Protected area - Knowledge (XXG)

633:' was defined as "a geographically defined area other than a Protected Area, which is governed and managed in ways that achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for the in situ conservation of biodiversity, with associated ecosystem functions and services and where applicable, cultural, spiritual, socio-economic, and other locally relevant values." Other effective area-based conservation measures complement protected areas across landscapes, seascapes, and river basins. Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures are referenced together in Target 3 of the draft Global Biodiversity Framework, which is due to be agreed at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, which will be held 5 to 17 December in 399:, while cultural services are a source of aesthetic and cultural value for tourism and heritage. Such services are often overlooked by humanity, due to the ecosystem from which they originate being far from urbanized areas. The contamination of ecosystem services within a designated area ultimately degrades their use for society. For example, the protection of a water body inherently protects that water body's microorganisms and their ability to adequately filter pollutants and pathogens, ultimately protecting water quality itself. Therefore, the implementation of protected areas is vital to maintaining the quality and consistency of ecosystem services, ultimately allowing human society to function without the interference of human infrastructure or policies. 106: 319:

levels, elected and traditional authorities, indigenous peoples and local communities, private individuals and non-profit trusts, among others. Most protected-area and forest management institutions acknowledge the importance of recognizing the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, sharing the costs and benefits of protected areas and actively involving them in their governance and management. This has led to the recognition of four main types of governance, defined on the basis of who holds authority, responsibility, and who can be held accountable for the key decisions for protected areas. Indeed, governance of protected areas has emerged a critical factor in their success.

756:. Although these networks are well regulated (local communities are aware of their importance and actively contribute to their maintenance), Bhutan is currently a developing country that is undergoing infrastructure development and resource collection. The country's economic progression has brought about human-wildlife conflict and increased pressure on the existence of its protected areas. In light of ongoing disputes on the topic of optimal land usage, Dorji (et al.), in a study using camera traps to detect wildlife activity, summarize the results of a nationwide survey that compares the biodiversity of Bhutan's protected areas versus that of intervening non-protected areas. 617:(COP) adopted the Program of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA) to further develop and promote protected areas. PoWPA's objective was the "establishment and maintenance by 2010 for terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively, inter alia through a global network contribute to achieving the three objectives of the Convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current rate of biodiversity loss." In 2010, protected areas were included in Target 11 of the CBD's 830: 709:(PADDD) events are processes that change the legal status of national parks and other protected areas in both terrestrial and marine environments. Downgrading is a decrease in legal restrictions on human activities within a protected area, downsizing is a decrease in protected area size through a legal boundary change, and degazettement is the loss of legal protection for an entire protected area. Collectively, PADDD represents legal processes that temper regulations, shrink boundaries, or eliminate legal protections originally associated with establishment of a protected area. 62: 867: 522:. However, the mass protected areas movement did not begin until late nineteenth-century in North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, when other countries were quick to follow suit. While the idea of protected areas spread around the world in the twentieth century, the driving force was different in different regions. Thus, in North America, protected areas were about safeguarding dramatic and sublime scenery; in Africa, the concern was with game parks; in Europe, landscape protection was more common. 248: 1112:, the administration of Joe Biden reached a record in conservation. In 3 years of ruling it conserved or in the process of conserving more than 24 millions acres of public land and in 2023 alone more than 12.5 million acres of public land became protected area. It is doing it together with the indigenouse people as 200 agreements of co-stewardship with them were signed in 2023 alone. The goal of Biden is to protect 30% of the terrestrial and marine territory of the United States by the year 2030. 487: 853: 225: 1312: 646: 5385: 1298: 658: 408: 625:"By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes." 1003:, hosts tree species with critical biogeographical locations (southernmost limit) on the western slopes of Mount Lebanon’s mountain range and has passed laws to protect environmental sites at the national level, including nature reserves, forests, and Hima (local community-based conservation), with some of these sites having acquired one or more international designations: 760:

areas and non-protected areas". Protected areas had the highest levels of mammal biodiversity. This is made possible by the restriction of commercial activity and regulation of consumptive uses (firewood, timber, etc.). The regulation of such practices has allowed Bhutan's protected areas to thrive with high carnivore diversity and other rare mammals such as

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14 countries are currently considering at least 46 PADDD proposals. Proximate causes of PADDD vary widely but most PADDD events globally (62%) are related to industrial scale resource extraction and development – infrastructure, industrial agriculture, mining, oil and gas, forestry, fisheries, and industrialization.

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Scientific publications have identified 3,749 enacted PADDD events in 73 countries since 1892 which have collectively impacted an area approximately the size of Mexico. PADDD is a historical and contemporary phenomenon. 78% of PADDD events worldwide were enacted since 2000 and governments in at least

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Nationally designated protected areas cover 14.3% of the world's mountain areas, and these mountainous protected areas made up 32.5% of the world's total terrestrial protected area coverage in 2009. Mountain protected area coverage has increased globally by 21% since 1990 and out of the 198 countries

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Strategic Plan: Future Evaluation of Progress, Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/VII/30 Annex (13 April 2004), Aichi Biodiversity Target 11. Among the twenty-one subsidiary targets, the first two were: "1.1 At least 10% of each of the world's ecological regions effectively conserved" and "1.2 Areas of particular

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The study indicated that Bhutan's protected areas "are effectively conserving medium and large mammal species, as demonstrated through the significant difference in mammal diversity between protected areas, biological corridors, and non-protected areas with the strongest difference between protected

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How to manage areas protected for conservation brings up a range of challenges – whether it be regarding the local population, specific ecosystems or the design of the reserve itself – and because of the many unpredicatable elements in ecology issues, each protected area requires a case-specific set

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The designation of protected areas often also contained a political statement. In the 17th and 18th centuries, protected areas were mostly hunting grounds of rulers and thus, on the one hand, an expression of the absolute personal authority of a monarch, and on the other hand, they were concentrated

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guarding sacred sites or the convention of European hunting reserves. Over 2000 years ago, royal decrees in India protected certain areas. In Europe, rich and powerful people protected hunting grounds for a thousand years. Moreover, the idea of protection of special places is universal: for example,

1062:, also known as a 'Private Reserve' predominantly managed for biodiversity conservation, protected without formal government recognition and is owned and stewarded by the O corporation International. O parks plays a particularly important role in conserving critical biodiversity in a section of the 1105:, the United States had a total of 6770 terrestrial nationally designated (federal) protected areas. These protected areas cover 2,607,131 km (1,006,619 sq mi), or 27.08 percent of the land area of the United States. This is also one-tenth of the protected land area of the world. 694:

In some countries, protected areas can be assigned without the infrastructure and networking needed to substitute consumable resources and substantively protect the area from development or misuse. The soliciting of protected areas may require regulation to the level of meeting demands for food,

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emerged which, thanks to the transport and communication technologies of industrialisation and the closely meshed and well-connected administrative apparatus that came with it, could actually assert claims to power over large contiguous territories. The establishment of nature reserves in mostly

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are reduced and longterm land cover change is prevented, which is an effective strategy in the struggle against global warming. Of all global terrestrial carbon stock, 15.2% is contained within protected areas. Protected areas in South America hold 27% of the world's carbon stock, which is the

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for example. As a result, Protected Areas can encompass a broad range of governance types. A wide variety of rights-holders and stakeholders are involved in the governance and management of protected areas, including forest protected areas, such as government agencies and ministries at various

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For waters under national jurisdiction beyond inland waters, there are 14,688 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), covering approximately 10.2% of coastal and marine areas and 4.12% of global ocean areas. In contrast, only 0.25% of the world's oceans beyond national jurisdiction are covered by MPAs.

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There is increasing pressure to take proper account of human needs when setting up protected areas and these sometimes have to be "traded off" against conservation needs. Whereas in the past governments often made decisions about protected areas and informed local people afterwards, today the

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that define protected areas according to their management objectives, which are internationally recognised by various national governments and the United Nations. The categories provide international standards for defining protected areas and encourage conservation planning according to their

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Subsequently, the range of natural resources that any one protected area may guard is vast. Many will be allocated primarily for species conservation whether it be flora or fauna or the relationship between them, but protected areas are similarly important for conserving sites of (indigenous)

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Enforcing protected area boundaries is a costly and labour-heavy endeavour, particularly if the allocation of a new protected region places new restrictions on the use of resources by the native people which may lead to their subsequent displacement. This has troubled relationships between

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also protects the ecosystem services society enjoys. Some ecosystem services include those that provide and regulate resources, support natural processes, or represent culture. Provisioning services provide resources to humanity, such as fuel and water, while regulating services include

613:(CBD) as "a geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives." Under Article 8 of the CBD, parties who entered the treaty agreed to, among other things, "establish a system of protected areas." In 2004, the CBD's 1092:

report indicating that Russia now ranks first in the world for its amount of protected natural areas with 63.3 million hectares of specially protected natural areas. However, the article did not contain a link to WWF's report and it may be based on previously gathered data.

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Jonas H.D., MacKinnon K., Dudley N., Hockings M., Jessen S., Laffoley D., MacKinnon D., Matallana-Tobon C., Sandwith T., Waithaka J., and S. Woodley, 2018. "Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures: From Aichi Target 11 to the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework."

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PADDD challenges the longstanding assumption that protected areas are permanent fixtures and highlights the need for decision-makers to consider protected area characteristics and the socioeconomic context in which they are situated to better ensure their permanence.

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and several other fields of analysis are expected to be introduced in the monitoring of protected areas management effectiveness, such as freshwater and marine or coastal studies which are currently underway, and islands and drylands which are currently in planning.

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emphasis is shifting towards greater discussions with stakeholders and joint decisions about how such lands should be set aside and managed. Such negotiations are never easy but usually produce stronger and longer-lasting results for both conservation and people.

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endorsed the protection of representative examples of all major ecosystem types as a fundamental requirement of national conservation programmes. This has become a core principle of conservation biology and has remained so in recent resolutions – including the

590:(ICCAs). ICCAs are "natural and/or modified ecosystems containing significant bio - diversity values and ecological services, voluntarily conserved by (sedentary and mobile) indigenous and local communities, through customary laws or other effective means". 682:

trades, which are resorted to as an alternative form of substinence. Poaching has thus increased in recent years as areas with certain species are no longer easily and legally accessible. This increasing threat has often led governments to enforce

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is a heritage register, a list of national heritage places deemed to be of outstanding heritage significance to Australia, established in 2003. The list includes natural and historic places, including those of cultural significance to

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on the standards and terminology of protected areas took place at the International Conference for the Protection of Fauna and Flora in London. At the 1962 First World Conference on National Parks in Seattle the effect the

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populations changed at slower rate in protected areas. On average, vertebrate populations declined five times more slowly within protected areas (−0.4% per year) than at similar sites lacking protection (−1.8% per year).

821:. The maintenance of these charismatic megafauna and other threatened species can be attributed to the intensity of Bhutan's management of its protected areas and its local communities' commitment to preserving them. 737:, and pollution, their high costs, and their increasing conflict with human demands for nature's resources. In addition, the type of habitat, species composition, legal issues and governance, play important roles. 1983:

Justin Nowakowski, A.; Watling, James I.; Murray, Alexander; Deichmann, Jessica L.; Akre, Thomas S.; Muñoz Brenes, Carlos L.; Todd, Brian D.; McRae, Louise; Freeman, Robin; Frishkoff, Luke O. (October 2023).

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Petersen, Anders Højgård; Strange, Niels; Anthon, Signe; Bjørner, Thomas Bue; Rahbek, Carsten (February 2016). "Conserving what, where and how? Cost-efficient measures to conserve biodiversity in Denmark".

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The oldest legally protected reserve recorded in history is the Main Ridge Forest Reserve, established by an ordinance dated 13 April 1776. Other sources mention the 1778 approval of a protected area on

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and to provide a way for measuring the progress of such conservation. Protected areas will usually encompass several other zones that have been deemed important for particular conservation uses, such as

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Hermoso, Virgilio; Abell, Robin; Linke, Simon; Boon, Philip (2016). "The role of protected areas for freshwater biodiversity conservation: challenges and opportunities in a rapidly changing world".

2356: 185:. Protection helps maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Indigenous peoples and local communities frequently criticize this method of 948:. 787,767 km (304,159 sq mi) are designated as terrestrial sites and 251,564 km (97,129 sq mi) as marine sites. Overall, 18 percent of the EU land mass is designated. 1830: 706: 502:

Protected areas are cultural artifacts, and their story is entwined with that of human civilization. Protecting places and natural resources is by no means a modern concept, whether it be

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Ansell, Dean; Freudenberger, David; Munro, Nicola; Gibbons, Philip (June 2016). "The cost-effectiveness of agri-environment schemes for biodiversity conservation: A quantitative review".

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conservation. These newly implemented reserves safeguard a range of ecosystems, from tropical forests to marine habitats. These protected areas encompass nearly 20% of China's land area.

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The effectiveness of protected areas to protect biodiversity can be estimated by comparing population changes over time. Such an analysis found that the abundance of 2,239 terrestrial

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Drechsler, Martin; Johst, Karin; Wätzold, Frank (March 2017). "The cost-effective length of contracts for payments to compensate land owners for biodiversity conservation measures".

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Symes, William S.; et al. (2016). "Why do we lose protected areas? Factors influencing protected area downgrading, downsizing and degazettement in the tropics and subtropics".

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A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated

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importance to biodiversity protected." See also Stephen Woodley et al, "Meeting Aichi Target 11: What Does Success Look Like for Protected Area Systems?" (2012) 18(1) Parks 23.

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in a sustainable manner. The spectrum of benefits and values of protected areas is recognised not only ecologically, but culturally through further development in the arena of

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Bomhard, B., Butchart, S., Tracking Progress Towards the CBD's Targets for Protected Area Coverage and Management Effectiveness (UNEP-WCMC & BirdLife International, 2010)

729:. However, their effectiveness is limited by their small size and isolation from each other (which influence the maintenance of species), their restricted role in preventing 674:

conservationists and rural communities in many protected regions and is often why many Wildlife Reserves and National Parks face the human threat of poaching for the illegal

306:(KBA) among others. Likewise, a protected area or an entire network of protected areas may lie within a larger geographic zone that is recognised as a terrestrial or marine 695:

feed, livestock and fuel, and the legal enforcement of not only the protected area itself but also 'buffer zones' surrounding it, which may help to resist destabilisation.

555: 498:), was declared a protected area in 1872, and it encompasses areas which are classified as both a National Park (Category II) and a Habitat Management Area (Category IV). 4560: 4028: 4808: 3901: 1903: 1847: 1765: 630: 1523:"Ongoing global biodiversity loss and the need to move beyond protected areas: A review of the technical and practical shortcoming of protected areas on land and sea" 341:

18.8% of the world's forest is covered by protected areas and sixteen of the twenty forest types have 10% or more protected area coverage. Of the 670 ecoregions with

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to maintain the networks that hold regular revisions for the succinct categorisations that have been developed to regulate and record protected areas. In 1972, the

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across multiple borders. As of 2016, there are over 161,000 protected areas representing about 17 percent of the world's land surface area (excluding Antarctica).

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Two Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance (SPAMI) (under the Protocol of Specially Protected Areas and Biodiversity of the Barcelona Convention)

2960:"Predicting the future effectiveness of protected areas for bird conservation in Mediterranean ecosystems under climate change and novel fire regime scenarios" 1488: 120:

are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural or cultural values. Protected areas are those areas in which human presence or the

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One major problem is that only 18% of the area covered by protected areas have been assessed, hence the effectiveness of most of them remains unclear.

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Initially, protected areas were recognised on a national scale, differing from country to country until 1933, when an effort to reach an international

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Scientists advocate that 50% of global land and seas be converted to inter-connected protected areas to sustain these benefits. The Asian country

295: 3700: 901:(IPAs) are formed by agreement with Indigenous Australians, and declared by Indigenous Australians, and form a specific class of protected area. 4098: 3941: 3196:

Schöttker, Oliver; Johst, Karin; Drechsler, Martin; Wätzold, Frank (September 2016). "Land for biodiversity conservation — To buy or borrow?".

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Bohorquez, John J.; Xue, Guifang; Frankstone, Timothy; Grima, Maria M.; Kleinhaus, Karine; Zhao, Yiyi; Pikitch, Ellen K. (12 November 2021).

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Carbon emissions from deforestation account for an estimated 20% of global carbon emissions, so in protecting the worlds carbon stocks

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initiative has targeted to protect 30% of ocean territory and 30% of land territory worldwide by 2030; this has been adopted by the

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and implement new policies to adhere to the initial goal of protected areas, though many illegal activities are often overlooked.

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Prohibition of degradative activities including: fishing, hunting, development, agriculture, mining, logging, and sometimes entry.

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had had on the world's natural environment was acknowledged, and the need to preserve it for future generations was established.

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Increased: populations, species resilience, genetic diversity, and potential for adaptations, lowering the risk of extinction

1758: 3869: 3149:"Easement or public land? An economic analysis of different ownership modes for nature conservation measures in California" 526:

in certain places and diminished with increasing spatial distance from the seat of power. In the late 19th century, modern

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This article is about protected regions of environmental or cultural value. For the protected area of a cricket pitch, see

5388: 5127: 4962: 4786: 4766: 4299: 4257: 4225: 3976: 2808:"Measuring progress in marine protection: A new set of metrics to evaluate the strength of marine protected area networks" 1031: 964: 933: 2500: 5350: 5093: 4888: 4883: 4761: 4510: 4438: 4413: 4319: 4237: 3956: 1260: 1254: 1109: 883: 547: 357: 299: 136: 46: 4944: 1055: 5368: 5275: 5260: 5059: 4873: 4776: 4670: 4515: 4483: 4423: 4418: 4366: 4341: 4247: 4175: 3991: 3986: 988: 968: 752:

achieved this high-reaching target by reserving 51.4% of the country's area as protected areas interconnected through

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Xu, Weihua; Pimm, Stuart L.; Du, Ao; Su, Yang; Fan, Xinyue; An, Li; Liu, Jianguo; Ouyang, Zhiyun (1 September 2019).

5210: 4818: 4610: 4495: 4463: 4376: 4185: 4165: 3936: 3462: 1154: 291: 159: 3281:"Mammal richness and diversity in a Himalayan hotspot: the role of protected areas in conserving Bhutan's mammals" 2571: 5250: 5230: 5215: 5185: 5081: 4458: 4381: 4361: 4324: 4252: 4220: 4063: 4038: 1159: 1132: 980: 898: 535: 491: 125: 2291: 61: 5409: 5378: 5295: 5265: 5245: 4853: 4771: 4756: 4746: 4721: 4716: 4478: 4309: 4287: 4272: 4205: 4195: 4150: 4145: 3789: 1810:

Borrini-Feyerabend, G., N. Dudley, T. Jaeger, B. Lassen, N. Pathak Broome, A. Phillips and T. Sandwith (2013).

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Along with providing important stocks of natural resources, protected areas are often major sources of vital

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The definition that has been widely accepted across regional and global frameworks has been provided by the

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almost 200 countries, signed onto the agreement which includes protecting 30% of land and oceans by 2030 (

303: 1338: 5240: 5225: 5046: 4967: 4939: 4934: 4893: 4863: 4858: 4823: 4741: 4685: 4625: 4615: 1776: 1219: 1179: 1122: 913:, has begun implementing various protected areas in recent years. As of the year 2017, China has nearly 578:

Recently, the importance of protected areas has been brought to the fore at the threat of human-induced

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peripheral regions thus became possible and at the same time underpinned the new state claim to power.

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Progress on the Convention on Biological Diversity's 2010 and 2012 Targets for Protected Area Coverage

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it occurs among the communities in the Pacific ("tapu" areas) and in parts of Africa (sacred groves).

5335: 5325: 5132: 4929: 4878: 4868: 4833: 4731: 4726: 4690: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4590: 4569: 3501: 3292: 3240: 3205: 3160: 3121: 3024: 2974: 2916: 2863: 2819: 2770: 2759:"Protected Area Downgrading, Downsizing, and Degazettement (PADDD) and Its Conservation Implications" 2690: 2537: 2116: 2044: 1997: 1537: 1438: 1358: 1346: 1148: 726: 392: 283: 178: 3863: 3733: 1951:"Looking to the Future of the CBD Programme of Work on Protected Areas" (Cambridge: UNEP-WCMC, 2009) 1067: 5142: 5117: 5110: 5032: 4954: 4675: 4665: 4635: 2433:

Protected Areas (Articles 8 (a) to (e)), Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/VII/28 (20 February 2004) at para 18.

1280: 1265: 1089: 1000: 910: 471: 255: 30:"Conservation area" redirects here. For the particular use of that term in the United Kingdom, see 2452:

CBD (2018). Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures (Decision 14/8).

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Xu, Weihua; Xiao, Yi; Zhang, Jingjing; Yang, Wu; Zhang, Lu; Hull, Vanessa; Wang, Zhi; Zheng, Hua;

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highest percentage of any continent in both absolute terms and as a proportion of the total stock.

5098: 4972: 4903: 4695: 3592: 3316: 3178: 2990: 2940: 2889: 2788: 2714: 2553: 2223: 1897: 1841: 1759:"Guidelines for Applying the IUCN Protected Area Management Categories to Marine Protected Areas" 1470: 1347:"Beyond exclusion: alternative approaches to biodiversity conservation in the developing tropics" 1317: 941: 932:

is a network of protected areas established by the EU across all member states. It is made up of

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Reduction in: shifts in species distribution, intensity of storms, and impacts of sea level rise.

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in the United States. Yellowstone, the world's second official protected area (after Mongolia's

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Zhang, Yin; West, Paige; Thakholi, Lerato; Suryawanshi, Kulbhushansingh; et al. (2023).

3062:"Money for Nothing? A Call for Empirical Evaluation of Biodiversity Conservation Investments" 593:

As of December 2022, 17% of land territory and 10% of ocean territory were protected. At the

5086: 4781: 4605: 3809: 3801: 3566: 3525: 3509: 3300: 3248: 3213: 3168: 3129: 3083: 3073: 3040: 3032: 2982: 2924: 2871: 2827: 2778: 2698: 2572:"for Conservation: A Global Overview, Dan Brockington and Jim Igoe. Accessed: 18 April 2011" 2545: 2514: 2142: 2124: 2068: 2052: 2033:"Ecosystem services and justice of protected areas: the case of Circeo National Park, Italy" 2005: 1545: 1446: 1366: 1342: 1311: 1204: 838: 761: 734: 519: 461: 412: 395:, climate regulation, and protection against disease. Supporting ecosystem services include 201:(IUCN) in its categorisation guidelines for protected areas. The definition is as follows: 4813: 3893: 3805: 2958:

Regos, Adrian; D'Amen, M; Titeux, Nicolas; Herrando, S; Guisan, A; Brotons, Lluis (2016).

2659: 2268: 1789: 1214: 1174: 945: 842: 795: 770: 765: 564: 515:, a mountain previous protected by local nomads for centuries in Mongolia, by then-ruling 263: 2601:"Poachers target endangered animals in protected areas, study finds | DW | 18 April 2017" 3505: 3296: 3244: 3209: 3164: 3125: 3028: 2978: 2920: 2867: 2823: 2774: 2694: 2541: 2120: 2048: 2001: 1668: 1541: 1442: 1429:

Soutullo, Alvaro (2010). "Extent of the Global Network of Terrestrial Protected Areas".

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for the generally violent processes by which the regulations of the areas are enforced.

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Pringle, Robert M. (2017). "Upgrading protected areas to conserve wild biodiversity".

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Since then, it has been an international commitment on behalf of both governments and

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Annual updates on each of these analyses are made in order to make comparisons to the

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with mountain areas, 43.9% still have less than 10% of their mountain areas protected.

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Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories, Published October, 2008

1985: 1706: 1450: 1229: 805:. Also found to be prevalent were the large herbivore species: Asiatic water buffalo 776: 684: 455: 53: 3638: 2994: 2792: 2625: 2557: 2261: 2198: 1474: 345:, 54% have 10% or more of their forest cover protected under IUCN Categories I – VI. 5017: 4600: 3217: 2944: 2718: 2325:

A Short History of the International System of Protected Area Management Categories

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In 2018, to complement protected areas across landscapes and seascapes, the term '

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Conservation of Wildlife Populations : Demography, Genetics, and Management

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There are three biosphere reserves in Lebanon that have been designated by the

109:

Share of important terrestrial biodiversity areas under protection, as of 2018.

3660: 3133: 1889: 1293: 1169: 657: 650: 516: 407: 370: 311: 307: 3580: 3521: 3335:"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, Section 324A" 3312: 3280: 2138: 2064: 2017: 1631: 1458: 1378: 5157: 4989: 3682: 2876: 2851: 2337:

Uekötter, Frank (9 March 2020). "Eine kleine Geschichte des Artenschutzes".

2129: 814: 791: 323:

cultural importance and considerable reserves of natural resources such as;

38: 3588: 3539: 3513: 3097: 2936: 2885: 2732: 2710: 2156: 2082: 1466: 4538: 1575: 4913: 4640: 3829: 3726:"Summary of protection by Country and Territory on the 31st January 2008" 1986:"Protected areas slow declines unevenly across the tetrapod tree of life" 1286: 999:

Lebanon, home to one of the highest densities of floral diversity in the

675: 634: 598: 181:, often providing habitat and protection from hunting for threatened and 171: 147: 2702: 262:

buffers pH change), and increasing natural carbon sequestration via the

3814: 3173: 3148: 3045: 860: 846: 258:

by: maintaining coastal primary producers, increasing teleost biomass (

65:

World map with percentage of each country under protection (2005 data)

42: 3279:

Dorji, Sangay; Rajaratnam, Rajanathan; Vernes, Karl (1 October 2019).

2986: 2928: 2410:"A handbook for the indigenous and community conserved areas registry" 1869: 1550: 477:

Category VI – Protected Area with sustainable use of natural resources

4898: 3839: 3413:"Indigenous rangers to receive $ 250m in funding for jobs until 2021" 2549: 1960:

Rodríguez-Rodríguez, D., Bomhard, B., Fitzgerald, C. & Blyth, S.

1024: 871: 749: 3732:. World Database on Protected Areas. 31 January 2008. Archived from 3760:"The Biden Administration Has Reached Conservation Records in 2023" 2280:

Mongolia Sacred Mountains: Bogd Khan, Burkhan Khaldun, Otgon Tenger

1917: 1650:"G7 commits to end support for coal-fired power stations this year" 1151:: a person who has been forced to relocate from a conservation area 3883: 3834: 865: 851: 828: 786: 665:

in West Bengal, India, is a Habitat Management Area (Category IV).

656: 644: 587: 503: 485: 406: 246: 223: 60: 3632:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

870:

Prohibited activities and safety instructions at a state park in

3888: 3879:

Indicator Factsheet: Management Effectiveness of Protected Areas

3845: 3701:"Russia Has Most Protected Natural Areas in the World, WWF Says" 424: 4542: 3897: 1160:

Climate change mitigation#Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks

166:. In December 2022, Nations have reached an agreement with the 3842:– campaigns for protecting at least 30% of the planet by 2030 1694:

Guidelines for Applying Protected Areas Management Categories

1013:

15 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) (under Birdlife International)

621:, known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Target 11 states: 2845: 2843: 2841: 1934:

Campbell, A., Miles. L., Lysenko, I., Hughes, A., Gibbs, H.

609:

In 1992, a protected area was defined in paragraph 2 of the

27:

Areas protected for having ecological or cultural importance

3889:

Brazilian Amazon Protected areas – Instituto Socioambiental

3611:"Natura 2000 Barometer - Environment - European Commission" 3361:

Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts

2807: 1813:

Governance of Protected Areas. From understanding to action

163: 3060:

Ferraro, Paul J; Pattanayak, Subhrendu K (11 April 2006).

2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2490:

from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.

707:

Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement

699:

Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement

158:, Campaign for Nature which promoted the goal during the 1669:"COP15: Nations reach 'historic' deal to protect nature" 1341:; Wilshusen, Peter; Brockington, Dan; Seidler, Reinmar; 3147:

Schöttker, Oliver; Santos, Maria João (November 2019).

2453: 2530:

Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems

1947:

Coad L., Burgess, N.D., Bomhard, B., and Besancon, C.

2339:

Zeitschrift der Bundeszentrale für Politische Bildung

2852:"The uncertain future of protected lands and waters" 2327:(WCPA Task Force on Protected Area Categories, 2007) 2103:; Polasky, Stephen; Jiang, Ling (14 February 2017). 917:, 80% of which are nature reserves aiming to foster 5318: 5173: 5010: 4953: 4922: 4842: 4709: 4589: 2484:

International Institute for Sustainable Development

1962:

How much of the world's mountain area is protected?

1936:

Carbon Storage in Protected Areas: Technical Report

1289:(type of protected area in former Soviet republics) 2224:"Protecting ecosystems brings benefits to society" 1101:As of 31 January 2008, according to the 582:and the understanding of the necessity to consume 556:United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 3555:"Transforming Protected Area Management in China" 2501:"Schweizerischer Nationalpark – Protected Planet" 1938:(UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 2008) 1516: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1070:, located along the 12-mile-wide isthmus between 4809:Other effective area-based conservation measures 2480:UN Biodiversity Conference (CBD COP 15) (Part 2) 2031:Benetti, Stefania; Langemeyer, Johannes (2021). 631:other effective area-based conservation measures 277:The objective of protected areas is to conserve 4804:Integrated Conservation and Development Project 3846:DOPA, a Digital Observatory for Protected Areas 3463:"Is China stepping up its nature conservation?" 2109:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1351:Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2850:Golden Kroner, Rachel E.; et al. (2019). 199:International Union for Conservation of Nature 168:Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework 4554: 3909: 725:A main goal of protected areas is to prevent 467:Category IV – Habitat/Species Management Area 8: 3437:Hayes, Shelley; Egli, Daniel (26 May 2022). 2757:Mascia, Michael B.; Pailler, Sharon (2011). 2586:"BBC News: A Battle for DR Congo's Wildlife" 1902:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1846:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1210:List of largest protected areas in the world 3439:"Directory of Protected Areas in East Asia" 595:2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference 4561: 4547: 4539: 3916: 3902: 3894: 3794:Annual Review of Environment and Resources 3387:"Department of the Environment and Energy" 3337:. Australasian Legal Information Institute 1600: 1598: 1596: 3813: 3570: 3529: 3357:"Fact Sheets: Indigenous Protected Areas" 3172: 3087: 3077: 3044: 3017:Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 2875: 2782: 2456:doc/decisions/cop-14/cop-14-dec-08-en.pdf 2146: 2128: 2072: 2037:Ecosystems and People (Abingdon, England) 1549: 940:(SPAs) designated respectively under the 653:is a Strict Nature Reserve (Category Ia). 436:IUCN Protected Area Management Categories 403:IUCN Protected Area Management Categories 3391:Department of the Environment and Energy 2806:Roberts, Kelsey E.; et al. (2018). 2408:Environment, U. N. (16 September 2017). 588:Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas 296:Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas 131:The term "protected area" also includes 104: 70: 0–3.9% of the country is protected 3884:A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance 1561:from the original on 11 September 2011. 1392: 1390: 1388: 1330: 1195:Indigenous and Community Conserved Area 3274: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3262: 2193: 2191: 2094: 2092: 1895: 1839: 1836:from the original on 17 December 2020. 1785: 1774: 3806:10.1146/annurev-environ-112321-081348 1863: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1805: 1803: 1801: 1799: 1410:from the original on 2 September 2016 649:Schweizerischer National Park in the 251:Climate change threats to coral reefs 7: 3854:World Conservation Monitoring Center 3851:United Nations Environment Programme 3641:. Convention on Biological Diversity 3451:from the original on 11 August 2022. 1605:Paddison, Laura (19 December 2022). 1570: 1568: 1103:United Nations Environment Programme 429:Protected Area Management Categories 177:Protected areas are implemented for 41:organization pursuing compliance of 37:"Conservancy" redirects here. For a 3876:Biodiversity Indicators Partnership 3864:World Commission on Protected Areas 3004:from the original on 6 August 2016. 1271:World Commission on Protected Areas 977:conservation and community reserves 421:World Commission on Protected Areas 3661:"Biosphere reserves in Arab State" 2307:"Tobago Main Ridge Forest Reserve" 1771:from the original on 27 July 2021. 1667:Briggs, Helen (19 December 2022). 1138:Conservation area (United Kingdom) 1016:One Specially Protected Area (SPA) 611:Convention on Biological Diversity 605:Convention on Biological Diversity 214:Protected Areas and Climate Change 32:Conservation area (United Kingdom) 25: 4681:Conservation biology of parasites 3830:WDPA dataset on Ocean Data Viewer 3559:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3411:Davidson, Helen (27 April 2018). 3363:. 7 December 2007. Archived from 1489:"unstats - Millennium Indicators" 1276:World Database on Protected Areas 1056:O Parks, Wildlife, and Recreation 1038:Jabal Al Rihane Biosphere Reserve 170:at the COP15, which includes the 122:exploitation of natural resources 5384: 5383: 4797:Tropical rainforest conservation 4701:Vulnerability and susceptibility 3627: 2784:10.1111/j.1755-263x.2010.00147.x 2292:"Yellowstone – Protected Planet" 1632:"Sign the 30x30 Petition Today!" 1451:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01465.x 1310: 1296: 1064:Mesoamerican Biological Corridor 1010:Five UNESCO World Heritage Sites 915:10,000 to 12,000 protected areas 378:Protection of ecosystem services 5346:NatureServe conservation status 4631:Conservation-induced extinction 3870:Global Protected Area Programme 3114:Journal for Nature Conservation 2658:. 16 April 2013. Archived from 2414:UNEP - UN Environment Programme 2385:. 1 August 2012. Archived from 2305:Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. 2199:"More About Ecosystem Services" 1140:(urban heritage area in the UK) 1108:According to a report from the 619:Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 273:Protection of natural resources 4737:Conservation management system 4621:Conservation-dependent species 4581:Index of conservation articles 3218:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.06.011 2599:Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. 2515:"Jaldapara – Protected Planet" 2355:. October 2008. Archived from 2341:(in German). 11/2020. bpb: 15. 1576:"Protected Planet Report 2020" 1530:Marine Ecology Progress Series 1398:"Protected Planet Report 2016" 1200:IUCN protected area categories 1044:Jabal Moussa Biosphere Reserve 973:reserved and protected forests 857:Jabal Moussa Biosphere Reserve 236:effects in a variety of ways: 156:Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 1: 4963:Assisted natural regeneration 4767:Ecoregion conservation status 3285:Biodiversity and Conservation 2057:10.1080/26395916.2021.1946155 1711:www.survivalinternational.org 1032:Al Shouf Cedar Nature Reserve 934:Special Areas of Conservation 228:Change in average temperature 137:transboundary protected areas 5351:Special Area of Conservation 4889:Landscape-scale conservation 4884:High conservation value area 4762:Community-based conservation 3962:Australian Capital Territory 3764:Center for American progress 3639:"Lebanon Biodiversity Facts" 3253:10.1016/j.biocon.2017.01.014 3079:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040105 2832:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.01.004 2379:"The Worlds Protected Areas" 2311:UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2175:National Wildlife Federation 1964:(Cambridge, UNEP-WCMC, 2009) 1580:Protected Planet Report 2020 1371:10.1016/j.cosust.2010.03.006 1261:Transboundary protected area 1255:Special Area of Conservation 1110:Center for American Progress 884:Protected areas of Australia 548:non-government organisations 358:Millennium Development Goals 300:Alliance for Zero Extinction 47:Software Freedom Conservancy 5369:List of conservation issues 4777:Evidence-based conservation 4671:Mutualisms and conservation 2967:Diversity and Distributions 5431: 4819:Roadless area conservation 4611:Compassionate conservation 3572:10.1016/j.tree.2019.05.009 3305:10.1007/s10531-019-01821-9 3037:10.1016/J.AGEE.2016.04.008 2010:10.1038/s41586-023-06562-y 1155:Centres of Plant Diversity 899:Indigenous Protected Areas 881: 365:Protection of biodiversity 292:Centres of Plant Diversity 232:Protected Areas alleviate 217: 160:Convention on Biodiversity 128:, water, ...) is limited. 126:non-timber forest products 94: 41.8–72.3% protected 88: 22.7–41.8% protected 82: 11.3–22.7% protected 51: 36: 29: 5364: 4576: 4089:Newfoundland and Labrador 3932: 3858:Protected Areas Programme 3134:10.1016/J.JNC.2015.10.004 1707:"Decolonize Conservation" 1696:(IUCN: Switzerland, 2008) 1133:Coastal Reserve (Ukraine) 615:Conference of the Parties 492:Yellowstone National Park 179:biodiversity conservation 76: 3.9–11.3% protected 5206:Central African Republic 4854:Conservation designation 4772:Environmental protection 4757:Conspicuous conservation 4747:Conservation photography 4722:Conservation development 4717:Conservation agriculture 1713:. Survival International 1144:Conservation designation 957:Protected areas of India 938:Special Protection Areas 781:Asian small clawed otter 573:Johannesburg Declaration 561:World Charter for Nature 332:greenhouse gas emissions 162:'s COP15 Summit and the 4945:Human–wildlife conflict 4829:Site-based conservation 4752:Conservation psychology 4570:Conservation of species 3927:by country or territory 3233:Biological Conservation 2877:10.1126/science.aau5525 2812:Biological Conservation 2652:"About Protected Areas" 2130:10.1073/pnas.1620503114 1922:www.biodiversitya-z.org 1521:Mora C, Sale P (2011). 1074:and the Pacific Ocean. 985:private protected areas 663:Jaldapara National Park 5002:Species reintroduction 4661:Latent extinction risk 4029:Bosnia and Herzegovina 3514:10.1126/sciadv.abj1569 2626:"Wildlife Trafficking" 1784:Cite journal requires 1403:. UNEP-WCMC and IUCN. 1283:– registered by UNESCO 1250:Private protected area 1225:National heritage site 1060:private protected area 895:Indigenous Australians 890:National Heritage List 874: 863: 849: 744:Bhutan as a role model 666: 654: 504:indigenous communities 499: 416: 411:Strict nature reserve 304:Key Biodiversity Areas 252: 229: 211: 133:marine protected areas 110: 102: 5374:List of organisations 5028:Hawaiian honeycreeper 4968:Ecosystem restoration 4940:Habitat fragmentation 4935:Fortress conservation 4894:Marine protected area 4864:Conservation easement 4859:Conservation district 4824:Roadside conservation 4742:Conservation movement 4686:Species translocation 4626:Conservation genetics 4616:Conservation behavior 4094:Northwest Territories 2909:Global Change Biology 2478:IISD (14 March 2022). 1220:Marine Protected Area 1180:Fortress conservation 1123:Biodiversity hotspots 869: 855: 832: 660: 648: 552:Stockholm Declaration 541:Industrial Revolution 520:Tenger Tetgegch Khaan 490:Black Opal Spring in 489: 444:Strict nature reserve 410: 250: 227: 203: 187:fortress conservation 146:In recent years, the 108: 64: 5336:Planetary boundaries 5326:Conservation officer 4930:Conservation refugee 4879:Habitat conservation 4869:Conservation reserve 4834:Wetland conservation 4732:Conservation grazing 4727:Conservation finance 4691:Conservation welfare 4656:In-situ conservation 4651:Extinction threshold 4646:Ex-situ conservation 4469:United Arab Emirates 4114:Prince Edward Island 3198:Ecological Economics 3153:Conservation Letters 2763:Conservation Letters 2454:https://www.cbd.int/ 2171:"Ecosystem Services" 1495:on 27 September 2017 1431:Conservation Biology 1339:Lele, Sharachchandra 1149:Conservation refugee 1082:On 21 May 2019, The 1046:, designated in 2009 1040:, designated in 2007 1034:, designated in 2005 965:Wildlife sanctuaries 754:biological corridors 727:loss of biodiversity 393:carbon sequestration 284:Important Bird Areas 209:and cultural values. 4676:Nature conservation 4666:Marine conservation 4636:Conservation status 3840:Campaign For Nature 3835:ProtectedPlanet.net 3683:"Account Suspended" 3506:2021SciA....7.1569B 3297:2019BiCon..28.3277D 3245:2017BCons.207...72D 3210:2016EcoEc.129...94S 3165:2019ConL...12E2647S 3126:2016JNatC..29...33P 3029:2016AgEE..225..184A 2979:2016DivDi..22...83R 2921:2016GCBio..22..656S 2868:2019Sci...364..881G 2824:2018BCons.219...20R 2775:2011ConL....4....9M 2703:10.1038/nature22902 2695:2017Natur.546...91P 2542:2016ACMFE..26S...3H 2267:4 June 2013 at the 2121:2017PNAS..114.1601X 2049:2021EcoPe..17..411B 2002:2023Natur.622..101J 1739:. 10 September 2015 1636:Campaign for Nature 1542:2011MEPS..434..251M 1443:2010ConBi..24..362. 1363:2010COES....2...94L 1281:World Heritage Site 1266:Urban heritage park 1090:World Wildlife Fund 1001:Mediterranean basin 911:megadiverse country 783:, the tiger, dhole 768:, mountain weasel ( 472:Protected Landscape 256:ocean acidification 4973:Island restoration 4904:Open space reserve 4696:Threatened species 3972:Northern Territory 3174:10.1111/conl.12647 1918:"Biodiversity A-Z" 1868:Scott., Mills, L. 1318:Environment portal 989:conservation areas 969:biosphere reserves 942:Habitats Directive 875: 864: 850: 667: 655: 528:territorial states 500: 496:Bogd Khan Mountain 427:has developed six 417: 384:ecosystem services 288:Endemic Bird Areas 253: 230: 207:ecosystem services 183:endangered species 118:conservation areas 111: 103: 5397: 5396: 5356:Soil conservation 4909:Wildlife corridor 4792:Forest protection 4787:Forest management 4536: 4535: 3997:Western Australia 3469:. 28 October 2021 3291:(12): 3277–3297. 2987:10.1111/ddi.12375 2929:10.1111/gcb.13089 2862:(6443): 881–886. 1996:(7981): 101–106. 1881:978-1-118-40669-4 1826:978-2-8317-1608-4 1692:Dudley, N. (ed.) 1551:10.3354/meps09214 1190:Historic district 1007:Four Ramsar sites 798:and Tibetan fox ( 584:natural resources 571:in 1992, and the 432:management aims. 316:Crisis Ecoregions 18:Conservation Area 16:(Redirected from 5422: 5387: 5386: 5271:Papua New Guinea 5163:Cryopreservation 5128:Gray nurse shark 4782:Flagship species 4606:Captive breeding 4563: 4556: 4549: 4540: 4387:Ulyanovsk Oblast 4347:Papua New Guinea 4216:Himachal Pradesh 4074:British Columbia 3918: 3911: 3904: 3895: 3819: 3817: 3775: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3755: 3749: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3738: 3722: 3716: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3705:The Moscow Times 3697: 3691: 3690: 3679: 3673: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3657: 3651: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3631: 3630: 3625: 3619: 3618: 3607: 3601: 3600: 3574: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3533: 3500:(46): eabj1569. 3494:Science Advances 3485: 3479: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3450: 3443: 3434: 3428: 3427: 3425: 3423: 3408: 3402: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3383: 3377: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3353: 3347: 3346: 3344: 3342: 3331: 3325: 3324: 3276: 3257: 3256: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3193: 3187: 3186: 3176: 3144: 3138: 3137: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3091: 3081: 3057: 3051: 3050: 3048: 3012: 3006: 3005: 3003: 2964: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2904: 2898: 2897: 2879: 2847: 2836: 2835: 2803: 2797: 2796: 2786: 2754: 2741: 2740: 2737:farmlandgrab.org 2729: 2723: 2722: 2678: 2672: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2662:on 16 April 2013 2648: 2642: 2641: 2639: 2637: 2622: 2616: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2596: 2590: 2589: 2582: 2576: 2575: 2568: 2562: 2561: 2550:10.1002/aqc.2681 2525: 2519: 2518: 2511: 2505: 2504: 2497: 2491: 2476: 2470: 2463: 2457: 2450: 2444: 2440: 2434: 2431: 2425: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2389:on 1 August 2012 2375: 2369: 2368: 2366: 2364: 2359:on 19 March 2012 2349: 2343: 2342: 2334: 2328: 2321: 2315: 2314: 2302: 2296: 2295: 2288: 2282: 2277: 2271: 2259: 2253: 2252: 2245: 2239: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2220: 2214: 2213: 2211: 2209: 2195: 2186: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2167: 2161: 2160: 2150: 2132: 2115:(7): 1601–1606. 2096: 2087: 2086: 2076: 2028: 2022: 2021: 1980: 1974: 1971: 1965: 1958: 1952: 1945: 1939: 1932: 1926: 1925: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1901: 1893: 1865: 1852: 1851: 1845: 1837: 1835: 1818: 1807: 1794: 1793: 1787: 1782: 1780: 1772: 1770: 1763: 1755: 1749: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1729: 1723: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1703: 1697: 1690: 1684: 1683: 1681: 1679: 1664: 1658: 1657: 1646: 1640: 1639: 1628: 1622: 1621: 1619: 1617: 1602: 1591: 1590: 1588: 1586: 1572: 1563: 1562: 1560: 1553: 1527: 1518: 1505: 1504: 1502: 1500: 1491:. 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guidelines. 643: 607: 565:Rio Declaration 484: 460:Category III – 450:Wilderness Area 405: 380: 367: 275: 264:biological pump 260:osmosregulation 222: 216: 195: 114:Protected areas 101: 97: 95: 91: 89: 85: 83: 79: 77: 73: 71: 67: 57: 50: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5428: 5426: 5418: 5417: 5412: 5402: 5401: 5395: 5394: 5392: 5391: 5381: 5379:List of people 5376: 5371: 5365: 5362: 5361: 5359: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5322: 5320: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5312: 5311: 5310: 5300: 5299: 5298: 5291:United Kingdom 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5177: 5175: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5167: 5166: 5165: 5160: 5152: 5151: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5138:Painted turtle 5135: 5130: 5125: 5115: 5114: 5113: 5108: 5107: 5106: 5096: 5091: 5090: 5089: 5079: 5074: 5073: 5072: 5062: 5057: 5055:American bison 5049: 5044: 5043: 5042: 5041: 5040: 5030: 5020: 5014: 5012: 5008: 5007: 5005: 5004: 4999: 4998: 4997: 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4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4234: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4181:European Union 4178: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4161:Czech Republic 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4132: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 4000: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3933: 3930: 3929: 3923: 3921: 3920: 3913: 3906: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3872: 3866: 3860: 3848: 3843: 3837: 3832: 3825: 3824:External links 3822: 3821: 3820: 3783: 3780: 3777: 3776: 3758:Hananel, Sam. 3750: 3717: 3692: 3674: 3652: 3620: 3602: 3565:(9): 762–766. 3545: 3480: 3467:China Dialogue 3454: 3429: 3403: 3378: 3348: 3326: 3258: 3223: 3188: 3139: 3103: 3052: 3007: 2950: 2915:(2): 656–665. 2899: 2837: 2798: 2742: 2724: 2673: 2643: 2617: 2591: 2577: 2563: 2520: 2506: 2492: 2471: 2458: 2445: 2435: 2426: 2400: 2370: 2344: 2329: 2316: 2297: 2283: 2272: 2254: 2251:. 8 June 2016. 2240: 2215: 2187: 2162: 2088: 2043:(1): 411–431. 2023: 1975: 1966: 1953: 1940: 1927: 1909: 1880: 1853: 1825: 1795: 1786:|journal= 1750: 1724: 1698: 1685: 1659: 1656:. 21 May 2021. 1641: 1623: 1592: 1564: 1506: 1480: 1437:(2): 362–363. 1421: 1384: 1345:(1 May 2010). 1343:Bawa, Kamaljit 1329: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1322: 1321: 1307: 1304:Ecology portal 1291: 1290: 1284: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1252: 1247: 1242: 1240:Nature reserve 1237: 1232: 1227: 1222: 1217: 1212: 1207: 1202: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1172: 1167: 1165:Exclusion zone 1162: 1157: 1152: 1146: 1141: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1098: 1095: 1079: 1076: 1072:Lake Nicaragua 1068:Paso del Istmo 1052: 1049: 1048: 1047: 1041: 1035: 1021: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1011: 1008: 996: 993: 961:National parks 953: 950: 926: 925:European Union 923: 906: 903: 882:Main article: 879: 876: 826: 823: 819:Asian elephant 745: 742: 731:climate change 722: 719: 642: 639: 627: 626: 606: 603: 580:global heating 483: 480: 479: 478: 475: 468: 465: 458: 454:Category II – 452: 448:Category Ib – 446: 442:Category Ia – 404: 401: 379: 376: 366: 363: 354: 353: 346: 336: 328:Carbon stocks: 274: 271: 270: 269: 266: 244: 241: 234:climate change 220:Climate Change 218:Main article: 215: 212: 194: 191: 152:European Union 96: 90: 84: 78: 72: 66: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5427: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5390: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5363: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5341:IUCN Red List 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5331:De-extinction 5329: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5309: 5306: 5305: 5304: 5303:United States 5301: 5297: 5294: 5293: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5269: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5178: 5176: 5172: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 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2353:"IUCN – Home" 2348: 2345: 2340: 2333: 2330: 2326: 2323:Phillips, A. 2320: 2317: 2312: 2308: 2301: 2298: 2293: 2287: 2284: 2281: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2266: 2263: 2258: 2255: 2250: 2249:"IUCN – Home" 2244: 2241: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2216: 2204: 2203:www.fs.fed.us 2200: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2176: 2172: 2166: 2163: 2158: 2154: 2149: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2131: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2080: 2075: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2027: 2024: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1979: 1976: 1970: 1967: 1963: 1957: 1954: 1950: 1944: 1941: 1937: 1931: 1928: 1923: 1919: 1913: 1910: 1905: 1899: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1877: 1873: 1872: 1864: 1862: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1849: 1843: 1832: 1828: 1822: 1815: 1814: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1800: 1796: 1791: 1778: 1767: 1760: 1754: 1751: 1738: 1734: 1728: 1725: 1712: 1708: 1702: 1699: 1695: 1689: 1686: 1674: 1670: 1663: 1660: 1655: 1651: 1645: 1642: 1637: 1633: 1627: 1624: 1612: 1608: 1601: 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