases had been filed against it since the beginning of 2015.

699:, the plaintiffs, who were small businesses who agreed to accept American Express cards, estimated that they would have to spend $ 300,000 to $ 1 million for an economic expert necessary to present their case, which far exceeded the damages an individual plaintiff could recover. 1707:

In a statement made on April 17, 2007, upon the introduction of the 2007 bill, Sen. Sessions said that under the Fair Arbitration Act, arbitrators would be required to apply "the same conflict of laws principles that a court would" to determine what state's law would apply in

1101:

on the arbitration fees charged to a consumer, requirements that arbitration hearings take place at a location convenient for the consumer, and the right to demand a written explanation of the arbitrator's award. The AAA adopted its Consumer Due Process Protocol in 1998.

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5000 are unenforceable (whether pre- or post-dispute), and pre-dispute consumer arbitration agreements are only enforceable if the business "individually negotiated" the clause and "made in good faith" and the clause is not significantly one-sided against the consumer.

595:

charged to a consumer claiming only monetary damages of up to $ 75,000 and required the business to pay the remaining fees (see below). Under the pre-2013 rules, unless the parties agreed otherwise, the arbitrator had the authority to reallocate the fees in the award.

4567: 171:"the arbitrators were guilty of misconduct in refusing to postpone the hearing, upon sufficient cause shown, or in refusing to hear evidence pertinent and material to the controversy; or of any other misbehavior by which the rights of any party have been prejudiced" 153:

arbitration hearing (such as whether the arbitration is to be confidential). Hearings, which can be held in a conference center or at an office, involve the parties presenting opening statements, evidence such as documents and tangible objects, and witnesses who

959:

Scalia endorsed the lower courts' analysis that, under these terms, the Concepcions were in a much better position pursuing their claim in arbitration rather than as a class action, and that they were "'essentially guarantee' to be made whole". In an article in

1630:

that because the rights of absent class members are affected by a class arbitration, class arbitrations must be more formal, which entails further delay and expense, and the very limited review of arbitration awards makes class arbitration exceedingly risky and

224:, Edward Wood Dunham described "The Arbitration Clause as Class Action Shield." Dunham suggested that franchisors should add arbitration clauses to their franchise agreements to minimize exposure to class actions and large jury awards. In the late 1990s, the 871:

In response to court decisions ruling arbitration agreements unconscionable, some businesses began adding "consumer-friendly" provisions to their arbitration clauses. For example, after court decisions striking down their arbitration clauses, PayPal and

905:

imposed a confidentiality requirement on the parties, generally barred punitive damages awards, and required payment of a $ 125 fee to arbitrate a claim of $ 150. AT&T Mobility removed those provisions and ultimately developed, in consultation with

763:

tripped up in a procedural trap" in arbitration than in litigation. Michael Satz, though, wrote that the rules of procedure established by arbitration administrators are not likely to be understood by nonlawyers. Stephan Landsman wrote that, under the

1416:

investigation that found companies are circumventing the courts by forcing consumers in fine print to settle disputes privately with an arbitrator chosen by the company. The clauses often prohibit consumers from joining class action lawsuits as well."

1525:

arbitration clauses entirely, since arbitration, "which is typically paid for by the bank, becomes less cost-effective." Nearly 13,000 comments on the proposed rules were submitted by the August 22, 2016 deadline, which, according to Yuka Hayashi of

1130:(2010), which held that the American Arbitration Association's rules requiring the employer to pay all the arbitrator's fees could not override an express contractual provision requiring the arbitrator's fees to be split equally. Malin criticized 684:

arbitration clause, a consumer plaintiff may be entitled to recover attorney's fees and/or expert witness fees that are not otherwise available in court. However, the increase in the prevalence of litigation-style discovery and the tendency for

293:

Proponents of consumer arbitration have cited courts' usage of the unconscionability doctrine to say that current arbitration law sufficiently protects consumers from unfair terms. Andrew Pincus, who argued on behalf of AT&T Mobility in

131:. The ruling resulted in the adoption of new arbitration clauses or changes to existing ones in consumer contracts, as well as renewed efforts to persuade the federal government to regulate or ban the usage of consumer arbitration clauses. 1138:

There have been suggestions that arbitration regulations incorporate the consumer standards in some form. Amy J. Schmitz wrote that voluntary due process protocols are insufficient because businesses could avoid their application by using

858:

According to the CFPB arbitration study, in the 86 cases it studied in which in-person arbitration hearings were held, the hearings were an average of 30 miles from the consumer's residence. Lisa Renee Pomerantz wrote that non-arbitration

721:

Arbitration is generally faster than litigation, in part due to the limited amount of discovery available in arbitration, the reduced motion practice in arbitration, and the backlog of court cases that delays judicial resolution of cases.

1470:, which allow for courts to assist in arbitration and confirm arbitration awards, and may affect the ability of businesses in the United States to arbitrate outside of the United States disputes covered by the Arbitration Fairness Act. 954:

if the customer recovered an award greater than AT&T's last written settlement offer before the selection of an arbitrator, the customer's award would be increased to $ 7,500 and the customer would be entitled to double attorney's

824:

The location of consumer arbitration proceedings (including whether they are conducted without the appearance of the parties or their attorneys) can be set by the arbitration organization's rules or by terms in the arbitration clause.

1424:"did not, and should not have been interpreted to, supplant or nullify the legislatively created rights and remedies which Congress … has granted to the people of the United States for resolving disputes in State and Federal courts." 371:

In a 5–4 decision published on April 27, 2011, the Supreme Court reversed. Justice Scalia, writing for the Court, first described how the savings clause of 9 U.S.C. §2 affects state law applied to invalidate arbitration agreements:

2354: 285:

In 1998, Richard E. Speidel discussed the possibility the unconscionability could be a defense to the enforcement of a consumer arbitration agreement, but he concluded that such a defense would be unlikely to succeed (even in a

200:

arbitration an existing controversy arising out of such a contract, transaction, or refusal, shall be valid, irrevocable, and enforceable, save upon such grounds as exist at law or in equity for the revocation of any contract.

228:

advertised its services to corporate lawyers, suggesting that the only way for companies to avoid being liable in a class action lawsuit was to insert arbitration clauses with class action waivers into their contracts. The

1463: 6009:

We had not until very recently proceeded under 1022 at all. We did just now send out an order to a number of companies to provide us with template consumer credit agreements as part of our efforts on the arbitration

692:

When individual arbitration is compared to a class action in litigation, though, these costs may be more disproportionate to the individual amount of relief to which an individual is entitled. In the antitrust case

1028:

Alan Kaplinsky wrote that the small number of consumer arbitration cases resulted from fifteen years of "negative publicity about arbitration generated by plaintiffs' class action lawyers and consumer advocates".

390:. The majority opinion further discussed how "classwide arbitration interferes with fundamental attributes of arbitration and thus creates a scheme inconsistent with the FAA". The majority opinion described the 347: 655:

JAMS charges the consumer $ 250 when the consumer initiates an arbitration, and the business is responsible for the remaining fees; businesses initiating arbitration must pay all of the arbitration fees in JAMS.

6155: 4864: 2326:

The Federal Arbitration Act and Access to Justice: Will Recent Supreme Court Decisions Undermine the Rights of Consumers, Workers, and Small Businesses?: Hearing Before The Senate Committee on the Judiciary

1553:

said, "The CFPB seems to be setting the stage for a rulemaking which will likely not be favorable to the industry", citing the choice of data the CFPB included in its preliminary report. In an article in

1562:, the Supreme Court may well strike those regulations, especially if the findings from the arbitration study are deemed insufficient to justify the regulations. In October 2015, Matt Adler, the chair of 1405:. They explain, "Forced arbitration has created a rigged system that blocks women from enforcing their legal rights against unaccountable and unlawful corporations for wage violations in the workplace.” 1044:

Richard M. Alderman criticized consumer arbitration for allowing businesses to avoid unfavorable precedents rather than working within the legal system to change them. Alderman also predicted that the

1005:

noted the lower court's finding of fact that the defendant made 68,000 loans in North Carolina and commenced court actions against over 3,700, yet never had a consumer file arbitration against it. The

837:(2001), which held that a California law setting venue in California for franchise disputes involving California franchisees was preempted as applied to arbitration clauses requiring venue elsewhere. 3328: 2690: 5892: 1506: 3274: 1076:

employees. Other attorneys, though, did not consider this to be a factor since a "determined employee" would be likely to find representation or receive help from the court in pursuing their case

253:

confidentiality requirements on the parties to an arbitration, or allowing the business to unilaterally select the arbitrator, all of which were found unenforceable by some court. In August 1999,

5020: 3545: 1532:

Rules promulgated by the CFPB with respect to arbitration clauses will only apply to contracts entered into at least 180 days after such promulgation. Gilles and Friedman suggest that this "

1274: 804:

unique credit card contracts that contained arbitration clauses, representing 99.9% of the credit card market where contracts contain arbitration clauses, had explicit class action waivers.

4680: 1680:

Arbitration fee caps The AAA considers agreements that require consumers to pay more in arbitration fees than stated in the consumer fee schedule a violation of the Due Process Protocol.

407:

was not inconsistent with the FAA since it applies to both arbitration and litigation, and that requiring individual arbitration would lead to individual consumers dropping their claims.

4084:

Eisenberg, Theodore; Miller, Geoffrey P.; Sherwin, Emily (Summer 2008). "Arbitration's Summer Soldiers: An Empirical Study of Arbitration Clauses in Consumer and Nonconsumer Contracts".

4464:

Ponte, Lucille M. (2011). "Getting a Bad Rap - Unconscionability in Clickwrap Dispute Resolution Clauses and a Proposal for Improving the Quality of These Online Consumer Products".

6182: 852: 86:

are resolved by an independent neutral arbitrator rather than in court. Although parties can agree to arbitrate a particular dispute after it arises or may agree that the award is

192:(FAA) in 1925 to require courts to enforce valid arbitration agreements. Before then, courts routinely refused to enforce arbitration agreements, making such clauses ineffective. 1080:. The survey also indicated that 19 out of 20 employer attorneys would refuse to agree to post-dispute arbitration of a dispute they felt "could be won on a pre-trial motion". 895:

AT&T Mobility (formerly known as Cingular Wireless) made numerous changes to its arbitration clause during the 2000s. The Cingular Wireless agreement at issue in the 2006

830: 270:

In 2002, Julia A. Scarpino wrote that "many consumer contracts ... contain an arbitration clause" but consumers are generally unaware of the existence of arbitration clauses.

1590:, consumer arbitration agreements "must be written in an 'intelligible and transparent manner'" and must have the form of a separate document signed by both parties. In the 1321: 206: 4797: 1582:, pre-dispute arbitration agreements in consumer contracts where the consumer has little bargaining power were considered "unfair" and therefore not enforceable under the 5828: 2538: 695: 4875: 4052:"Circumventing Concepcion: Conceptualizing Innovative Strategies to Ensure the Enforcement of Consumer Protection Laws in the Age of the Inviolable Class Action Waiver" 1064:

Commentators have discussed whether post-dispute arbitration agreements are a viable alternative to pre-dispute arbitration agreements, especially in the debate on the

35: 4645: 4125:

Demaine, Linda J.; Hensler, Deborah R. (Winter–Spring 2004). "'Volunteering' to Arbitrate Through Predispute Arbitration Clauses: The Average Consumer's Experience".

523:

that businesses can place undue pressure on arbitration administrators to act in favor of the business by threatening to remove them as an allowed arbitration forum.

6103: 5408: 3077: 3886:

Blankley, Kristen M. (2013). "Adding by Subtracting: How Limited Scope Agreements for Dispute Resolution Representation Can Increase Access to Attorney Services".

114:

basis in either court or arbitration, and, in the United States, the debate over consumer arbitration has also featured discussion of the merits of class actions.

5569:

Gomm-Santos, Mauricio; Quinn Smith (2010-08-06). "The Changing Landscape of Arbitration in the United States and Its Effects on International Arbitration". SSRN.

3052: 2808: 2098:"Is Arbitration Under Attack?: Exploring the Recent Judicial Skepticism of the Class Arbitration Waiver and Innovative Solutions to the Unsettled Legal Landscape" 509:. Many of the disputes JAMS administers are high-end disputes, and JAMS arbitrators, who are attorneys or retired judges, charge "hundreds of dollars per hour". 5435: 6128: 1282: 174:"the arbitrators exceeded their powers, or so imperfectly executed them that a mutual, final, and definite award upon the subject matter submitted was not made" 5648: 3118: 799:

In 2004, Demaine and Hensler wrote that 16 of 52 arbitration clauses examined contained class action waivers, and none expressly permitted class arbitration.

534:

Some commentators have written that businesses removed arbitration administrators or threatened to do so in order to influence those administrators' policies.

2392: 428:, many businesses introduced or renewed motions to move pending lawsuits to arbitration; by April 2012, there were at least 76 decisions where a court cited 3332: 2694: 1574:

According to Amy J. Schmitz, consumer arbitration agreements are not as regularly enforced in Europe and other countries as they are in the United States.

758:, stated that a fair arbitration clause could allow consumers to effectively pursue small claims without attorney representation. Jason Scott Johnston and 2992:

Kaplinsky, Alan S.; Levin, Mark J. (February 2006). "Is JAMS in a Jam Over Its Policy Regarding Class Action Waivers in Consumer Arbitration Agreements?".

2868: 1879:

advantage of the opportunity to stop potential class action lawsuits. Microsoft, with its Xbox 360, and Sony, with its Playstation 3, are notable examples.

676:

Like in litigation, each party in an arbitration is responsible for the costs it incurs in presenting its case, such as attorneys' fees, witness fees, and

4523: 5024: 4941: 3278: 1473:

In 2012, Gilles and Friedman wrote that the general opinion was that the Arbitration Fairness Act would not pass "in the current political environment".

526:

Jean Sternlight wrote that some businesses named arbitration administrators with neutral-sounding names that, in fact, were "alter ego" of the business.

5524: 3560: 1432:

A bill with the title "Arbitration Fairness Act" has been introduced in Congress several times (more recently, a similar act has been introduced as the

561:

criticized an advertisement by the NAF to businesses describing NAF arbitration as an "alternative to the 'million-dollar lawsuit.'" A 2008 article in

3355: 1215: 938:

the customer had the option of an in-person hearing, a telephonic hearing, or a decision based on written submissions, if the claim is under $ 10,000;

876:

changed their terms to allow the claimant to choose optional non-appearance-based arbitration for small claims or to go to court under the terms of a

6048: 4779: 459:. Rutledge and Drahozal argue that empirical evidence calls into question the hypothesis of massive adoption of arbitration clauses by businesses. 6372: 5868: 5505: 4699: 2316: 1433: 1314: 6156:"CFPB Proposes Prohibiting Mandatory Arbitration Clauses that Deny Groups of Consumers their Day in Court | Consumer Financial Protection Bureau" 5970: 5486: 3906: 235:

class action alleged that major credit card companies illegally colluded during the late 1990s to support enforcement of arbitration clauses via

5467: 5409:"On Equal Pay Day, Leahy Calls for End to Discrimination Affecting American Women in the Workforce | U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy of Vermont" 4187: 2477: 1084:

automatically awarding the consumer party a fraction of its attorney's fees, and having an award for the business reduced by a set proportion.

6077: 5613: 5709: 2864: 2749: 2240:

Kaplinsky, Alan S.; Levin, Mark J. (May 1999). "Consumer Financial Services Arbitration: Last Year's Trend Has Become this Year's Mainstay".

1097: 488: 6304: 5930: 3586: 5974: 5448: 4838: 4433: 3222: 2027: 1510: 1259: 5422: 1186: 1545:

article, the banking industry believes that the CFPB will issue rules restricting consumer arbitration in financial services contracts.

2439: 764: 5376: 4051: 3408: 2775: 1517: 1307: 118: 5188:

Alleyne, Reginald (2003). "Arbitrators' Fees: The Dagger in the Heart of Mandatory Arbitration for Statutory Discrimination Claims".

282:

terms offered on a "take-it-or-leave-it basis", while substantive unconscionability arises from "overly-harsh" or "one-sided" terms.

2971: 2516:"Seeking a Rational Lawyer for Consumer Claims After the Supreme Court Disconnects Consumers in AT&T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion" 816:

In 2004, Linda J. Demaine and Deborah R. Hensler wrote that "he vast majority of clauses place no limits on substantive remedies."

751: 69: 3816: 566:

consumers do not respond to arbitration demands, and only 0.3% request a participatory hearing. According to a complaint filed by

6278: 4156: 2686: 1486: 1437: 1296: 1254: 1093: 968:

decision on the consumer-friendly terms in AT&T's agreement, those terms were likely a factor in the Supreme Court's ruling.

907: 484: 302:, an argument could be made that courts would be required to enforce egregiously unfair arbitration terms such as those found in 6025: 4901: 4437: 2638:

Rutledge, Peter B.; Drahozal, Christopher R. (2013-08-05). "'Sticky' Arbitration Clauses?: The Use of Arbitration Clauses after

245:

wrote that over the previous three years, the number of consumer arbitration clauses has "increased manyfold", according to the

5843: 2546: 1862: 1002: 356: 5436:

http://hankjohnson.house.gov/press-release/johnson-conyers-introduce-legislation-protect-women’s-rights-end-forced-arbitration

3738:"The Case for Enforcing Adhesive Arbitration Agreements - With Particular Consideration of Class Actions and Arbitration Fees" 480:

conduct. The arbitrator is typically selected by the arbitration administrator or through the participation of both parties.

368:

is not preempted by the FAA and class arbitration did not interfere with "the efficiency and expeditiousness of arbitration".

2908: 2296:

Bruhl, Aaron-Andrew P. (2008). "The Unconscionability Game: Strategic Judging and the Evolution of Federal Arbitration Law".

1732: 1651: 4295: 3226: 2162: 1824: 726:

years to resolve. Cases resolved on the basis of document submissions only were resolved in an average (mean) of 139 days.

664:

in that awarded cases are those where arbitration fees did not prevent consumers from pursuing their claims in arbitration.

419: 339: 324: 123: 6205: 2325: 2221:

Speidel, Richard E. (1998). "Consumer Arbitration of Statutory Claims: Has Pre-Dispute Arbitration Outlived Its Welcome".

1622:

Although parties may agree to class arbitration, most consumer arbitration clauses expressly forbid class arbitration (see

921:

Justice Scalia identified the following provisions in the AT&T Mobility agreement that was before the Supreme Court in

127:

that state laws that in effect require the availability of class actions to resolve consumer disputes are preempted by the

6434:

Consumer Protection Act, 2002, S.O. 2002, c. 30, Sch. A, ss. 7 & 8; Consumer Protection Act, R.S.Q. c. P-40.1, s. 11.1

6339: 5649:"On the Continued Vitality of Securities Arbitration: Why Reform Efforts Must Not Preclude Predispute Arbitration Clauses" 1170:

contractors from enforcing arbitration clauses against employees bringing civil rights claims or alleging sexual assault.

495:

ceased administering new consumer arbitrations in 2009, many credit card issuers also included it. A 2014 article in the

304: 5792: 5231: 4399: 3687: 3084: 5394: 4438:"Arbitration study: Report to Congress, pursuant to Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act § 1028(a)" 4254: 4103:

Glover, J. Maria (October 2006). "Beyond Unconscionability: Class Action Waivers and Mandatory Arbitration Agreements".

1892: 744: 3470: 3174: 2816: 2097: 1758: 1017:

s analysis of data from multiple arbitration firms, from 2010 through 2014, there were 65 arbitration cases involving

851:(1970), which held that requiring welfare recipients to make written arguments was insufficient due process under the 3737: 2139: 51: 5663: 5303:

Schmitz, Amy (October 2009). "Regulation Rash? Questioning the AFA's Approach for Protecting Arbitration Fairness".

3652: 3126: 2569: 863:

frequently require litigation against the business to be brought in the jurisdiction where the business is located.

5729: 5334: 5262: 3856: 3501: 3437: 2264:

Knapp, Charles L. (2009). "Blowing the Whistle on Mandatory Arbitration: Unconscionability as a Signaling Device".

755: 574: 492: 246: 225: 2404: 2839: 2719: 2515: 1659: 1123: 1114: 901: 506: 471:

determining whether and under what circumstances pre-dispute consumer arbitration agreements should be enforced.

383: 204:

In the 1970s, due to growing court dockets, courts enforced arbitration agreements more often. In the 1983 case

47: 4020: 3409:"JAMS Policy on Consumer Arbitrations Pursuant to Pre-Dispute Clauses: Minimum Standards of Procedural Fairness" 3370: 3356:"On Babies and Bathwater: The Arbitration Fairness Act and the Supreme Court's Recent Arbitration Jurisprudence" 2875: 239:

briefs and to include materially identical arbitration clauses in their cardholder agreements. In August 1999,

5778: 4536: 351: 4953: 3441: 1010:

court ultimately found the arbitration clause to be unconscionable and therefore unenforceable. According to

5021:"Consumer Due Process Protocol: Statement of Principles of the National Consumer Disputes Advisory Committee" 4646:"Break Out Those Arbitration Agreements: United States Supreme Court Issues Another Pro-Arbitration Decision" 2163:"Mandatory Arbitration of Consumer Disputes: A Proposal to Ease the Financial Burden on Low-Income Customers" 262:

unfair terms could be beneficial to the contracting parties. In 2001, Stephen Ware suggested that requiring

231: 5132:"An Empirical Study of Predispute Mandatory Arbitration Clauses in Social Media Terms of Service Agreements" 3179: 2780: 1421: 1249: 885: 557: 497: 189: 135: 128: 87: 4902:"The End of an Error: Replacing 'Manifest Disregard' with a New Framework for Reviewing Arbitration Awards" 2188: 329: 220: 5363: 5284:

Hamilton, Jonnette Watson (2006). "Pre-Dispute Consumer Arbitration Clauses: Denying Access to Justice?".

5052:

Drahozal, Christopher; Zyontz, Samantha (2011-08-03). "Private Regulation of Consumer Arbitration". SSRN.

4776: 896: 877: 860: 287: 4942:"Out of the Frying Pan, Into the Fire: The Feasibility of Post-Dispute Employment Arbitration Agreements" 4601:: Why the Federal Arbitration Act Should Not Be Used to Deny Effective Relief to Small-Value Claimants". 2242: 911: 5582: 5547:

Bennett, Steven C. (May–July 2012). "The Proposed Arbitration Fairness Act: Problems and Alternatives".

5335:"Supreme Court and Congress Focus on Mandatory Pre-Dispute Arbitration Agreements: The Debate Continues" 5065: 3936: 2659: 4725: 2909:"Mandatory Binding Arbitration Clauses Prevent Consumers from Presenting Procedurally Difficult Claims" 2329: 1467: 845:

parties who may not be able to effectively make written legal arguments, citing the Supreme Court case

4021:"Nothing for Something? Denying Legal Assistance to Those Compelled to Participate in ADR Proceedings" 1105:

wrote that consumer advocates "voiced hope other ADR providers would adopt" the protocol and that the

1049:

with respect to consumers would cease to evolve due to arbitration clauses promulgated by businesses.

680:

costs. The amount of these costs has been compared between arbitration and litigation in two manners.

439:

decision also impacted the usage of arbitration clauses in consumer contracts, including the usage of

6498: 5773: 4532: 4255:"Mandatory Predispute Consumer Arbitration, Structural Bias, and Incentivizing Procedural Safeguards" 3997:

Satz, Michael A. (2007). "Mandatory Binding Arbitration: Our Legal History Demands Balanced Reform".

107: 1839: 5625: 786: 267:

claims) would increase the costs of dispute resolution for the business, which would raise prices.

263: 6410: 6133: 4752: 4360: 4134: 3601: 1533: 1445: 1359: 1242: 1231: 1220: 1198: 964:, Kevin B. Leblang and Robert N. Holtzman wrote that although the Supreme Court did not base the 942: 91: 5702:

Bias challenges in international commercial arbitration : the need for a 'real danger' test

4337:

Gillieron, Philippe (2008). "From Face-to-Face to Screen-to-Screen: Real Hope or True Fallacy".

2042: 6387: 2601: 1290: 1148:

would impose standards on consumer arbitration based on the AAA Consumer Due Process Protocol.

5705: 5574: 5570: 5316: 5312: 5209:"Due Process in Employment Arbitration: The State of the Law and the Need for Self-Regulation" 5057: 5053: 3796:

Farmer, Miles B. (June 2012). "Mandatory and Fair? A Better System of Mandatory Arbitration".

2967: 2651: 2647: 1763: 1728: 1583: 1022: 847: 278: 158: 935:

the arbitration proceedings would take place in the county of the customer's billing address;

6402: 5908:

Witkowski, Rachel (2013-12-13). "CFPB's Mind Already Made Up on Arbitration, Banks Charge".

5829:"The Effect of the Dodd-Frank Act on Arbitration Agreements: A Proposal for Consumer Choice" 5131: 4744: 2072: 1387: 1347: 1018: 685: 241: 5232:"The Arbitration Fairness Act: It Need Not and Should Not Be an All or Nothing Proposition" 3412: 929:

the forms to begin the arbitration process were short and available on AT&T's web site;

6258: 5910: 5595: 5078: 4783: 4192: 3970: 3943: 3817:"Arbitration Under Siege: Reforming Consumer and Employment Arbitration and Class Actions" 3303:

Budnitz, Mark E. (Winter–Spring 2004). "The High Cost of Mandatory Consumer Arbitration".

2753: 2672: 1655: 1563: 1541: 1401:

introduced parallel legislation into the U.S. House of Representatives on April 12, 2016,

1269: 677: 99: 6104:"Small Business Advisory Review Panel for Potential Rulemaking on Arbitration Agreements" 1144:

require all arbitrations to comply with "something like the due process protocols". The

645:

administrative fee under the Commercial Arbitration Rules and half of the arbitrator fee

138:) has been compared to other countries, whose laws restrict or ban consumer arbitration. 3831: 3053:"Suckers Wanted: How Car Dealers and Other Businesses are Taking Away Your Right to Sue" 2028:"Opting Out of Liability: The Forthcoming, Near-Total Demise of the Modern Class Action" 642:

administrative fee under the Commercial Arbitration Rules and half of the arbitrator fee

5130:

Rustad, Michael L.; Buckingham, Richard; D'Angelo, Diane; Durlacher, Katherine (2012).

4361:"'Drive-Thru' Arbitration in the Digital Age: Empowering Consumers Through Binding ODR" 4296:"Drafting Arbitration Agreements: A Practitioner's Guide for Consumer Credit Contracts" 3148: 3034: 3030: 1595: 1591: 1578:

directives classify pre-dispute consumer arbitration clauses as "unfair" terms. Under

1575: 1550: 1494: 1383: 1375: 1363: 1163: 709: 661: 382:

requiring arbitrations to allow for judicially monitored discovery, application of the

334: 3965: 3937:"The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau's Arbitration Study: A Summary and Critique" 948:

the arbitrator was not limited in the type of individual relief that could be awarded;

106:

say that arbitrators and arbitration administrators can be biased (in part due to the

6492: 6414: 6406: 5525:"Bill Aims To Restore Consumers' Legal Rights Stripped Away By Supreme Court Rulings" 2602:"Killing Them with Kindness: Examining "Consumer-Friendly" Arbitration Clauses after 2140:"Paying the Price of Process: Judicial Regulation of Consumer Arbitration Agreements" 1754: 1546: 1482: 1402: 1367: 1355: 1343: 1335: 972:

fees for winning such a small settlement. The authors added that filing a complaint

932:

AT&T was required to pay all the arbitration costs, unless a claim was frivolous;

800: 258: 236: 6256:

Witkowski, Rachel (2013-12-12). "CFPB Likely to Crack Down on Arbitration Clauses".

134:

The support given to consumer arbitration under United States law (particularly the

5101: 4756: 4748: 3932: 3717:

Drahozal, Christopher R. (2006). "Arbitration Costs and Contingent Fee Contracts".

1449: 1398: 1394: 1371: 1351: 1102: 759: 577: 567: 111: 6231: 2923: 1970:

Gordon, Rob (2011). "Binding Pre-Dispute Agreements: Arbitration's Gordian Knot".

1052:

Arbitrators ordinarily do not provide a written award in commercial arbitrations.

432:

in granting a motion to compel individual arbitration of a putative class action.

168:"there was evident partiality or corruption in the arbitrators, or either of them" 2570:"Justice Denied: One Year Later: The Harms to Consumers from the Supreme Court's 4730:'s Pro-defendant Biasing of the Arbitration Process: The Class Counsel Solution" 1998:

Dunham, Edward Wood (1996–97). "The Arbitration Clause as Class Action Shield".

1166: 873: 467: 346:

In March 2006, Vincent and Liza Concepcion filed a putative class action in the

147: 83: 6129:"Protection Bureau Seeks End to Arbitration-Only Clauses in Consumer Contracts" 5995: 4798:"AT&T: Forced arbitration isn't 'forced' because no one has to buy service" 4157:"Consumer Arbitration: Pre-Dispute Resolution Clauses and Class Action Waivers" 4489: 3966:"We Asked A Lawyer What to Do if You've Been Screwed by an Arbitration Clause" 3227:"Arbitration Study Preliminary Results: Section 1028(a) Study Results To Date" 1441: 1339: 1068:, which would make pre-dispute consumer arbitration agreements unenforceable. 1046: 4976: 4269: 4220: 3763: 184:

The FAA and the Supreme Court's "liberal federal policy favoring arbitration"

6483: 5954:

Wack, Kevin (2012-12-11). "Industry's Lobbying on Arbitration Intensifies".

1733:"Who Can Be Against Fairness? The Case Against the Arbitration Fairness Act" 1038: 448: 154: 5208: 3626: 1893:"How the Supreme Court Thwarted the Purpose of the Federal Arbitration Act" 6388:"Consumer Arbitration Clause Enforcement: A Balanced Legislative Response" 5971:"Help us design a consumer survey about mandatory pre-dispute arbitration" 443:

like the ones in AT&T's agreement. Several large businesses, such as

5113: 3502:"Control over Dispute-System Design and Mandatory Commercial Arbitration" 3078:"Complaint: State of Minnesota v. National Arbitration Forum, Inc. et al" 1458: 1379: 634:$ 950 administrative fee (+$ 300 for a hearing) and $ 375 for aribtrator 623:$ 750 administrative fee (+$ 200 for a hearing) and $ 125 for arbitrator 312:

National Arbitration Forum ceases administration of consumer arbitrations

5869:"Institutional ADR Today: The Comprehensive, Cost-Effective Alternative" 5169:

Harding, Margaret M. (2004). "The Limits of the Due Process Protocols".

4138: 395:

favor of arbitration. Therefore, the majority opinion concluded that

5364:

https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-114s2506is/pdf/BILLS-114s2506is.pdf

5125: 5123: 2727: 1587: 1490: 452: 403:

Justices Ginsburg, Sotomayor, and Kagan. Breyer's dissent stated that

183: 6462:

McGill, Shelley (2011). "Consumer Arbitration After Seidel v. TELUS".

6305:"The CFPB's Arbitration Ban Could Be the Next Supreme Court Showdown" 1579: 6484:

American Arbitration Association's "Consumer Arbitration Fact Sheet"

2065: 2063: 1021:, a business with over 125 million customers, and 7 cases involving 951:

AT&T agreed not to ask for reimbursement of its attorney's fees;

505:

JAMS is a for-profit arbitration administrator founded in 1979, in

440: 348:

United States District Court for the Southern District of California

6232:"CFPB Plans May 5 Hearing on Arbitration; Expected to Propose Rule" 5768: 5766: 3471:"Empirical Research on Consumer Arbitration: What the Data Reveals" 3035:"The Arbitration Trap: How Credit Card Companies Ensnare Consumers" 689:

even for consumers who do not ultimately win further compensation.

6020: 6018: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3275:"Consumer Arbitration Before the American Arbitration Association" 3011:"Do An LRA: Implement Your Own Civil Justice Reform Program NOW". 1603: 1840:"Sony: Supreme Court ruling spurred changes to PlayStation terms" 6078:"CFPB may let you sue your bank instead of going to arbitration" 4490:"The Shadow Terms: Contract Procedure and Unilateral Amendments" 4221:"Challenging Class Action Bans in Mandatory Arbitration Clauses" 3217: 1106: 730:

business were able to engage in delaying tactics in litigation.

444: 387: 5931:"CFPB-Arbitration Clauses, Swap Rules, Bonus Bonds: Compliance" 5903: 5901: 5333:

Sandler, Andrew L.; Holstein-Childress, Victoria (2011-07-05).

3215: 3213: 3211: 3209: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3199: 3197: 2119:

Drahozal, Christopher R. (2001). "Unfair Arbitration Clauses".

5423:"House Dems introduce bill to protect consumers' right to sue" 5328: 5326: 5190:

University of Pennsylvania Journal of Labor and Employment Law

1586:, but after a reform enacted in 2016 they are now allowed. In 420:

AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion § Subsequent developments

18: 6049:"CFPB Finds Arbitration Harms Consumers, Presaging New Rules" 3587:"The Litigation-Arbitration Dichotomy Meets the Class Action" 2840:"CFPB's Proposed Rule Unlikely to Hurt Arbitrators' Business" 2386: 2384: 2382: 2380: 1529:, would entail a "rough road ahead" for finalizing the rule. 165:"the award was procured by corruption, fraud, or undue means" 90:, most consumer arbitrations occur pursuant to a pre-dispute 34:

deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a

5395:"On Equal Pay Day, Rep. Chu Calls to End Forced Arbitration" 5015: 5013: 5011: 5009: 5007: 5005: 4561: 4559: 4557: 2714: 2712: 2318:

Statement of Archis A. Parasharami, Partner, Mayer Brown LLP

1671:

For specific references to the applicable rules, see below:

4079: 4077: 3764:"Arbitration Reform: What We Know and What We Need to Know" 1390:

is also a cosponsor of the Restoring Statutory Rights Act.

599:

AAA fees assessed in consumer claims (before March 1, 2013)

16:

Dispute resolution process between consumers and businesses

6183:"Financial regulators move to restrict forced arbitration" 6127:

Silver-Greenberg, Jessica; Corkery, Michael (2015-10-07).

4566:

Silver-Greenberg, Jessica; Gebeloff, Robert (2015-10-31).

3329:"Costs of Arbitration (Including AAA Administrative Fees)" 530:

Business influence on arbitration administrators' policies

5893:

Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act

5487:"In Arbitration, a 'Privatization of the Justice System'" 4777:

June 30, 2017 letter from AT&T to Sen. Franken et al.

3322: 3320: 3318: 1507:

Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act

1501:

Consumer Financial Protection Bureau study and rulemaking

513:

Impartiality of arbitrators and arbitration organizations

5506:"In Religious Arbitration, Scripture Is the Rule of Law" 5504:

Michael Corkery, Jessica Silver-Greenberg (2015-11-02).

5485:

Michael Corkery, Jessica Silver-Greenberg (2015-11-01).

5466:

Michael Corkery, Jessica Silver-Greenberg (2015-10-31).

5449:"Dems introduce bill to restore consumers' right to sue" 4188:"CFPB Arbitration Plan Provokes Dubious Industry Claims" 2776:"Consumer advocates seek details from arbitration firms" 2987: 2985: 2983: 2754:"JAMS Comprehensive Arbitration Rules & Procedures" 1594:, agreements to arbitrate monetary claims of less than 43: 5468:"Arbitration Everywhere, Stacking the Deck of Justice" 4865:"What's Really Wrong with Forced Consumer Arbitration" 4568:"Arbitration Everywhere, Stacking the Deck of Justice" 3857:"Lawyerless Dispute Resolution: Rethinking a Paradigm" 3657:

and the Future of the Vindication of Statutory Rights"

2444:: The Continuing Viability of Arbitration Regulations" 888:, who argued on behalf of the consumer respondents in 853:

Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

195:

According to §2 of the FAA (codified at 9 U.S.C. §2):

6026:"The CFPB Finds Few Consumers File Arbitration Cases" 5564: 5562: 4644:

Leblang, Kevin B.; Holtzman, Robert N. (2011-10-05).

4597:

Gibbs, Charles (2012). "Consumer Class Actions after

2691:"Consumer-Related Disputes: Supplementary Procedures" 2391:

Rutledge, Peter B.; Drahozal, Christopher R. (2013).

1462:

the Arbitration Fairness Act would conflict with the

739:

won a higher average amount than consumers appearing

5377:"Proposed Law Would Roll Back Mandatory Arbitration" 4839:"Industry's Preference for Arbitration Is a Reality" 2962:

Sternlight, Jean R. (2006). "Consumer Arbitration".

1863:"Top EULA Gotchas: Website Fine-Print Hall of Shame" 502:

make up less than 1% of the AAA's overall caseload.

6206:"CFPB's Arbitration Proposal Draws 13,000 Comments" 6102:Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (2015-10-07). 5047: 5045: 5043: 5041: 4674: 4672: 4670: 4668: 4666: 3432: 3430: 3113: 3111: 3109: 3107: 3105: 1264: 812:

Availability of relief otherwise available in court

82:Disputes between consumers and businesses that are 6347:Loyola University Chicago International Law Review 4977:"Arguments in Favor of the Triumph of Arbitration" 4681:"After Class: Aggregate Litigation in the Wake of 4120: 4118: 3277:. American Arbitration Association. Archived from 2957: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2896: 1624:the "Class action waivers" section of this article 1152:Proposed modifications to consumer arbitration law 6340:"American Exceptionalism in Consumer Arbitration" 5687:Fair Arbitration Act, S. 1135, 110th Cong. (2007) 3119:"Minnesota Sues a Credit Arbitrator, Citing Bias" 2964:Arbitration Law in America: A Critical Assessment 914:, a new arbitration clause similar to the one in 696:American Express Co. v. Italian Colors Restaurant 6443:The Fair Trading Act, R.S.A. 2000, c. F-2, s. 16 4622: 4620: 4618: 4616: 4214: 4212: 4210: 3757: 3755: 3464: 3462: 2966:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 127–184. 2539:"Consumer Protection Faces a 'Tsunami' in Court" 1060:Viability of post-dispute arbitration agreements 207:Moses H. Cone Mem'l Hosp. v. Mercury Constr. Co. 5997:Consumer Financial Protection Bureau Operations 5263:"Mandating Minimum Quality in Mass Arbitration" 4354: 4352: 4167:(4). Association for Conflict Resolution: 16–19 3327:American Arbitration Association (2013-03-01). 518:Business selection of arbitration administrator 374: 197: 6000:. C-SPAN. 2013-09-12. Event occurs at 1:00:54 5305:Banking & Financial Services Policy Report 3539: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3527: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2595: 2593: 2182: 2180: 2167:Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law 2021: 2019: 2017: 2015: 2013: 1759:"Bill aims to restore consumers' right to sue" 1570:Consumer arbitration outside the United States 257:cited a then-superseded arbitration clause by 6277:Harmon, Michael; Childs, Larry (2013-09-03). 5723: 5721: 5704:. Austin: Wolters Kluwer Law & Business. 5213:Employee Rights and Employment Policy Journal 5139:University of Arkansas Little Rock Law Review 4724:Korn, David; Rosenberg, David (Summer 2013). 4294:Munro, Nicole F.; Cockrell, Peter L. (2013). 3469:Cole, Sarah R.; Blankley, Kristen M. (2009). 3273:Searle Civil Justice Institute (March 2009). 2355:"Guest Column: Arbitration Three Years After 1819: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1811: 1809: 1807: 1805: 1803: 1801: 1412:, "The legislation is Leahy’s response to a 1315: 1065: 491:as an arbitration administrator. Before the 32:The examples and perspective in this article 8: 5745:University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 5695: 5693: 5339:Corporate Officers & Directors Liability 4737:University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 4150: 4148: 4086:University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 3655:In re American Express Merchants' Litigation 1799: 1797: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1789: 1787: 1785: 1783: 1781: 1677:Right to pursue claims in small claims court 547:Allegations of impropriety by administrators 364:. The Ninth Circuit affirmed, holding that 6333: 6331: 6329: 6327: 6325: 5734:Actions as a State Legislative Response to 5542: 5540: 5538: 5164: 5162: 5160: 4820: 4818: 4525:Why and How We Should Ban Class-Action Bans 4404:and the Future of Small Claims Arbitration" 4014: 4012: 3688:"Judicial Policing of Consumer Arbitration" 2514:Tracey, Ann Marie; McGill, Shelley (2012). 1516:The CFPB has hired Christopher Drahozal, a 6279:"What Banks Should Know About Arbitration" 4935: 4933: 4931: 4929: 4927: 3907:"A Rising Tide Against Class-Action Suits" 3298: 3296: 3268: 3266: 2807:Berner, Robert; Grow, Brian (2008-06-04). 2438:Sura, Arpan A.; DeRise, Robert A. (2013). 2091: 2089: 2087: 1322: 1308: 1177: 475:Arbitrators and arbitration administrators 6071: 6069: 5836:Pepperdine Dispute Resolution Law Journal 5822: 5820: 5818: 5607: 5605: 4592: 4590: 4588: 4483: 4481: 4479: 3692:Pepperdine Dispute Resolution Law Journal 3264: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3246: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1957: 1650:For PayPal, the required court venue was 1623: 1420:The proposed legislation states that the 1145: 981:Number of arbitrations filed by consumers 94:where the arbitrator's award is binding. 70:Learn how and when to remove this message 5171:Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution 5096: 5094: 5092: 5090: 5088: 4825:Tillman v. Commercial Credit Loans, Inc. 4466:Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution 4459: 4457: 4393: 4391: 4389: 4339:Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution 4300:Journal of Business & Technology Law 4219:Bland, F. Paul; Prestel, Claire (2009). 3888:Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution 2291: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2259: 2257: 999:Tillman v. Commercial Credit Loans, Inc. 750:Matt Webb, Senior Vice President of the 602: 455:introduced arbitration provisions after 328: 4679:Gilles, Myriam; Friedman, Gary (2012). 3992: 3990: 3988: 3500:Bingham, Lisa B. (Winter–Spring 2004). 1720: 1615: 1227:U.S. Representative for New York's 20th 1180: 628:more than $ 10,000 and at most $ 75,000 5591: 5580: 5104:(2016-03-11). "Arbitrating Disputes". 5074: 5063: 4984:Cardozo Journal of Conflict Resolution 4863:Alderman, Richard M. (November 2010). 4228:Cardozo Journal of Conflict Resolution 3771:Cardozo Journal of Conflict Resolution 2809:"Banks vs. Consumers (Guess Who Wins)" 2668: 2657: 1737:Cardozo Journal of Conflict Resolution 1193:This article is part of a series about 2315:Parasharami, Archis A. (2013-12-17). 941:the customer could pursue a claim in 867:"Consumer-friendly" arbitration terms 441:"consumer-friendly" arbitration terms 7: 6160:Consumer Financial Protection Bureau 5975:Consumer Financial Protection Bureau 4692:The University of Chicago Law Review 4434:Consumer Financial Protection Bureau 3223:Consumer Financial Protection Bureau 1511:Consumer Financial Protection Bureau 1260:Campus Accountability and Safety Act 333:United States Supreme Court Justice 305:Hooters of America, Inc. v. Phillips 5867:Slate II, William K. (2011-08-01). 5267:University of Cincinnati Law Review 4155:Pomerantz, Lisa Renee (Fall 2015). 3742:The Journal of American Arbitration 3546:"Arbitration: The 'New Litigation'" 3442:"Fee Schedule to Code of Procedure" 3175:"Arbitration firm calling it quits" 2480:AT&T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion 765:Model Rules of Professional Conduct 5873:The Metropolitan Corporate Counsel 5614:"Regulating Mandatory Arbitration" 4650:The Metropolitan Corporate Counsel 4634:, 07-976, filed February 25, 2008. 4626:Brief of AT&T Mobility LLC as 3411:. JAMS. 2009-07-15. Archived from 3051:Mencimer, Stephanie (2007-11-26). 3013:The Metropolitan Corporate Counsel 2196:Northwestern University Law Review 1025:, which had 15 million customers. 590:Arbitrator and administrative fees 553:The Metropolitan Corporate Counsel 483:Most credit card issuers name the 214:First consumer arbitration clauses 119:Supreme Court of the United States 98:conducted and the availability of 14: 4603:University of Illinois Law Review 3553:University of Illinois Law Review 3354:Cole, Sarah Rudolph (Fall 2011). 2121:University of Illinois Law Review 776:Disclosure of arbitration clauses 752:United States Chamber of Commerce 6407:10.1111/j.1744-1714.2010.01099.x 6047:Dougherty, Carter (2015-03-10). 5793:"Alternative Dispute Resolution" 5728:Alexander, Janet Cooper (2013). 3667:(6 Electronic Supplement): 15–28 2687:American Arbitration Association 2520:Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 2426:Hooters of Am., Inc. v. Phillips 2026:Gilles, Myriam (December 2005). 1686:Written explanation of the award 1674:Right to attorney representation 1295: 1289: 1255:Military Justice Improvement Act 1185: 1094:American Arbitration Association 908:Vanderbilt University Law School 485:American Arbitration Association 23: 5647:Surdyk, Alicia J. (2009–2010). 4630:in Support of Neither Party in 3544:Stipanowich, Thomas J. (2010). 2604:AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion 1900:Case Western Reserve Law Review 1825:AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion 1128:Brady v. Williams Capital Group 1003:Supreme Court of North Carolina 463:Aspects of consumer arbitration 357:Discover Bank v. Superior Court 340:AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion 325:AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion 318:AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion 124:AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion 6338:Schmitz, Amy J. (2013-02-05). 5969:Wade-Gery, Will (2013-06-07). 5656:New York Law School Law Review 5624:(4): 1309–1376. Archived from 4975:Carbonneau, Thomas E. (2009). 4837:Kaplinsky, Alan (2015-11-20). 4749:10.36646/mjlr.46.4.concepcions 4683:AT&T Mobility v Concepcion 3651:Harris, Matthew (2013-02-05). 3600:(3): 1069–1130. Archived from 2298:New York University Law Review 1652:Santa Clara County, California 1448:and Democratic Representative 1265:Restoring Statutory Rights Act 1174:Restoring Statutory Rights Act 1088:Consumer due process standards 1037:Arbitration decisions are not 962:Metropolitan Corporate Counsel 337:wrote the majority opinion in 274:Unconscionability as a defense 1: 6464:Canadian Business Law Journal 6395:American Business Law Journal 6386:McGill, Shelley (Fall 2010). 5447:Wheeler, Lydia (2016-02-04). 4827:, 655 S.E.2d 362 (N. C. 2008) 4127:Law and Contemporary Problems 3964:McManus, Brian (2015-11-04). 3585:Nagareda, Richard A. (2011). 3506:Law and Contemporary Problems 3305:Law and Contemporary Problems 2574:Decision Are Plainly Evident" 2568:Public Citizen (April 2012). 2353:Pincus, Andrew (2014-05-13). 2144:Journal of Dispute Resolution 708:representation is subject to 551:In an August 2001 article in 6303:Sullivan, Bob (2015-10-16). 6204:Hayashi, Yuka (2016-08-23). 5523:Morran, Chris (2016-02-04). 5375:Walker, Mandy (2016-02-09). 5261:Stempel, Jeffrey W. (2008). 5023:. 1998-04-17. Archived from 4952:(1): 313–330. Archived from 4632:T-Mobile USA, Inc. v. Laster 4522:Gupta, Deepak (2011-03-17). 4268:(1): 187–228. Archived from 3855:Sternlight, Jean R. (2010). 3830:(3): 665–710. Archived from 3447:. National Arbitration Forum 3125:. 2009-07-14. Archived from 3083:. 2009-07-14. Archived from 2907:Sternlight, Jean R. (2012). 2869:"JAMS Historical Fact Sheet" 2774:Said, Carolyn (2014-01-12). 2428:173 F.3d 933 (4th Cir. 1999) 1861:Newman, Jared (2012-02-06). 1626:). Justice Scalia wrote in 745:unauthorized practice of law 6076:McCoy, Kevin (2015-10-07). 5895:§1028(c), 124 Stat. at 2004 4946:William Mitchell Law Review 4796:Brodkin, Jon (2017-06-30). 4186:Sovern, Jeff (2015-11-13). 3905:Segal, David (2012-05-05). 3762:Rutledge, Peter B. (2009). 2838:Bruce, Chris (2015-10-07). 2815:. Bloomberg. Archived from 2720:"Waiving Your Right to Sue" 2537:Weise, Karen (2012-04-27). 2161:Scarpino, Julia A. (2002). 2096:Lampley, Ramona L. (2008). 1838:Milian, Mark (2011-09-21). 1334:In February 2016, Senators 902:Kinkel v. Cingular Wireless 46:, discuss the issue on the 6515: 6452:2011 SCC 15, 1 S.C.R. 531 6230:Bater, Jeff (2016-04-21). 5929:Main, Carla (2012-04-25). 5791:Bedikian, Mary A. (2007). 5549:Dispute Resolution Journal 5345:(1). Thomson Reuters: 1–10 4906:Cleveland State Law Review 4900:Davis, Kenneth R. (2012). 4325:Bradley v. Harris Research 4050:Blumenthal, Aaron (2015). 4019:Landsman, Stephan (2010). 3438:National Arbitration Forum 3154:. 2009-07-17. pp. 3–6 2482:Impedes Access to Justice" 2041:: 373–430 . Archived from 1283:2020 presidential campaign 1238:U.S. Senator from New York 1115:social networking websites 835:Bradley v. Harris Research 784: 756:Institute for Legal Reform 672:Other arbitration expenses 575:Minnesota Attorney General 493:National Arbitration Forum 417: 322: 247:National Arbitration Forum 226:National Arbitration Forum 145: 6181:Sweet, Ken (2015-10-09). 5827:Moore, Catherine (2012). 5662:: 1131–57. Archived from 5612:Burch, Thomas V. (2011). 5230:Malin, Martin H. (2012). 5207:Malin, Martin H. (2007). 4940:Maltby, Lewis L. (2003). 4786:. Retrieved 3 July 2017. 4698:: 623–675. Archived from 4533:The Future of Arbitration 4025:Fordham Urban Law Journal 3861:Fordham Urban Law Journal 3736:Ware, Stephen J. (2006). 3686:Dauer, Edward A. (2001). 3661:Boston College Law Review 3559:(1): 1–60. Archived from 3173:Abate, Tom (2009-07-22). 2476:Sternlight, Jean (2012). 2403:(1): 1–63. Archived from 2138:Ware, Stephen J. (2001). 1972:Arizona State Law Journal 1660:San Francisco, California 1346:2016, including Senators 1124:New York Court of Appeals 612:Fees charged to business 507:Orange County, California 399:is preempted by the FAA. 384:Federal Rules of Evidence 218:In a 1996 article in the 6373:"August Debouzy AD Live" 5842:: 503–24. Archived from 4359:Schmitz, Amy J. (2010). 4253:Welsh, Nancy A. (2012). 2922:: 87–129. Archived from 2189:"Unconscionability Wars" 2080:(8): 64–65. August 1999. 2070:"The Arbitration Trap". 1428:Arbitration Fairness Act 1066:Arbitration Fairness Act 609:Fees charged to consumer 352:California Supreme Court 6210:The Wall Street Journal 4408:Southwestern Law Review 4398:Gross, Jill I. (2012). 4262:Southwestern Law Review 3931:Johnston, Jason Scott; 3180:San Francisco Chronicle 2916:Southwestern Law Review 2781:San Francisco Chronicle 2600:Gilles, Myriam (2012). 1828:, 131 S.Ct. 1740 (2011) 1527:The Wall Street Journal 1422:Federal Arbitration Act 1250:Credit CARD Act of 2009 1033:Precedent and publicity 945:instead of arbitration; 861:forum selection clauses 529: 498:San Francisco Chronicle 411:Developments following 232:Ross v. Bank of America 190:Federal Arbitration Act 136:Federal Arbitration Act 129:Federal Arbitration Act 5700:Luttrell, Sam (2009). 5590:Cite journal requires 5073:Cite journal requires 4782:June 30, 2017, at the 4599:AT&T v. Concepcion 4488:Horton, David (2010). 3815:Padis, George (2013). 3123:Bloomberg Businessweek 2667:Cite journal requires 2543:Bloomberg Businessweek 2187:Horton, David (2012). 897:Illinois Supreme Court 878:forum selection clause 379: 343: 288:standard form contract 202: 4327:, 275 F.3d 884 (2001) 4105:Vanderbilt Law Review 4056:California Law Review 3719:Vanderbilt Law Review 3594:Notre Dame Law Review 3475:Penn State Law Review 3019:(8): 30. August 2001. 2613:Notre Dame Law Review 2393:"Contract and Choice" 2365:. The American Lawyer 2100:. Bepress. p. 25 2000:Franchise Law Journal 1891:Wilson, Jodi (2012). 571:arbitration process. 332: 221:Franchise Law Journal 5797:The Wayne Law Review 5774:Congressional Record 4275:on 21 September 2013 3798:The Yale Law Journal 3653:"Riding the Waiver: 3281:on 21 September 2015 2266:San Diego Law Review 1518:University of Kansas 1477:Fair Arbitration Act 1146:Fair Arbitration Act 781:Class action waivers 734:Legal representation 631:$ 375 for arbitrator 620:$ 125 for arbitrator 585:Costs of arbitration 542:Repeat-player effect 264:consumer protections 188:Congress passed the 108:repeat-player effect 104:consumer arbitration 52:create a new article 44:improve this article 5669:on 26 December 2013 5236:Indiana Law Journal 4705:on 24 December 2013 3627:"About Arbitration" 3415:on 10 November 2012 3369:(3). Archived from 2994:The Business Lawyer 2881:on 28 December 2013 2724:The Diane Rehm Show 2697:on 19 December 2013 2243:The Business Lawyer 2035:Michigan Law Review 1658:; for Second Life, 1464:New York Convention 1275:Me Too Congress Act 1216:Political positions 912:Richard A. Nagareda 787:Class action waiver 717:Speed of resolution 386:, or decision by a 6185:. Associated Press 6134:The New York Times 6053:Bloomberg Business 5628:on 22 October 2013 5286:McGill Law Journal 4872:Business Law Today 4572:The New York Times 3911:The New York Times 3363:Houston Law Review 3149:"Consent Judgment" 3033:(September 2007). 2223:Arizona Law Review 2048:on 16 January 2013 1951:9 U.S.C. §10(a)(4) 1942:9 U.S.C. §10(a)(3) 1933:9 U.S.C. §10(a)(2) 1924:9 U.S.C. §10(a)(1) 1729:Rutledge, Peter B. 1534:grandfather clause 1446:Richard Blumenthal 1386:(D-N.H.). Senator 1360:Kirsten Gillibrand 1200:Kirsten Gillibrand 1012:The New York Times 988:The New York Times 943:small claims court 820:Location and venue 344: 92:arbitration clause 5711:978-90-411-3191-1 4402:AT&T Mobility 4368:Baylor Law Review 2819:on August 9, 2012 2730:(NPR). 2012-03-08 2549:on April 28, 2012 2489:Oregon Law Review 2451:Kansas Law Review 2440:"Conceptualizing 2407:on 1 January 2014 1988:460 U.S. 1 (1983) 1764:Los Angeles Times 1584:French Civil Code 1468:Panama Convention 1436:). In May 2011, 1332: 1331: 1221:Electoral history 1208: 1207: 1023:Time Warner Cable 997:In the 2008 case 848:Goldberg v. Kelly 703:Scholarly opinion 649: 648: 279:Unconscionability 80: 79: 72: 54:, as appropriate. 6506: 6472: 6471: 6459: 6453: 6450: 6444: 6441: 6435: 6432: 6426: 6425: 6423: 6421: 6392: 6383: 6377: 6376: 6369: 6363: 6362: 6360: 6358: 6344: 6335: 6320: 6319: 6317: 6315: 6300: 6294: 6293: 6291: 6289: 6274: 6268: 6267: 6253: 6247: 6246: 6244: 6242: 6227: 6221: 6220: 6218: 6216: 6201: 6195: 6194: 6192: 6190: 6178: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6167: 6152: 6146: 6145: 6143: 6141: 6124: 6118: 6117: 6115: 6113: 6108: 6099: 6093: 6092: 6090: 6088: 6073: 6064: 6063: 6061: 6059: 6044: 6038: 6037: 6035: 6033: 6022: 6013: 6012: 6006: 6005: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5983: 5981: 5966: 5960: 5959: 5951: 5945: 5944: 5942: 5941: 5926: 5920: 5919: 5905: 5896: 5890: 5884: 5883: 5881: 5879: 5864: 5858: 5857: 5855: 5854: 5848: 5833: 5824: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5808: 5788: 5782: 5770: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5742: 5730:"To Skin a Cat: 5725: 5716: 5715: 5697: 5688: 5685: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5668: 5653: 5644: 5638: 5637: 5635: 5633: 5609: 5600: 5599: 5593: 5588: 5586: 5578: 5566: 5557: 5556: 5544: 5533: 5532: 5520: 5514: 5513: 5501: 5495: 5494: 5482: 5476: 5475: 5463: 5457: 5456: 5444: 5438: 5433: 5427: 5426: 5425:. 12 April 2016. 5419: 5413: 5412: 5405: 5399: 5398: 5397:. 12 April 2016. 5391: 5385: 5384: 5381:Consumer Reports 5372: 5366: 5361: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5330: 5321: 5320: 5300: 5294: 5293: 5281: 5275: 5274: 5258: 5252: 5251: 5249: 5247: 5227: 5221: 5220: 5204: 5198: 5197: 5185: 5179: 5178: 5166: 5155: 5154: 5152: 5150: 5136: 5127: 5118: 5117: 5098: 5083: 5082: 5076: 5071: 5069: 5061: 5049: 5036: 5035: 5033: 5032: 5017: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4995: 4981: 4972: 4966: 4965: 4963: 4961: 4956:on 4 August 2012 4937: 4922: 4921: 4919: 4917: 4897: 4891: 4890: 4888: 4886: 4880: 4874:. 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Archived from 4530: 4519: 4513: 4512: 4510: 4508: 4494: 4485: 4474: 4473: 4461: 4452: 4451: 4449: 4447: 4442: 4430: 4424: 4423: 4421: 4419: 4395: 4384: 4383: 4381: 4379: 4365: 4356: 4347: 4346: 4334: 4328: 4322: 4316: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4291: 4285: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4274: 4259: 4250: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4239: 4225: 4216: 4205: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4183: 4177: 4176: 4174: 4172: 4152: 4143: 4142: 4122: 4113: 4112: 4100: 4094: 4093: 4081: 4072: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4047: 4041: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4016: 4007: 4006: 3999:Idaho Law Review 3994: 3983: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3961: 3955: 3954: 3952: 3950: 3941: 3928: 3922: 3921: 3919: 3917: 3902: 3896: 3895: 3883: 3877: 3876: 3874: 3872: 3852: 3846: 3845: 3843: 3842: 3836: 3824:Texas Law Review 3821: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3768: 3759: 3750: 3749: 3733: 3727: 3726: 3714: 3708: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3683: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3648: 3642: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3614: 3612: 3606: 3591: 3582: 3576: 3575: 3573: 3571: 3565: 3550: 3541: 3522: 3521: 3519: 3517: 3497: 3491: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3466: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3446: 3434: 3425: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3405: 3386: 3385: 3383: 3381: 3375: 3360: 3351: 3345: 3344: 3342: 3340: 3335:on 23 April 2014 3331:. Archived from 3324: 3313: 3312: 3300: 3291: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3270: 3241: 3240: 3238: 3236: 3231: 3219: 3192: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3161: 3159: 3153: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3129:on July 15, 2009 3115: 3100: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3089: 3082: 3074: 3068: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3039: 3027: 3021: 3020: 3008: 3002: 3001: 2989: 2978: 2977: 2959: 2938: 2937: 2935: 2934: 2928: 2913: 2904: 2891: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2880: 2874:. Archived from 2873: 2861: 2855: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2835: 2829: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2804: 2793: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2771: 2765: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2746: 2740: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2716: 2707: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2693:. Archived from 2683: 2677: 2676: 2670: 2665: 2663: 2655: 2635: 2629: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2610: 2597: 2588: 2587: 2585: 2583: 2578: 2565: 2559: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2545:. 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6505: 6504: 6503: 6489: 6488: 6480: 6475: 6461: 6460: 6456: 6451: 6447: 6442: 6438: 6433: 6429: 6419: 6417: 6390: 6385: 6384: 6380: 6371: 6370: 6366: 6356: 6354: 6342: 6337: 6336: 6323: 6313: 6311: 6302: 6301: 6297: 6287: 6285: 6283:American Banker 6276: 6275: 6271: 6259:American Banker 6255: 6254: 6250: 6240: 6238: 6229: 6228: 6224: 6214: 6212: 6203: 6202: 6198: 6188: 6186: 6180: 6179: 6175: 6165: 6163: 6154: 6153: 6149: 6139: 6137: 6126: 6125: 6121: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6101: 6100: 6096: 6086: 6084: 6075: 6074: 6067: 6057: 6055: 6046: 6045: 6041: 6031: 6029: 6024: 6023: 6016: 6003: 6001: 5994: 5993: 5989: 5979: 5977: 5968: 5967: 5963: 5958:. pp. 1–7. 5956:American Banker 5953: 5952: 5948: 5939: 5937: 5928: 5927: 5923: 5911:American Banker 5907: 5906: 5899: 5891: 5887: 5877: 5875: 5866: 5865: 5861: 5852: 5850: 5846: 5831: 5826: 5825: 5816: 5806: 5804: 5790: 5789: 5785: 5771: 5764: 5754: 5752: 5740: 5727: 5726: 5719: 5712: 5699: 5698: 5691: 5686: 5682: 5672: 5670: 5666: 5651: 5646: 5645: 5641: 5631: 5629: 5618:Utah Law Review 5611: 5610: 5603: 5589: 5579: 5568: 5567: 5560: 5546: 5545: 5536: 5522: 5521: 5517: 5503: 5502: 5498: 5484: 5483: 5479: 5465: 5464: 5460: 5446: 5445: 5441: 5434: 5430: 5421: 5420: 5416: 5407: 5406: 5402: 5393: 5392: 5388: 5374: 5373: 5369: 5362: 5358: 5348: 5346: 5332: 5331: 5324: 5302: 5301: 5297: 5283: 5282: 5278: 5260: 5259: 5255: 5245: 5243: 5229: 5228: 5224: 5206: 5205: 5201: 5187: 5186: 5182: 5168: 5167: 5158: 5148: 5146: 5134: 5129: 5128: 5121: 5100: 5099: 5086: 5072: 5062: 5051: 5050: 5039: 5030: 5028: 5019: 5018: 5003: 4993: 4991: 4979: 4974: 4973: 4969: 4959: 4957: 4939: 4938: 4925: 4915: 4913: 4899: 4898: 4894: 4884: 4882: 4881:on 4 March 2016 4878: 4867: 4862: 4861: 4857: 4847: 4845: 4843:American Banker 4836: 4835: 4831: 4823: 4816: 4806: 4804: 4795: 4794: 4790: 4784:Wayback Machine 4775: 4771: 4761: 4759: 4732: 4723: 4722: 4718: 4708: 4706: 4702: 4687: 4678: 4677: 4664: 4654: 4652: 4643: 4642: 4638: 4625: 4614: 4609:(4): 1345–1381. 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3680: 3670: 3668: 3650: 3649: 3645: 3635: 3633: 3625: 3624: 3620: 3610: 3608: 3607:on 3 March 2016 3604: 3589: 3584: 3583: 3579: 3569: 3567: 3566:on 2 April 2015 3563: 3548: 3543: 3542: 3525: 3515: 3513: 3499: 3498: 3494: 3484: 3482: 3468: 3467: 3460: 3450: 3448: 3444: 3436: 3435: 3428: 3418: 3416: 3407: 3406: 3389: 3379: 3377: 3373: 3358: 3353: 3352: 3348: 3338: 3336: 3326: 3325: 3316: 3311:(1/2): 133–166. 3302: 3301: 3294: 3284: 3282: 3272: 3271: 3244: 3234: 3232: 3229: 3221: 3220: 3195: 3185: 3183: 3172: 3171: 3167: 3157: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3146: 3142: 3132: 3130: 3117: 3116: 3103: 3093: 3091: 3090:on 16 June 2012 3087: 3080: 3076: 3075: 3071: 3061: 3059: 3050: 3049: 3045: 3037: 3029: 3028: 3024: 3010: 3009: 3005: 2991: 2990: 2981: 2974: 2961: 2960: 2941: 2932: 2930: 2926: 2911: 2906: 2905: 2894: 2884: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2867:(August 2012). 2863: 2862: 2858: 2848: 2846: 2837: 2836: 2832: 2822: 2820: 2806: 2805: 2796: 2786: 2784: 2773: 2772: 2768: 2758: 2756: 2748: 2747: 2743: 2733: 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1656:Omaha, Nebraska 1649: 1645: 1639: 1635: 1621: 1617: 1612: 1572: 1564:Pepper Hamilton 1556:American Banker 1542:American Banker 1503: 1479: 1430: 1328: 1287: 1279: 1270:Reward Work Act 1239: 1236: 1228: 1225: 1199: 1197: 1196: 1195: 1192: 1176: 1159: 1154: 1090: 1062: 1035: 1014: 990: 983: 869: 822: 814: 789: 783: 778: 773: 736: 719: 705: 674: 598: 592: 587: 549: 544: 532: 520: 515: 477: 465: 422: 416: 327: 321: 314: 276: 216: 186: 181: 150: 144: 76: 65: 59: 56: 41: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6512: 6510: 6502: 6501: 6491: 6490: 6487: 6486: 6479: 6478:External links 6476: 6474: 6473: 6454: 6445: 6436: 6427: 6401:(3): 361–413. 6378: 6364: 6321: 6295: 6269: 6248: 6222: 6196: 6173: 6147: 6119: 6094: 6065: 6039: 6014: 5987: 5961: 5946: 5921: 5897: 5885: 5859: 5814: 5783: 5779:April 17, 2007 5762: 5717: 5710: 5689: 5680: 5639: 5601: 5592:|journal= 5558: 5534: 5515: 5510:New York Times 5496: 5491:New York Times 5477: 5472:New York Times 5458: 5439: 5428: 5414: 5400: 5386: 5367: 5356: 5322: 5295: 5276: 5253: 5222: 5199: 5180: 5156: 5119: 5084: 5075:|journal= 5037: 5001: 4967: 4923: 4892: 4855: 4829: 4814: 4788: 4769: 4716: 4662: 4636: 4612: 4584: 4553: 4514: 4475: 4453: 4436:(March 2015). 4425: 4385: 4348: 4329: 4317: 4286: 4245: 4206: 4178: 4144: 4133:(1/2): 55–74. 4114: 4095: 4073: 4042: 4008: 3984: 3956: 3923: 3897: 3878: 3847: 3807: 3788: 3751: 3728: 3709: 3678: 3643: 3618: 3577: 3523: 3492: 3458: 3440:(2008-08-01). 3426: 3387: 3376:on 31 May 2015 3346: 3314: 3292: 3242: 3225:(2013-12-12). 3193: 3165: 3140: 3101: 3069: 3043: 3031:Public Citizen 3022: 3003: 2979: 2972: 2939: 2892: 2856: 2830: 2794: 2766: 2752:(2010-10-01). 2741: 2708: 2689:(March 2013). 2678: 2669:|journal= 2630: 2589: 2560: 2529: 2506: 2468: 2430: 2418: 2397:BYU Law Review 2376: 2345: 2307: 2275: 2253: 2232: 2213: 2176: 2153: 2130: 2111: 2083: 2059: 2009: 1990: 1981: 1953: 1944: 1935: 1926: 1917: 1883: 1853: 1830: 1777: 1757:(2011-10-18). 1755:Lazarus, David 1746: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1700: 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409: 354:'s holding in 335:Antonin Scalia 323:Main article: 320: 315: 313: 310: 275: 272: 215: 212: 185: 182: 180: 177: 176: 175: 172: 169: 166: 159:cross-examined 143: 140: 102:. Critics of 78: 77: 38:of the subject 36:worldwide view 31: 29: 22: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6511: 6500: 6497: 6496: 6494: 6485: 6482: 6481: 6477: 6470:(2): 187–210. 6469: 6465: 6458: 6455: 6449: 6446: 6440: 6437: 6431: 6428: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6389: 6382: 6379: 6374: 6368: 6365: 6352: 6348: 6341: 6334: 6332: 6330: 6328: 6326: 6322: 6310: 6306: 6299: 6296: 6284: 6280: 6273: 6270: 6265: 6261: 6260: 6252: 6249: 6237: 6236:Bloomberg BNA 6233: 6226: 6223: 6211: 6207: 6200: 6197: 6184: 6177: 6174: 6161: 6157: 6151: 6148: 6136: 6135: 6130: 6123: 6120: 6105: 6098: 6095: 6083: 6079: 6072: 6070: 6066: 6054: 6050: 6043: 6040: 6027: 6021: 6019: 6015: 6011: 5999: 5998: 5991: 5988: 5976: 5972: 5965: 5962: 5957: 5950: 5947: 5936: 5932: 5925: 5922: 5917: 5913: 5912: 5904: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5889: 5886: 5874: 5870: 5863: 5860: 5849:on 2013-12-24 5845: 5841: 5837: 5830: 5823: 5821: 5819: 5815: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5787: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5775: 5769: 5767: 5763: 5750: 5746: 5739: 5737: 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