Controversies about psychiatry

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of psychiatry themselves supported the notion that Black people were inferior, lower class citizens that must be treated separately and differently from white patients. With time, racial segregation within hospitals became interspersed with entirely separate hospitals for white and Black patients, each with differential treatment and quality of care. Political figures in the post-Civil War era argued that emancipation had led to a significant increase in insanity cases amongst Black individuals, and they cited the need to accommodate this increase via segregated and Black-only insane asylums. Many hospitals, especially in the southern United States, did not admit Black patients until they were eventually mandated to do so. The last segregated hospital opened in 1933. Popular arguments also circulated that Black patients were more difficult to take care of in mental institutions, making psychiatric care for them more difficult and justifying the need for segregated facilities.

521:, Black psychiatrists expressed concerns to the APA that the needs of Black communities and Black psychiatrists were being ignored by the professional organization. In 1969, a contingent of Black psychiatrists presented a list of 9 concerns to the APA Board of Trustees regarding experiences of structural racism in the field. Their '9 points' represented a wide array of experiences of discrimination, both from the experiences of practitioners and patients, and on the institutional and individual level and the group demanded change from within the APA. For example, they called for more Black leaders on APA committees as well as the desegregation of all mental health facilities, both public and private, in the United States. 874:

of psychosurgery were the same as the lobotomy since it had the same effects "emotional blunting, passivity, reduced capacity to learn" and said that psycho-surgeons "represent the greatest future threat that we are going to face for our traditional American values", arguing that if the US became a totalitarian regime lobotomy and psychosurgery would be the equivalent of the secret police. The subcommittee published a report in 1977 suggesting that data should be carefully collected about psychosurgery and that it should not be performed upon children or prisoners.

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psychiatric diagnosis can in and of itself be regarded as oppressive. In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials. The use of hospitals instead of jails prevents the victims from receiving legal aid before the courts, makes indefinite incarceration possible, and discredits the individuals and their ideas. In that manner, whenever open trials are undesirable, they are avoided.

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funds, hospitals began to integrate quickly in order to be able to continue to access such funding. In January 1966, around two-thirds of Southern hospitals were segregated facilities and many Northern facilities remain segregated in-effect. One year later, by January 1967, there were very few hospitals in the United States that remained segregated. Segregation within mental institutions and hospitals is one example of the history of racism within psychiatry.

146: 275:, among others. These sociologists viewed medicalization as a form of social control in which medical authority expanded into domains of everyday existence, and they rejected medicalization in the name of liberation. This critique was embodied in works such as Conrad's "The discovery of hyperkinesis: notes on medicalization of deviance", published in 1973 ( 4693:

even demonstrated improvement in cognitive function, compared to baseline, several weeks to months after successful treatment with ECT. An even more recently published study that reviewed 10 years of cognitive performance data in relation to ECT concluded that there is no evidence of cumulative cognitive deficits associated with repeated ECT courses.

910:. This marketing by the pharmaceutical industry has an influence on practicing psychiatrists, which affects prescription. Child psychiatry is one of the areas in which prescription of psychotropic medication has grown massively. In the past, prescription of these medications for children was rare, but nowadays child psychiatrists prescribe 1191:, in late 1988 leaders from several of the main national and grassroots psychiatric survivor groups felt that an independent, human rights coalition focused on problems in the mental health system was needed. That year the Support Coalition International (SCI) was formed. SCI's first public action was to stage a counter-conference and 992:(quetiapine), amidst federal investigations of its marketing practices. By expanding the conditions for which they were indicated, Astrazeneca's Seroquel and Eli Lilly's Zyprexa had become the biggest selling antipsychotics in 2008 with global sales of $ 5.5 billion and $ 5.4 billion respectively. 999:

conducted research on bipolar disorder in children that led to an increase in such diagnoses. A 2008 Senate investigation found that Biederman also received $ 1.6 million in speaking and consulting fees between 2000 and 2007— some of them undisclosed to Harvard— from companies including the makers of

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Use of this class of drugs has a history of criticism in residential care. As the drugs used can make patients calmer and more compliant, critics claim that the drugs can be overused. Outside doctors can feel pressure from care home staff. In an official review commissioned by UK government ministers

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recommends ECT for the short-term treatment of severe, treatment-resistant depression, and advises against its use in schizophrenia. According to the Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments, ECT is more efficacious for the treatment of depression than antidepressants, with a response rate of

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is a therapy method which was used widely between the 1930s and 1960s and is, in a modified form, still used today. Electroconvulsive therapy was one treatment that the anti-psychiatry movement wanted to be eliminated from psychiatric practice. Their arguments were that ECT damages the brain, and was

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Psychosurgery was investigated by the US Senate in the 1973 by the Health Subcommittee of the Senate's Committee on Labor and Public Welfare chaired by Senator Edward Kennedy due to growing concern about the ethical boundaries of science and medicine. At this committee Breggin argued that newer forms

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She argues that the concept of schizophrenia and its biological basis serves a social function for psychiatrists. She views the concept of schizophrenia as necessary for psychiatry to be considered as a medical field, that the claimed biological link gives psychiatrists protection from accusations of

33:

is, and has historically been, viewed as controversial by those under its care, as well as sociologists and psychiatrists themselves. There are a variety of reasons cited for this controversy, including the subjectivity of diagnosis, the use of diagnosis and treatment for social and political control

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Until the late 1960s, many hospitals remained segregated. This affected the experiences of racial minorities accessing psychiatric care in mental institutions and hospitals in the United States. When Lyndon B. Johnson's administration stated that no segregated hospital would receive federal Medicare

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used this supposed evidence to argue for slavery, arguing that free Black people could not be entrusted with their lives and would ultimately develop lunacy. All in all, throughout the 19th century, psychiatric diagnoses and scientifically racist theories were used to medicalize Blackness and uphold

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and promoting antipsychotics, including allegations of downplaying or covering up adverse effects, expanding the number of conditions or illegally promoting off-label usage; influencing drug trials (or their publication) to try to show that the expensive and profitable newer atypicals were superior

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Psychiatry has greatly benefitted by advances in pharmacotherapy. However, the close relationship between those prescribing psychiatric medication and pharmaceutical companies, and the risk of a conflict of interest, is also a source of concern. This relationship is often described as being part of

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Segregation within mental institutions and hospitals is another example of the history of racism within psychiatry. Many psychiatric hospitals in the 19th century either excluded or segregated Black patients or admitted Black slaves to work at the hospital in exchange for care. The founding fathers

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Psychiatric diagnoses were influenced by Black people's status as free or enslaved. Enslaved people were not considered civilized enough to be diagnosed with insanity, while free Black people were over-diagnosed with insanity, having much higher diagnosis rates than white people. Specific diagnoses

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noted that Markingson was enrolled in the study against the wishes of his mother, Mary Weiss, and that he was forced to choose between enrolling in the study or being involuntarily committed to a state mental institution. Further investigation revealed financial ties to AstraZeneca by Markingson's

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Underlying issues associated with schizophrenia would be better addressed as a spectrum of conditions or as individual dimensions along which everyone varies rather than by a diagnostic category based on an arbitrary cut-off between normal and ill. This approach appears consistent with research on

395:. The practice of incarceration of political dissidents in mental hospitals in Eastern Europe and the former USSR damaged the credibility of psychiatric practice in these states and entailed strong condemnation from the international community. Political abuse of psychiatry also takes place in the 4692:

ECT is associated with both anterograde and retrograde amnesia. Studies utilizing objective measures of assessing anterograde amnesia have consistently demonstrated that any such abnormalities disappear within several months following completion of an acute ECT course. Several recent studies have

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In an effort to reduce the potential for hidden conflicts of interest between researchers and pharmaceutical companies, the US Government issued a mandate in 2012 requiring that drug manufacturers receiving funds under the Medicare and Medicaid programs collect data, and make public, all gifts to

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Proponents of scientific racism have historically attempted to "prove" that Black people are physiologically and cognitively inferior to white people based on faulty assumptions and prejudices. Perpetuated by the inaccurate application of biodeterminism, specialists in neuroanatomy and psychiatry

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in 1967 and is understood in current psychiatry to mean opposition to psychiatry's perceived role aspects of treatment. The anti-psychiatry message is that psychiatric treatments are "ultimately more damaging than helpful to patients". Psychiatry is seen to involve an "unequal power relationship

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ADHD, its diagnosis, and its treatment have been controversial since the 1970s. The controversies involve clinicians, teachers, policymakers, parents, and the media. Positions range from the view that ADHD is within the normal range of behavior to the hypothesis that ADHD is a genetic condition.

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and colleagues argue that psychotic symptoms may be a common end-state in a variety of disorders, including schizophrenia, rather than a reflection of the specific etiology of schizophrenia, and warn that there is little basis for regarding DSM's operational definition as the "true" construct of

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The proportion of Black individuals confined in establishments for "flawed and imbecile" patients increased throughout the late 19th and early 20th century. Psychiatry contributed towards the inaccurate and racist belief that if they were left to their respective means, they would not be able to

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issue of school performance into a medical one. Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder, at least in the small number of people with severe symptoms. Among healthcare providers the debate mainly centers on diagnosis and treatment in the much larger number of people with less

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argues that psychiatry is actually the study of behavior, but acts as if it is the study of the brain based on a presumed connection between patterns of behavior and the biological function of the brain. She argues that in the case of schizophrenia it is the bizarre behavior of individuals that

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rule when political dissenters were labeled as "mentally ill" and subjected to inhumane "treatments." In the period from the 1960s up to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union, and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as

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The act of diagnosis itself has been criticized for being arbitrary with some conditions being overdiagnosed. Individuals may be diagnosed with a mental disorder despite having been perceived as having no issues with their behavior. In Virginia, U.S., it was found up to 33% of white boys are

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In unstable countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions. The diagnosis of mental illness allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society. In addition, receiving a

671:. She argues that overemphasis on psychosis in the diagnostic criteria, while improving diagnostic reliability, ignores more fundamental cognitive impairments that are harder to assess due to large variations in presentation. This view is supported by other psychiatrists. In the same vein, 290:

These sociologists did not believe medicalization to be a new phenomenon, arguing that medical authorities had always been concerned with social behavior and traditionally functioned as agents of social control (Foucault, 1965; Szasz, 1970; Rosen). However, these authors took the view that

932:, that the evidence for antipsychotics from discontinuation-relapse studies may be flawed, because they do not take into account that antipsychotics may sensitize the brain and provoke psychosis if discontinued, which may then be wrongly interpreted as a relapse of the original condition. 4610:

Kennedy, SH; Milev, R; Giacobbe, P; Ramasubbu, R; Lam, RW; Parikh, SV; Patten, SB; Ravindran, AV (October 2009). "Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) Clinical guidelines for the management of major depressive disorder in adults. IV. Neurostimulation therapies".

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Divergence within psychiatry generated the anti-psychiatry movement in the 1960s and 1970s, and is still present. Issues remaining relevant in contemporary psychiatry are questions of; freedom versus coercion, mind versus brain, nature versus nurture, and the right to be different.

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of mental patients. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes that "poor quality services and human rights violations in mental health and social care facilities are still an everyday occurrence in many places", but has recently taken steps to improve the situation globally.

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ferment of the late 1960s and early 1970s and the personal histories of psychiatric abuse experienced by some ex-patients rather than the intradisciplinary discourse of antipsychiatry. The key text in the intellectual development of the survivor movement, at least in the US, was

862:. He identified all psychosurgery with the lobotomy as a rhetorical device to criticize the practice of psychosurgery more broadly. He stated that "psychosurgery is a crime against humanity, a crime that cannot be condoned on medical, ethical, or legal grounds". Psycho-surgeons 657:, surveying the existing literature on delusions, pointed out that the consistency and completeness of the definition of delusion have been found wanting by many; delusions are neither necessarily fixed nor false, and need not involve the presence of incontrovertible evidence. 765:

With widely differing rates of diagnosis across countries, states within countries, races, and ethnicities, some suspect factors other than the presence of the symptoms of ADHD are playing a role in diagnosis. Some sociologists consider ADHD to be an example of the

588:

argued that mental health diagnoses were used as a form of labelling violations of societies norms. Bill Fullford, introduced the idea of "value-laden" mental health diagnosis with mental health lying between physical health and a moral judgment. Under this system

630:'s misrepresentation of underlying data. She argues that schizophrenia and its biological basis also gives families, psychiatrists and society as a whole the ability to avoid blame for the damage they cause individuals and the ineffectiveness of treatment. 6037: 808:

is brain surgery with the aim of changing an individual's behavior or psychological function. Historically, this was achieved through ablative psychosurgery that removed or deliberately damaged (lesioning) a section of the brain, but more recently

124:. As societal views on homosexuality have changed in recent decades, it is no longer considered a mental illness and is more widely accepted by society. As another example that challenged conceptions of mental illness, a widely publicized study by 964:

to the older cheaper typicals that were out of patent. Following charges of illegal marketing, settlements by two large pharmaceutical companies in the US set records for the largest criminal fines ever imposed on corporations. One case involved

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those classed as feebleminded or who received welfare payments. The premise that the genes of those deemed mentally ill were undesirable was used to justify sterilization which was frequently supervised by physicians, including psychiatrists.

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and poverty, and instead presented health as an individual issue. Others examined the power and prestige of the medical profession, including use of terminology to mystify and of professional rules to exclude or subordinate others.

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it was reported that the needless use of antipsychotic medication in dementia care was widespread and was linked to 1800 deaths per year. In the US, the government has initiated legal action against the pharmaceutical company

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Joanna Moncrieff has argued that antipsychotic drug treatment is often undertaken as a means of control rather than to treat specific symptoms experienced by the patient. Moncreiff has further argued, in the controversial and

703:

The exclusion of affective components from the criteria for schizophrenia, despite their ubiquity in clinical settings, has also caused contention. This exclusion in the DSM has resulted in a "rather convoluted" separate

649:, and with a relatively high prevalence of psychotic experiences, mostly non-distressing delusional beliefs, among the general public. In concordance with this observation, psychologist Edgar Jones, and psychiatrists 1090:

between doctor and patient", and advocates of anti-psychiatry claim a subjective diagnostic process, leaving much room for opinions and interpretations. Every society, including liberal Western society, permits

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Reports indicate that ADHD affects 2.5%–5% of adults in the general population, compared with 5%–7% of children. ... However, fewer than 20% of adults with ADHD are currently diagnosed and/or treated by

524:

As of 2020, within psychiatry, historically underrepresented groups continue to be less represented as residents, faculty, and practicing physicians in comparison to their proportion in the U.S. population.

221:, or treatment. Medicalization can be driven by new evidence or hypotheses about conditions, by changing social attitudes or economic considerations, or by the development of new medications or treatments. 1109:

have arguably been over-prescribed, leading to a claimed epidemic of dependence. These are a few of the arguments that the anti-psychiatry movement use to highlight the harms of psychiatric practice.

116:

argued that mental illness was merely another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists, behavioral psychologists challenged psychiatry's fundamental reliance on unchallengable or

886:

used as punishment or as a threat to keep the patients "in line". Since then, ECT has improved considerably, and is now performed under general anesthesia in a medically supervised environment.

440:, disorders meant to explain why slaves ran away and why they were lazy or lacked a strong work ethic, respectively, and justify the institution of slavery. Prominent political figures such as 4804: 712:, some psychiatrists have totally contested the concept of schizoaffective disorder as a separate entity. The categorical distinction between mood disorders and schizophrenia, known as the 4571: 5031: 2668:

Wyse, Rhea; Hwang, Wei-Ting; Ahmed, Awad A.; Richards, Erica; Deville, Curtiland (2020-10-01). "Diversity by Race, Ethnicity, and Sex within the US Psychiatry Physician Workforce".

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in 1949. The lobotomy fell out of favor in by 1960s and 1970s. Other forms of ablative psychosurgery were in use in the UK in the late 1970s to treat psychotic and mood disorders.

322:, whereby the idea of aging and dying as medical illnesses effectively "medicalized" human life and left individuals and societies less able to deal with these natural processes. 5154: 550:. Homosexuality was considered a mental illness but due to changing attitudes, it is no longer recognised as an illness. Historic disorders that are no longer recognised include 291:

increasingly sophisticated technology had extended the potential reach of medicalization as a form of social control, especially in terms of "psychotechnology" (Chorover, 1973).

121: 849:

reported on papers questioning the effects of lobotomy on personality and intelligence. The lobotomy was prominently depicted a means to control nonconformity in the 1962 book

259:

The concept of medicalization was devised by sociologists to explain how medical knowledge is applied to behaviors which are not self-evidently medical or biological. The term

344:

Some argue that in practice the process of medicalization tends to strip subjects of their social context, so they come to be understood in terms of the prevailing biomedical

6022: 5780: 256:). For example, in 2013, Allen Frances said that "psychiatric diagnosis still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests". 244:, have "been accusing psychiatry of engaging in the systematic medicalization of normality". More recently these concerns have come from insiders who have worked for the 890: 749: 408: 375: 752:, while acknowledging the controversy, states that the current treatments and methods of diagnosis are based on the dominant view of the academic literature. In 2014, 3598: 1050:

resulted in a group of university faculty members sending a public letter to the university Board of Regents urging an external investigation into Markingson's death.

1008:, the company's antipsychotic drug. Biederman has responded saying that the money did not influence him and that he did not promote a specific diagnosis or treatment. 897:

The most common side effects of ECT include headache, muscle soreness, confusion, and temporary loss of recent memory. Patients may also experience permanent amnesia.

2813: 163: 5501: 2401: 2315: 786:, which has raised concern that some players are mimicking or falsifying the symptoms or history of ADHD to get around the ban on the use of stimulants in sport. 5172: 2872: 684:

that are alternatives to those that are purely symptom-based. These deficits take the form of a reduction or impairment in basic psychological functions such as

419:

The history of racism in psychiatry dates back to the days of slavery and segregation in the United States. Such racism in psychiatry exemplifies the concept of

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Examples of political abuse of the power, entrusted in physicians and particularly psychiatrists, are abundant in history and seen during the Nazi era and the

748:

Other areas of controversy include the use of stimulant medications in children, the method of diagnosis, and the possibility of overdiagnosis. In 2012, the

4927: 1503:"...one finds two non-intersecting conceptual universes: that of psychiatry and traumatology-unrealistic, un-challengable and essentially unfalsifiable..." 851: 5211: 5531: 1112:

Multiple authors are well known for the movement against psychiatry, including those who have been practicing psychiatrists. The most influential was

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In the US, the lobotomy, while initially received with positivity in the late 1930s, came to be seen more negative in the late 1940s and early 1950s.

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said that he believes that "psychiatric diagnosis still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests".

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Faraone, Stephen V (2005). "The scientific foundation for understanding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder as a valid psychiatric disorder".

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Diefenbach, Gretchen J.; Diefenbach, Donald; Baumeister, Alan; West, Mark (1999-04-01). "Portrayal of Lobotomy in the Popular Press: 1935–1960".

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Malhi GS, Green M, Fagiolini A, Peselow ED, Kumari V (February 2008). "Schizoaffective disorder: diagnostic issues and future recommendations".

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published in 1999, in which she profiles Black psychiatrists who were influential in American psychiatry and their experiences in the profession

302:

put forth one of the earliest uses of the term "medicalization". Illich, a philosopher, argued that the medical profession harms people through

306:, a process in which illness and social problems increase due to medical intervention. Illich saw iatrogenesis occurring on three levels: the 5486: 5468: 5450: 5432: 5314: 5251: 4581: 4573:

The use of electroconvulsive therapy: Understanding NICE guidance – information for service users, their advocates and carers, and the public

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challenged the very basis of psychiatric practice and cast it as repressive and controlling. The term "anti-psychiatry" itself was coined by

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protections for research subjects. A 2005 FDA investigation cleared the university. Nonetheless, controversy around the case has continued.

782:

players had been diagnosed with ADHD, making the disorder common among this population. The increase coincided with the League's 2006 ban on

5697: 1141: 348:, resulting in a disregard for overarching social causes such as unequal distribution of power and resources. A series of publications by 5702: 4801:"The Relationship between Psychiatrists, College of Psychiatrists of Ireland and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Position Paper EAP04/2013" 1004:

gave more than $ 700,000 to a research center that was headed by Biederman from 2002 to 2005, where research was conducted, in part, on

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is a group of psychiatrists who are critical of psychiatry. Additionally, there are self-described psychiatric survivor groups such as

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Moncrieff J (2006). "Why is it so difficult to stop psychiatric drug treatment? It may be nothing to do with the original problem".

3414: 2598: 1749: 1537: 1187:. Chamberlin was an ex-patient and co-founder of the Mental Patients' Liberation Front. Coalescing around the ex-patient newsletter 650: 185: 5775: 1031:. Writing on the circumstances surrounding Markingson's death in the study, which was designed and funded by Seroquel manufacturer 1200: 1053:

Pharmaceutical companies have also been accused of attempting to set the mental health agenda through activities such as funding

460:

compared disproportionate numbers of brains from Black and white individuals to support their racial agendas based on "science."

245: 5987: 5770: 5712: 2789:

Overdiagnosis in Psychiatry: How Modern Psychiatry Lost Its Way While Creating a Diagnosis for Almost All of Life's Misfortunes

1826:"Medicine as a corporate enterprise, patient welfare centered profession, or patient welfare centered professional enterprise?" 384: 5105: 3798: 907: 318:, whereby the general public is made docile and reliant on the medical profession to cope with life in their society; and the 5636: 3363: 3312: 3273: 2946: 1171: 733:

in Ionia, Michigan disproportionately diagnosed African Americans with schizophrenia because of their civil rights activism.

167: 3855: 423:, which falsely alleges that science and other empirical evidence supports racism and proves certain racial inferiorities. 65:

In addition, there are a number of groups who are either critical towards psychiatry or entirely hostile to the field. The

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psychiatrist, Dr. Stephen C. Olson, oversights and biases in AstraZeneca's trial design, and the inadequacy of university

563: 476: 396: 365: 249: 3432:"Schizoaffective disorder merges schizophrenia and bipolar disorders as one disease—there is no schizoaffective disorder" 5757: 5692: 5594: 5044: 4957: 2032: 1542: 1065: 559: 1101:

is a therapy method, which was used widely between the 1930s and 1960s and is, in a modified form, still in use today.

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Rissmiller DJ, Rissmiller JH (2006-06-01). "Evolution of the antipsychiatry movement into mental health consumerism".

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Andreasen NC (September 1999). "A unitary model of schizophrenia: Bleuler's "fragmented phrene" as schizencephaly".

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Black psychiatrists often experienced racism as practitioners within the field. Some of this history is detailed in

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remain in decent condition. At the beginning of the 20th century, Black people were disproportionally sterilized in

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while enrolled in an industry-sponsored pharmaceutical trial comparing three FDA-approved atypical antipsychotics:

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for "fools' tower" — was one of the earliest buildings specifically designed as a "madhouse". It was built in 1784.

74: 4133: 5742: 5554: 4935: 4038:

Schonwald A, Lechner E (April 2006). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: complexities and controversies".

1098: 882: 618: 606: 70: 43: 5079: 762:. In contrast, a 2014 peer-reviewed medical literature review indicated that ADHD is underdiagnosed in adults. 6002: 5992: 5941: 5517: 4829: 4339:

Tang, Wai-Kwong; Ungvari, Gabor S. (January 2001). "Asystole during electroconvulsive therapy: a case report".

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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults

1054: 863: 800: 756:, one of the early advocates for recognition of the disorder, spoke out against overdiagnosis in an article in 705: 668: 539: 480: 469: 120:

concepts, and gay rights activists criticized the APA's inclusion of homosexuality as a mental disorder in the

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justifies the presumption of a biological cause for this behavior rather than the existence of any evidence.

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are seen as not very factual and very value-laden while delirium is quite factual and not very value-laden.

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Conrad P (October 1975). "The discovery of hyperkinesis: notes on the medicalization of deviant behavior".

5962: 5891: 5717: 5589: 5579: 3883:"Underdiagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adult patients: a review of the literature" 3112: 3028: 2118: 833: 810: 713: 709: 677: 676:

schizophrenia. Neuropsychologist Michael Foster Green went further in suggesting the presence of specific

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systems of slavery and racism, further constraining the rights, freedom, and humanity of Black people.

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social control, and that the belief in the biological basis for schizophrenia is maintained through

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Ma, Shuo; Zhang, Chencheng; Yuan, Ti-fei; Steele, Douglas; Voon, Valerie; Sun, Bomin (2020-03-01).

2173: 867: 571: 218: 129: 125: 85: 17: 5982: 5687: 5355: 4683: 4495: 4364: 4207:"Neurosurgical treatment for addiction: lessons from an untold story in China and a path forward" 4063: 3779: 3592: 3547: 3461: 3253: 3149:

Jones E (1999). "The Phenomenology of Abnormal Belief: A Philosophical and Psychiatric Inquiry".

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Johns LC, van Os J (2001). "The continuity of psychotic experiences in the general population".

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Tsuang MT, Stone WS, Faraone SV (2000). "Toward reformulating the diagnosis of schizophrenia".

6048: 6012: 5916: 5861: 5801: 5495: 5482: 5464: 5446: 5428: 5390: 5347: 5310: 5287: 5247: 5125: 4872: 4777: 4736: 4675: 4667: 4628: 4577: 4533: 4487: 4479: 4441: 4431: 4391: 4356: 4319: 4287: 4279: 4244: 4226: 4187: 4055: 4018: 3993: 3965: 3912: 3836: 3771: 3735: 3709: 3660: 3622: 3580: 3570: 3539: 3496: 3453: 3410: 3387: 3344: 3290: 3245: 3131: 3088: 3045: 3004: 2963: 2921: 2851: 2793: 2742: 2693: 2685: 2604: 2594: 2383: 2373: 2297: 2287: 2212: 2185: 2145: 2061: 2006: 1976: 1949: 1908: 1857: 1806: 1769: 1745: 1723: 1678: 1653: 1581: 1571: 1492: 1486: 1465: 1437: 1429: 1388: 1356: 1329: 1296: 1255: 1149: 454: 420: 380: 337: 210: 3936:"The importance of relative standards in ADHD diagnoses: evidence based on exact birth dates" 2206: 2000: 1970: 1945: 1941: 1672: 5906: 5382: 5339: 5279: 5117: 4864: 4767: 4726: 4718: 4659: 4620: 4525: 4471: 4348: 4271: 4234: 4218: 4177: 4169: 4047: 3955: 3947: 3902: 3894: 3828: 3763: 3699: 3691: 3529: 3488: 3445: 3377: 3334: 3326: 3282: 3237: 3121: 3080: 3037: 2994: 2955: 2732: 2677: 2642: 2563: 2517: 2473: 2431: 2342: 2256: 2177: 2135: 2127: 2092: 2051: 2041: 1902: 1847: 1837: 1798: 1707: 1643: 1635: 1518: 1421: 1286: 1250: 1245: 1231: 1133: 1118: 996: 627: 555: 4988: 4108: 3819:

Cormier E (October 2008). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and update".

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Since the 1960s there have been challenges to the concept of

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SAGE. p. 42. 1426:10.1093/jhmas/jrl044 1092:compulsory treatment 1025:Zyprexa (olanzapine) 731:Ionia State Hospital 350:Mens Sana Monographs 310:, involving serious 164:improve this article 5657:Rosenhan experiment 5652:Rhetoric of therapy 5565:Critical psychiatry 5477:Shorter, E (1997), 5459:Lyness, JM (1997), 5057:Carl (2012-11-23). 4962:The Washington Post 4619:(Suppl 1): S44–53. 4174:10.1136/jme.6.3.149 4040:Curr. Opin. Pediatr 2846:Burns, Tom (2006). 2786:Joel Paris (2020). 2670:Academic Psychiatry 2174:European Parliament 1292:10.1057/sth.2009.11 572:compulsive hoarding 529:Nature of diagnosis 54:and other forms of 6008:Radical Psychology 5983:Doctoring the Mind 5688:Aspies For Freedom 5461:Psychiatric Pearls 5180:Current Psychiatry 5012:The New York Times 4993:The New York Times 4223:10.1093/nsr/nwz207 4138:General Psychology 4013:Silver LB (2004). 3860:The New York Times 3487:(1 Pt 2): 215–30. 3198:Ghaemi SN (1999). 2880:Current Psychiatry 1768:. London: Arnold. 929:Medical Hypotheses 841:The New York Times 822:António Egas Moniz 759:The New York Times 694:executive function 552:orthorexia nervosa 248:themselves (e.g., 215:medical conditions 204: 102: 36:detaining citizens 6055: 6054: 6049:Psychiatry portal 6013:The Gene Illusion 5917:Elizabeth Packard 5877:Peter C. Gøtzsche 5862:Leonard Roy Frank 5802:Giorgio Antonucci 5488:978-0-471-24531-5 5470:978-0-8036-0280-9 5452:978-0-19-507420-8 5441:Guze, SB (1992), 5434:978-0-7619-7138-2 5316:978-0-8015-5523-7 5253:978-1-119-99612-5 5218:on March 14, 2014 4583:978-1-84257-284-9 4437:978-1-58562-032-6 4325:978-0-472-11944-8 4024:978-1-58562-131-6 3999:978-0-674-03163-0 3741:978-1-85433-471-8 3628:978-1-4129-4165-5 3576:978-0-8070-8593-6 3481:Bipolar Disorders 3168:David AS (1999). 2927:978-0-415-04096-9 2857:978-0-19-280727-4 2820:on 16 March 2017. 2799:978-0-19-750427-7 2379:978-1-4798-0470-2 2293:978-1-4696-3288-9 2218:978-1-4051-2404-1 2191:978-92-823-4595-5 2012:978-90-247-1780-4 1982:978-1-85775-947-1 1955:978-1-85649-104-4 1914:978-0-8160-6405-2 1775:978-0-340-91450-2 1684:978-0-7619-6400-1 1640:10.1002/wps.20027 1577:978-1-4128-4976-0 1498:978-1-4757-2672-5 1471:978-1-4441-6865-5 1394:978-3-319-34595-6 1362:978-1-137-27744-2 1335:978-0-8135-4169-3 1211:as its director. 1174:arose out of the 1150:Giorgio Antonucci 968:'s antipsychotic 775:severe symptoms. 544:changed over time 501:In the profession 455:Scientific racism 449:Scientific racism 421:scientific racism 338:social inequality 294:In the 1975 book 211:medical sociology 196: 195: 188: 16:(Redirected from 6075: 5907:Joanna Moncrieff 5767:Paranoia Network 5534: 5527: 5520: 5511: 5505: 5499: 5491: 5473: 5455: 5437: 5423:Gask, L (2004), 5410: 5405: 5399: 5398: 5370: 5364: 5363: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5302: 5296: 5295: 5267: 5258: 5257: 5237: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5223: 5208: 5202: 5201: 5199: 5198: 5192: 5177: 5168: 5159: 5158: 5152: 5144: 5142: 5141: 5132:. Archived from 5101: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5090: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5067: 5065: 5054: 5048: 5041: 5035: 5029: 5023: 5022: 5020: 5018: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4984: 4973: 4972: 4970: 4968: 4953: 4947: 4946: 4944: 4943: 4924: 4918: 4917: 4915: 4914: 4899: 4893: 4887: 4881: 4880: 4852: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4841: 4825: 4819: 4818: 4816: 4815: 4809: 4797: 4786: 4785: 4775: 4751: 4745: 4744: 4734: 4702: 4696: 4695: 4643: 4637: 4636: 4607: 4601: 4600: 4599: 4598: 4592: 4586:, archived from 4568: 4562: 4561: 4548: 4542: 4541: 4513: 4504: 4503: 4455: 4449: 4448: 4423: 4417: 4411: 4400: 4399: 4379: 4373: 4372: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4309: 4296: 4295: 4259: 4253: 4252: 4242: 4202: 4196: 4195: 4185: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4145: 4144: 4129: 4123: 4122: 4120: 4119: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4035: 4029: 4028: 4010: 4004: 4003: 3985: 3974: 3973: 3963: 3931: 3925: 3924: 3910: 3878: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3851: 3845: 3844: 3816: 3807: 3806: 3794: 3788: 3787: 3751: 3745: 3744: 3727: 3718: 3717: 3707: 3675: 3669: 3668: 3648: 3639: 3638: 3637: 3635: 3612: 3603: 3602: 3596: 3588: 3569:. Beacon Press. 3562: 3556: 3555: 3537: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3427: 3421: 3420: 3402: 3396: 3395: 3385: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3342: 3308: 3299: 3298: 3268: 3262: 3261: 3225: 3219: 3218: 3216: 3215: 3195: 3189: 3188: 3186: 3185: 3165: 3159: 3158: 3146: 3140: 3139: 3129: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3068: 3062: 3061: 3019: 3013: 3012: 3002: 2987:World Psychiatry 2978: 2972: 2971: 2941: 2932: 2931: 2911: 2902: 2901: 2899: 2898: 2892: 2877: 2868: 2862: 2861: 2843: 2822: 2821: 2810: 2804: 2803: 2783: 2777: 2776: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2740: 2716: 2710: 2709: 2665: 2659: 2658: 2635:Psychiatric News 2626: 2613: 2612: 2586: 2580: 2579: 2556:Psychiatric News 2547: 2534: 2533: 2510:Psychiatric News 2501: 2490: 2489: 2466:Psychiatric News 2457: 2448: 2447: 2424:Psychiatric News 2415: 2406: 2405: 2399: 2391: 2365: 2359: 2358: 2335:Psychiatric News 2326: 2320: 2319: 2313: 2305: 2279: 2273: 2272: 2249:Psychiatric News 2240: 2223: 2222: 2202: 2196: 2195: 2171: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2143: 2109: 2103: 2102: 2100: 2076: 2070: 2069: 2059: 2049: 2023: 2017: 2016: 1996: 1987: 1986: 1966: 1960: 1959: 1930: 1919: 1918: 1898: 1892: 1885: 1879: 1872: 1866: 1865: 1855: 1845: 1821: 1815: 1814: 1786: 1780: 1779: 1759: 1753: 1738: 1732: 1731: 1695: 1689: 1688: 1668: 1662: 1661: 1651: 1627:World Psychiatry 1617: 1608: 1607: 1599: 1590: 1589: 1563: 1557: 1555: 1533: 1527: 1519:Independent Lens 1510: 1504: 1502: 1482: 1476: 1475: 1455: 1446: 1445: 1405: 1399: 1398: 1378: 1367: 1366: 1346: 1340: 1339: 1319: 1313: 1312: 1294: 1270: 1264: 1263: 1253: 1227: 1134:Michael Foucault 1119:The Divided Self 997:Joseph Biederman 868:Petter Lindström 773: 729:argues that the 628:secondary source 597:Biological basis 556:sexual addiction 283:), and Szasz's " 191: 184: 180: 177: 171: 148: 140: 21: 6083: 6082: 6078: 6077: 6076: 6074: 6073: 6072: 6058: 6057: 6056: 6051: 6042: 5978:Crazy Therapies 5958:Against Therapy 5946: 5942:Robert Whitaker 5937:Stephen Ticktin 5872:James Gottstein 5857:Michel Foucault 5842:Judi Chamberlin 5837:Ted Chabasinski 5822:Richard Bentall 5817:Lauretta Bender 5807:Franco Basaglia 5785: 5671: 5543: 5541:Anti-psychiatry 5538: 5508: 5492: 5489: 5476: 5471: 5458: 5453: 5440: 5435: 5422: 5418: 5413: 5406: 5402: 5372: 5371: 5367: 5329: 5328: 5324: 5317: 5304: 5303: 5299: 5269: 5268: 5261: 5254: 5239: 5238: 5231: 5221: 5219: 5210: 5209: 5205: 5196: 5194: 5190: 5175: 5170: 5169: 5162: 5145: 5139: 5137: 5103: 5102: 5098: 5088: 5086: 5078: 5077: 5073: 5063: 5061: 5056: 5055: 5051: 5042: 5038: 5030: 5026: 5016: 5014: 5005: 5004: 5000: 4986: 4985: 4976: 4966: 4964: 4955: 4954: 4950: 4941: 4939: 4926: 4925: 4921: 4912: 4910: 4901: 4900: 4896: 4888: 4884: 4857:Med. Hypotheses 4854: 4853: 4849: 4839: 4837: 4827: 4826: 4822: 4813: 4811: 4807: 4799: 4798: 4789: 4753: 4752: 4748: 4704: 4703: 4699: 4645: 4644: 4640: 4613:J Affect Disord 4609: 4608: 4604: 4596: 4594: 4590: 4584: 4570: 4569: 4565: 4550: 4549: 4545: 4515: 4514: 4507: 4457: 4456: 4452: 4438: 4425: 4424: 4420: 4412: 4403: 4381: 4380: 4376: 4338: 4337: 4333: 4326: 4311: 4310: 4299: 4261: 4260: 4256: 4204: 4203: 4199: 4155: 4154: 4150: 4142: 4140: 4131: 4130: 4126: 4117: 4115: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4092: 4090: 4080: 4079: 4075: 4037: 4036: 4032: 4025: 4012: 4011: 4007: 4000: 3987: 3986: 3977: 3933: 3932: 3928: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3865: 3863: 3853: 3852: 3848: 3818: 3817: 3810: 3796: 3795: 3791: 3753: 3752: 3748: 3742: 3729: 3728: 3721: 3677: 3676: 3672: 3650: 3649: 3642: 3633: 3631: 3629: 3614: 3613: 3606: 3589: 3577: 3564: 3563: 3559: 3521:Br J Psychiatry 3513: 3512: 3508: 3478: 3477: 3473: 3429: 3428: 3424: 3417: 3404: 3403: 3399: 3361: 3360: 3356: 3325:(5): 1178–200. 3310: 3309: 3302: 3270: 3269: 3265: 3236:(2–3): 106–12. 3227: 3226: 3222: 3213: 3211: 3197: 3196: 3192: 3183: 3181: 3167: 3166: 3162: 3148: 3147: 3143: 3105: 3104: 3100: 3070: 3069: 3065: 3021: 3020: 3016: 2980: 2979: 2975: 2943: 2942: 2935: 2928: 2913: 2912: 2905: 2896: 2894: 2890: 2875: 2870: 2869: 2865: 2858: 2845: 2844: 2825: 2812: 2811: 2807: 2800: 2785: 2784: 2780: 2767: 2766: 2762: 2718: 2717: 2713: 2667: 2666: 2662: 2628: 2627: 2616: 2601: 2588: 2587: 2583: 2549: 2548: 2537: 2503: 2502: 2493: 2459: 2458: 2451: 2417: 2416: 2409: 2392: 2380: 2367: 2366: 2362: 2328: 2327: 2323: 2306: 2294: 2286:. Chapel Hill. 2281: 2280: 2276: 2242: 2241: 2226: 2219: 2204: 2203: 2199: 2192: 2169: 2162: 2161: 2157: 2111: 2110: 2106: 2091:(12): 443–444. 2078: 2077: 2073: 2025: 2024: 2020: 2013: 1998: 1997: 1990: 1983: 1968: 1967: 1963: 1956: 1932: 1931: 1922: 1915: 1900: 1899: 1895: 1886: 1882: 1873: 1869: 1823: 1822: 1818: 1788: 1787: 1783: 1776: 1761: 1760: 1756: 1739: 1735: 1697: 1696: 1692: 1685: 1670: 1669: 1665: 1619: 1618: 1611: 1601: 1600: 1593: 1578: 1565: 1564: 1560: 1535: 1534: 1530: 1511: 1507: 1499: 1484: 1483: 1479: 1472: 1457: 1456: 1449: 1407: 1406: 1402: 1395: 1380: 1379: 1370: 1363: 1348: 1347: 1343: 1336: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1272: 1271: 1267: 1229: 1228: 1221: 1217: 1181:Judi Chamberlin 1168: 1162: 1083:anti-psychiatry 1079: 1077:Anti-psychiatry 1073: 1071:Anti-psychiatry 1068: 984:. In addition, 903: 880: 803: 797: 792: 771: 745: 739: 698:problem solving 661:Nancy Andreasen 642: 636: 609: 599: 536: 531: 509:'s book titled 507:Jeanne Spurlock 503: 490: 472: 466: 457: 451: 442:John C. Calhoun 429: 417: 368: 362: 360:Political abuse 330:Vicente Navarro 209:, a concept in 192: 181: 175: 172: 161: 149: 138: 108:. Sociologists 83: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6081: 6079: 6071: 6070: 6060: 6059: 6053: 6052: 6047: 6044: 6043: 6041: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5998:Mad in America 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5954: 5952: 5948: 5947: 5945: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5922:Sascha Scatter 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5867:Erving Goffman 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5793: 5791: 5787: 5786: 5784: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5723:Icarus Project 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5679: 5677: 5673: 5672: 5670: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5647:Recovery model 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5613: 5612: 5607: 5600:Medicalization 5597: 5595:Medical ethics 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5551: 5549: 5545: 5544: 5539: 5537: 5536: 5529: 5522: 5514: 5507: 5506: 5487: 5474: 5469: 5456: 5451: 5438: 5433: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5411: 5400: 5365: 5322: 5315: 5297: 5259: 5252: 5229: 5203: 5160: 5096: 5071: 5049: 5047:" Mother Jones 5036: 5024: 4998: 4974: 4948: 4919: 4894: 4882: 4847: 4820: 4787: 4766:(3): 228–237. 4746: 4717:(7403): 1363. 4697: 4638: 4602: 4582: 4563: 4543: 4505: 4450: 4436: 4418: 4416:, p. 282. 4401: 4374: 4347:(3): 382–385. 4331: 4324: 4297: 4254: 4217:(3): 702–712. 4197: 4168:(3): 149–154. 4148: 4124: 4113:NobelPrize.org 4100: 4073: 4046:(2): 189–195. 4030: 4023: 4005: 3998: 3975: 3946:(5): 641–656. 3926: 3922:psychiatrists. 3873: 3846: 3827:(5): 345–357. 3821:J Pediatr Nurs 3808: 3789: 3746: 3740: 3719: 3690:(2): 192–194. 3670: 3640: 3627: 3604: 3575: 3557: 3506: 3471: 3422: 3415: 3397: 3369:Schizophr Bull 3354: 3318:Schizophr Bull 3300: 3263: 3220: 3190: 3160: 3141: 3120:(4): 1005–22. 3098: 3079:(8): 1125–41. 3063: 3036:(1–2): 59–65. 3014: 2973: 2954:(7): 1041–50. 2933: 2926: 2903: 2863: 2856: 2823: 2805: 2798: 2778: 2760: 2731:(4): 289–290. 2711: 2676:(5): 523–530. 2660: 2614: 2599: 2581: 2535: 2491: 2449: 2407: 2378: 2360: 2321: 2292: 2274: 2224: 2217: 2197: 2190: 2155: 2104: 2071: 2040:(3): 203–206. 2018: 2011: 1988: 1981: 1961: 1954: 1920: 1913: 1893: 1880: 1867: 1816: 1797:(6): 1275–85. 1781: 1774: 1754: 1733: 1712:10.2307/799624 1690: 1683: 1663: 1634:(2): 111–112. 1609: 1591: 1576: 1558: 1554:on 2008-03-07. 1528: 1505: 1497: 1477: 1470: 1447: 1420:(2): 213–243. 1400: 1393: 1368: 1361: 1341: 1334: 1314: 1285:(4): 370–382. 1265: 1244:(2): 221–222. 1218: 1216: 1213: 1183:'s 1978 text, 1161: 1158: 1075:Main article: 1072: 1069: 1064:Main article: 957:pharmaceutical 902: 899: 879: 876: 846:Science Digest 796: 793: 791: 788: 768:medicalization 741:Main article: 738: 735: 722:, in his book 720:Jonathan Metzl 708:. Citing poor 638:Main article: 635: 632: 598: 595: 535: 532: 530: 527: 502: 499: 489: 486: 479:programs that 468:Main article: 465: 462: 453:Main article: 450: 447: 428: 425: 416: 413: 389:Czechoslovakia 364:Main article: 361: 358: 261:medicalization 250:Robert Spitzer 242:Stuart A. Kirk 226:David Rosenhan 207:Medicalization 194: 193: 152: 150: 143: 137: 136:Medicalization 134: 110:Erving Goffman 106:mental illness 82: 79: 75:Scientologists 48:antipsychotics 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6080: 6069: 6066: 6065: 6063: 6050: 6045: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5955: 5953: 5949: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5892:Peter Lehmann 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5882:Jacques Lacan 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5827:Peter Breggin 5825: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5812:Ernest Becker 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5794: 5792: 5788: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5680: 5678: 5676:Organizations 5674: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5611: 5610:medical model 5608: 5606: 5603: 5602: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5552: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5535: 5530: 5528: 5523: 5521: 5516: 5515: 5512: 5503: 5497: 5490: 5484: 5480: 5475: 5472: 5466: 5462: 5457: 5454: 5448: 5444: 5439: 5436: 5430: 5426: 5421: 5420: 5415: 5409: 5404: 5401: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5369: 5366: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5338:(6): 863–6 . 5337: 5333: 5326: 5323: 5318: 5312: 5308: 5301: 5298: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5266: 5264: 5260: 5255: 5249: 5245: 5244: 5236: 5234: 5230: 5217: 5213: 5207: 5204: 5193:on 2015-02-07 5189: 5185: 5181: 5174: 5167: 5165: 5161: 5156: 5150: 5136:on 2010-04-30 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5116:(3): 147–59. 5115: 5111: 5107: 5100: 5097: 5085: 5081: 5075: 5072: 5060: 5053: 5050: 5046: 5040: 5037: 5033: 5028: 5025: 5013: 5009: 5002: 4999: 4994: 4990: 4983: 4981: 4979: 4975: 4963: 4959: 4952: 4949: 4938:on 2014-07-20 4937: 4933: 4929: 4923: 4920: 4909: 4905: 4898: 4895: 4891: 4886: 4883: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4863:(3): 517–23. 4862: 4858: 4851: 4848: 4835: 4831: 4824: 4821: 4810:on 2014-11-04 4806: 4802: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4788: 4783: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4750: 4747: 4742: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4701: 4698: 4694: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4642: 4639: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4606: 4603: 4593:on 2014-11-29 4589: 4585: 4579: 4575: 4574: 4567: 4564: 4559: 4558: 4553: 4547: 4544: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4512: 4510: 4506: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4454: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4433: 4429: 4422: 4419: 4415: 4410: 4408: 4406: 4402: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4378: 4375: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4335: 4332: 4327: 4321: 4317: 4316: 4308: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4298: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4258: 4255: 4250: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4201: 4198: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4152: 4149: 4139: 4135: 4128: 4125: 4114: 4110: 4104: 4101: 4088: 4084: 4077: 4074: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4034: 4031: 4026: 4020: 4016: 4009: 4006: 4001: 3995: 3991: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3976: 3971: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3940:J Health Econ 3937: 3930: 3927: 3923: 3918: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3877: 3874: 3861: 3857: 3850: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3804: 3800: 3793: 3790: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3750: 3747: 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