63:
to the surface along spreading centers creating new crust. As this new crust is pushed away from the spreading center by the formation of newer crust, it cools, thins, and becomes denser. Subduction begins when this dense crust converges with a less dense crust. The force of gravity helps drive the subducting slab into the mantle. As the relatively cool subducting slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it is heated, causing hydrous minerals to break down. This releases water into the hotter asthenosphere, which leads to partial melting of the asthenosphere and volcanism. Both dehydration and partial melting occur along the 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) isotherm, generally at depths of 65 to 130 km (40 to 81 mi).
20:
327:) form as sediment is scraped from the subducting lithosphere and emplaced against the overriding lithosphere. These sediments include igneous crust, turbidite sediments, and pelagic sediments. Imbricate thrust faulting along a basal decollement surface occurs in accretionary wedges as forces continue to compress and fault these newly added sediments. The continued faulting of the accretionary wedge leads to overall thickening of the wedge. Seafloor topography plays some role in accretion, especially emplacement of igneous crust.
1817:
336:
144:
lithosphere reaches the subduction zone, subduction processes are altered, since continental lithosphere is more buoyant and resists subduction beneath other continental lithosphere. A small portion of the continental crust may be subducted until the slab breaks, allowing the oceanic lithosphere to continue subducting, hot asthenosphere to rise and fill the void, and the continental lithosphere to rebound. Evidence of this continental rebound includes
2705:
2726:
1806:
2715:
1463:
242:, though the magma composition of back-arc basins is generally more varied and contains a higher water content than mid-ocean ridge magmas. Back-arc basins are often characterized by thin, hot lithosphere. Opening of back-arc basins may arise from movement of hot asthenosphere into lithosphere, causing extension.
174:
groups. During subduction, oceanic lithosphere is heated and metamorphosed, causing breakdown of these hydrous minerals, which releases water into the asthenosphere. The release of water into the asthenosphere leads to partial melting. Partial melting allows the rise of more buoyant, hot material and
111:
In collisions between two oceanic plates, the cooler, denser oceanic lithosphere sinks beneath the warmer, less dense oceanic lithosphere. As the slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it releases water from dehydration of hydrous minerals in the oceanic crust. This water reduces the melting temperature
102:
Subduction zones are areas where one lithospheric plate slides beneath another at a convergent boundary due to lithospheric density differences. These plates dip at an average of 45° but can vary. Subduction zones are often marked by an abundance of earthquakes, the result of internal deformation of
62:
Plate tectonics is driven by convection cells in the mantle. Convection cells are the result of heat generated by the radioactive decay of elements in the mantle escaping to the surface and the return of cool materials from the surface to the mantle. These convection cells bring hot mantle material
143:
Some lithospheric plates consist of both continental and oceanic crust. Subduction initiates as oceanic lithosphere slides beneath continental crust. As the oceanic lithosphere subducts to greater depths, the attached continental crust is pulled closer to the subduction zone. Once the continental
256:
Oceanic trenches are narrow topographic lows that mark convergent boundaries or subduction zones. Oceanic trenches average 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 mi) wide and can be several thousand kilometers long. Oceanic trenches form as a result of bending of the subducting slab. Depth of oceanic
74:. In some instances, initial convergence with another plate will destroy oceanic lithosphere, leading to convergence of two continental plates. Neither continental plate will subduct. It is likely that the plate may break along the boundary of continental and oceanic crust.
103:
the plate, convergence with the opposing plate, and bending at the oceanic trench. Earthquakes have been detected to a depth of 670 km (416 mi). The relatively cold and dense subducting plates are pulled into the mantle and help drive mantle convection.
128:
forms on the continental crust as deep-sea sediments and oceanic crust are scraped from the oceanic plate. Volcanic arcs form on continental lithosphere as the result of partial melting due to dehydration of the hydrous minerals of the subducting slab.
282:
Both compressional and extensional forces act along convergent boundaries. On the inner walls of trenches, compressional faulting or reverse faulting occurs due to the relative motion of the two plates. Reverse faulting scrapes off
59:. Convergent boundaries occur between oceanic-oceanic lithosphere, oceanic-continental lithosphere, and continental-continental lithosphere. The geologic features related to convergent boundaries vary depending on crust types.
257:
trenches seems to be controlled by age of the oceanic lithosphere being subducted. Sediment fill in oceanic trenches varies and generally depends on abundance of sediment input from surrounding areas. An oceanic trench, the
209:
member of each series is typically most abundant, and the transition from basaltic volcanism of the deep
Pacific basin to andesitic volcanism in the surrounding volcanic arcs has been called the andesite line.
784:
309:, which caused 16,000 deaths and did US$ 360 billion in damage, was caused by a magnitude 9 megathrust earthquake along the convergent boundary of the Eurasian plate and Pacific Plate.
1408:
189:
is most characteristic of oceanic volcanic arcs, though this is also found in continental volcanic arcs above rapid subduction (>7 cm/year). This series is relatively low in
152:
continental â continental convergence zone, and seismic tomography has mapped detached slabs beneath the
Tethyan suture zone (the Alps â Zagros â Himalaya mountain belt).
2445:
2435:
1494:
148:, which form at depths of 90 to 125 km (56 to 78 mi), that are exposed at the surface. Seismic records have been used to map the torn slabs beneath the
112:
of rocks in the asthenosphere and causes partial melting. Partial melt will travel up through the asthenosphere, eventually, reach the surface, and form volcanic
1190:
Tatsumi, Yoshiyuki; Otofuji, Yo-Ichiro; Matsuda, Takaaki; Nohda, Susumu (1989-09-10). "Opening of the Sea of Japan back-arc basin by asthenospheric injection".
702:
305:
was triggered by a megathrust earthquake along the convergent boundary of the Indian plate and Burma microplate and killed over 200,000 people. The 2011
764:
124:
When oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere collide, the dense oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the less dense continental lithosphere. An
279:, generally dips 45° and marks the subducting plate. Earthquakes will occur to a depth of 670 km (416 mi) along the Wadati-Benioff margin.
175:
can lead to volcanism at the surface and emplacement of plutons in the subsurface. These processes which generate magma are not entirely understood.
2351:
1070:
302:
178:
Where these magmas reach the surface they create volcanic arcs. Volcanic arcs can form as island arc chains or as arcs on continental crust. Three
1766:
1534:
905:
Mumladze, Tea; Forte, Adam M.; Cowgill, Eric S.; Trexler, Charles C.; Niemi, Nathan A.; Burak Yıkılmaz, M.; Kellogg, Louise H. (March 2015).
1284:
1998:
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1487:
495:
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2020:
1908:
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610:(2004-10-01). "The temporal evolution of plate driving forces: Importance of "slab suction" versus "slab pull" during the Cenozoic".
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145:
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2301:
2708:
1480:
19:
555:
Tackley, Paul J. (2000-06-16). "Mantle
Convection and Plate Tectonics: Toward an Integrated Physical and Chemical Theory".
197:, which is moderately enriched in potassium and incompatible elements, is characteristic of continental volcanic arcs. The
294:
A megathrust earthquake can produce sudden vertical displacement of a large area of ocean floor. This in turn generates a
1756:
1409:"UNM continental-scale helium study probes the deep structure of the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayan plate collision"
1816:
607:
47:. These collisions happen on scales of millions to tens of millions of years and can lead to volcanism, earthquakes,
291:. Tensional or normal faulting occurs on the outer wall of the trench, likely due to bending of the downgoing slab.
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1983:
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2015:
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1973:
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1503:
504: â Overthrusting of oceanic lithosphere onto continental lithosphere at a convergent plate boundary
416:
288:
235:
198:
138:
56:
948:"Subduction history of the Tethyan region derived from seismic tomography and tectonic reconstructions"
1131:
Taylor, Brian; Martinez, Fernando (March 2002). "Mantle wedge control on back-arc crustal accretion".
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and high heat flow, often being home to seafloor spreading centers. These spreading centers are like
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1943:
1903:
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series, which is extremely high in potassium, is rare but sometimes is found in volcanic arcs. The
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125:
75:
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Some of the deadliest natural disasters have occurred due to convergent boundary processes. The
261:, is the deepest point of the ocean at a depth of approximately 11,000 m (36,089 ft).
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665:"Dehydration and partial melting in subduction zones: Constraints from U-series disequilibria"
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588:
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527:
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Earthquakes are common along convergent boundaries. A region of high earthquake activity, the
67:
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2613:
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1988:
1918:
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967:
918:
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859:
810:
684:
635:
627:
572:
443:
390:
364:
201:(highly enriched in potassium) is sometimes present in the deeper continental interior. The
1364:
Sharman, George F.; Karig, Daniel E. (1975-03-01). "Subduction and
Accretion in Trenches".
1233:
Oliver, J.; Sykes, L.; Isacks, B. (1969-06-01). "Seismology and the new global tectonics".
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2113:
2083:
1933:
1883:
1793:
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1684:
1609:
1569:
239:
225:
36:
840:"Buoyancy-driven, rapid exhumation of ultrahigh-pressure metamorphosed continental crust"
43:. The subduction zone can be defined by a plane where many earthquakes occur, called the
1805:
1377:
1326:
1308:"Erosion and exhumation in accretionary orogens: Experimental and geological approaches"
1246:
1203:
1144:
963:
855:
680:
623:
568:
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1958:
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462:
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349:
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2053:
1948:
1825:
1746:
1706:
1679:
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1539:
1350:
1254:
1211:
882:
839:
477:
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412:
382:
372:
368:
71:
932:
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2048:
1938:
1878:
1664:
1574:
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353:
231:
161:
576:
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and leads to the formation of an accretionary wedge. Reverse faulting can lead to
2675:
2407:
2336:
2201:
2141:
2108:
2098:
2093:
1978:
1913:
1873:
1863:
1838:
1721:
1694:
1674:
1634:
1599:
424:
420:
397:
376:
52:
844:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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2341:
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2211:
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2118:
2103:
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2043:
1963:
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1013:
923:
906:
428:
270:
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113:
87:
40:
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1262:
1219:
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991:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 604â612.
873:
780:
749:
698:
649:
584:
541:
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2427:
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2171:
2010:
2005:
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1716:
1644:
1564:
1554:
1511:
864:
501:
357:
190:
167:
1168:
891:
592:
39:
collide. One plate eventually slides beneath the other, a process known as
1462:
734:. Klepeis, Keith A., Vine, F. J. (3rd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
2660:
2382:
2241:
2133:
2123:
2068:
1544:
1334:
972:
947:
763:
Widiyantoro, Sri; Hilst, Rob D. Van Der; Grand, Stephen P. (1997-12-01).
689:
640:
631:
206:
149:
1472:
339:
Map of Earth's principal plates (convergent boundaries shown as blue or
2529:
2519:
1689:
1659:
295:
93:
78:
reveals pieces of lithosphere that have broken off during convergence.
48:
2236:
1649:
447:
1152:
1435:"Hot springs reveal where continental plates collide beneath Tibet"
2598:
2417:
2196:
2151:
907:"Subducted, detached, and torn slabs beneath the Greater Caucasus"
765:"Global seismic tomography: A snapshot of convection in the earth"
405:
340:
334:
183:
18:
2030:
663:
Bourdon, Bernard; Turner, Simon; Dosseto, Anthony (2003-06-01).
171:
1476:
805:
Condie, Kent C. (2016-01-01). "Crustal and Mantle
Evolution".
16:
Region of active deformation between colliding tectonic plates
1306:
Konstantinovskaia, Elena; Malavieille, Jacques (2005-02-01).
182:
of volcanic rocks are found in association with arcs. The
166:
The oceanic crust contains hydrated minerals such as the
1386:
10.1130/0016-7606(1975)86<377:SAAIT>2.0.CO;2
946:
Hafkenscheid, E.; Wortel, M. J. R.; Spakman, W. (2006).
838:
Ernst, W. G.; Maruyama, S.; Wallis, S. (1997-09-02).
2538:
2512:
2474:
2426:
2365:
2260:
2132:
2029:
1824:
1510:
2446:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
1277:"Questions and Answers on Megathrust Earthquakes"
2436:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
989:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
526:(2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
1488:
1044:
8:
1014:"The off-crust origin of granite batholiths"
987:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
669:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
612:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
23:Simplified diagram of a convergent boundary
1495:
1481:
1473:
1283:. Government of Canada. 19 October 2018.
1105:
1029:
971:
922:
881:
863:
688:
639:
522:Wicander, Reed; Monroe, James S. (2016).
66:Some lithospheric plates consist of both
1100:. Encyclopedia of Earth Science: 22â24.
498: â Movements of Earth's lithosphere
303:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
35:) is an area on Earth where two or more
514:
381:Subduction of the northern part of the
1767:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
1433:Stanford University (March 14, 2022).
807:Earth as an Evolving Planetary System
133:Continental â continental convergence
7:
2714:
1315:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1287:from the original on 27 October 2020
809:. Academic Press. pp. 147â199.
725:
723:
721:
719:
146:ultrahigh pressure metamorphic rocks
1067:Dictionary of New Zealand Biography
496:List of tectonic plate interactions
2594:National Oceanographic Data Center
2021:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
1909:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
815:10.1016/b978-0-12-803689-1.00006-7
14:
2441:Global Sea Level Observing System
323:Accretionary wedges (also called
120:Continental â oceanic convergence
2724:
2713:
2704:
2703:
1899:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
1815:
1804:
1461:
1073:from the original on 24 May 2010
1012:Castro, Antonio (January 2014).
431:subduction/transform boundaries.
2629:Ocean thermal energy conversion
2352:VineâMatthewsâMorley hypothesis
1059:"Marshall, Patrick 1869 - 1950"
1057:Watters, W. A. (7 April 2006).
952:Journal of Geophysical Research
787:from the original on 2018-12-06
705:from the original on 2019-12-31
1407:Carr, Steve (March 31, 2022).
307:tsunami off the coast of Japan
230:Back-arc basins form behind a
1:
577:10.1126/science.288.5473.2002
107:Oceanic â oceanic convergence
1889:El NiñoâSouthern Oscillation
1859:CraikâLeibovich vortex force
1615:Luke's variational principle
1255:10.1016/0040-1951(69)90024-9
1212:10.1016/0040-1951(89)90283-7
608:LithgowâBertelloni, Carolina
156:Volcanism and volcanic arcs
2773:
1954:Ocean dynamical thermostat
1802:
363:The collision between the
348:The collision between the
316:
268:
249:
223:
217:
159:
136:
91:
85:
2699:
2489:Ocean acoustic tomography
2302:MohoroviÄiÄ discontinuity
1894:General circulation model
1530:BenjaminâFeir instability
1045:Philpotts & Ague 2009
1031:10.1016/j.gsf.2013.06.006
924:10.1016/j.grj.2014.09.004
2619:Ocean surface topography
1994:Thermohaline circulation
1984:Subsurface ocean current
1924:Hydrothermal circulation
1757:Waveâcurrent interaction
1535:Boussinesq approximation
1281:Natural Resources Canada
1107:10.1007/0-387-30845-8_12
1092:White, A. J. R. (1989).
265:Earthquakes and tsunamis
234:and are associated with
2656:Sea surface temperature
2639:Outline of oceanography
1834:Atmospheric circulation
1772:shallow water equations
1762:Waves and shallow water
1655:Significant wave height
865:10.1073/pnas.94.18.9532
491:List of tectonic plates
187:tholeiitic magma series
2651:Sea surface microlayer
2016:Wind generated current
423:, forming the complex
344:
289:megathrust earthquakes
24:
2484:Deep scattering layer
2466:World Geodetic System
1974:Princeton Ocean Model
1854:CoriolisâStokes force
1504:Physical oceanography
1470:at Wikimedia Commons
338:
236:extensional tectonics
199:alkaline magma series
139:Continental collision
22:
2504:Underwater acoustics
2064:Perigean spring tide
1929:Langmuir circulation
1640:Rossby-gravity waves
1335:10.1029/2004GC000794
1018:Geoscience Frontiers
973:10.1029/2005JB003791
690:10.1029/2002JB001839
632:10.1029/2004JB002991
606:Conrad, Clinton P.;
474:North American Plate
402:South American Plate
389:that is forming the
387:North American Plate
356:that is forming the
195:calc-alkaline series
193:. The more oxidized
33:destructive boundary
2666:Science On a Sphere
2272:Convergent boundary
1944:Modular Ocean Model
1904:Geostrophic current
1620:Mild-slope equation
1378:1975GSAB...86..377K
1327:2005GGG.....6.2006K
1247:1969Tectp...7..527O
1204:1989Tectp.166..317T
1145:2002Natur.416..417M
964:2006JGRB..111.8401H
856:1997PNAS...94.9532E
730:P., Kearey (2009).
681:2003JGRB..108.2291B
624:2004JGRB..10910407C
569:2000Sci...288.2002T
563:(5473): 2002â2007.
325:accretionary prisms
277:Wadati-Benioff zone
98:WadatiâBenioff zone
72:oceanic lithosphere
45:WadatiâBenioff zone
37:lithospheric plates
29:convergent boundary
2322:Seafloor spreading
2312:Outer trench swell
2277:Divergent boundary
2177:Continental margin
2162:Carbonate platform
2059:Lunitidal interval
470:Juan de Fuca Plate
468:Subduction of the
453:Subduction of the
411:Subduction of the
396:Subduction of the
345:
319:Accretionary wedge
313:Accretionary wedge
184:chemically reduced
126:accretionary wedge
76:Seismic tomography
25:
2739:
2738:
2731:Oceans portal
2691:World Ocean Atlas
2681:Underwater glider
2624:Ocean temperature
2287:Hydrothermal vent
2252:Submarine volcano
2187:Continental shelf
2167:Coastal geography
2157:Bathymetric chart
2039:Amphidromic point
1727:Wave nonlinearity
1585:Infragravity wave
1466:Media related to
1139:(6879): 417â420.
1063:Marshall, Patrick
850:(18): 9532â9537.
434:Collision of the
51:, destruction of
31:(also known as a
2764:
2729:
2728:
2717:
2716:
2707:
2706:
2646:Pelagic sediment
2584:Marine pollution
2378:Deep ocean water
2247:Submarine canyon
2182:Continental rise
2074:Rule of twelfths
1989:Sverdrup balance
1919:Humboldt Current
1844:Boundary current
1819:
1808:
1625:Radiation stress
1595:Iribarren number
1570:Equatorial waves
1525:Ballantine scale
1520:Airy wave theory
1497:
1490:
1483:
1474:
1465:
1450:
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1430:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1404:
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1355:
1354:
1312:
1303:
1297:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1273:
1267:
1266:
1241:(5â6): 527â541.
1230:
1224:
1223:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1128:
1122:
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1089:
1083:
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885:
867:
835:
829:
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802:
796:
795:
793:
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760:
754:
753:
732:Global tectonics
727:
714:
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711:
710:
692:
660:
654:
653:
643:
603:
597:
596:
552:
546:
545:
519:
444:Pontic Mountains
417:Australian Plate
391:Aleutian Islands
371:that formed the
365:Australian Plate
246:Oceanic trenches
240:mid-ocean ridges
82:Subduction zones
2772:
2771:
2767:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2761:
2752:Plate tectonics
2742:
2741:
2740:
2735:
2723:
2695:
2534:
2508:
2470:
2451:Sea-level curve
2422:
2361:
2347:Transform fault
2297:Mid-ocean ridge
2263:
2256:
2222:Oceanic plateau
2128:
2114:Tidal resonance
2084:Theory of tides
2025:
1934:Longshore drift
1884:Ekman transport
1820:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1800:
1752:Wave turbulence
1685:Trochoidal wave
1610:Longshore drift
1506:
1501:
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1427:
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1227:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1153:10.1038/416417a
1130:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1094:"Andesite line"
1091:
1090:
1086:
1076:
1074:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1043:
1039:
1011:
1010:
1006:
999:
986:
985:
981:
945:
944:
940:
904:
903:
899:
837:
836:
832:
825:
804:
803:
799:
790:
788:
762:
761:
757:
742:
729:
728:
717:
708:
706:
662:
661:
657:
618:(B10): B10407.
605:
604:
600:
554:
553:
549:
534:
521:
520:
516:
511:
487:
333:
321:
315:
273:
267:
254:
248:
228:
226:Back-arc region
222:
216:
214:Back-arc basins
164:
158:
141:
135:
122:
109:
100:
90:
84:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2770:
2768:
2760:
2759:
2754:
2744:
2743:
2737:
2736:
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2733:
2721:
2711:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2671:Stratification
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2563:
2561:Color of water
2558:
2556:Benthic lander
2553:
2548:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2516:
2514:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2480:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2468:
2463:
2461:Sea level rise
2458:
2456:Sea level drop
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2430:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2369:
2367:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2292:Marine geology
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2268:
2266:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2232:Passive margin
2229:
2227:Oceanic trench
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2138:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2127:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2035:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1959:Ocean dynamics
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1849:Coriolis force
1846:
1841:
1836:
1830:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1796:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1775:
1774:
1769:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1670:Stokes problem
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1605:Kinematic wave
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1516:
1514:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1492:
1485:
1477:
1458:
1457:External links
1455:
1452:
1451:
1425:
1399:
1372:(3): 377â389.
1356:
1298:
1268:
1235:Tectonophysics
1225:
1198:(4): 317â329.
1192:Tectonophysics
1182:
1123:
1116:
1084:
1049:
1047:, p. 375.
1037:
1004:
997:
979:
958:(B8): B08401.
938:
897:
830:
823:
797:
755:
740:
715:
655:
598:
547:
533:978-1133108696
532:
513:
512:
510:
507:
506:
505:
499:
493:
486:
483:
482:
481:
466:
463:Mariana Trench
451:
436:Eurasian Plate
432:
409:
394:
379:
361:
350:Eurasian Plate
332:
329:
314:
311:
285:ocean sediment
266:
263:
259:Mariana Trench
252:Oceanic trench
247:
244:
220:Back-arc basin
218:Main article:
215:
212:
157:
154:
134:
131:
121:
118:
108:
105:
86:Main article:
83:
80:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2769:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2749:
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2732:
2727:
2722:
2720:
2712:
2710:
2702:
2701:
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2679:
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2649:
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2640:
2637:
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2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2579:Marine energy
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2546:Acidification
2544:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2499:SOFAR channel
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2467:
2464:
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2399:
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2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2307:Oceanic crust
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2282:Fracture zone
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2217:Oceanic basin
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2147:Abyssal plain
2145:
2143:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2054:Internal tide
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2028:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1949:Ocean current
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1807:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1764:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1747:Wave shoaling
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1707:Ursell number
1705:
1703:
1700:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
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1668:
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1663:
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1656:
1653:
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1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
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1633:
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1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1590:Internal wave
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1540:Breaking wave
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1498:
1493:
1491:
1486:
1484:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1469:
1464:
1456:
1440:
1436:
1429:
1426:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1400:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1321:(2): Q02006.
1320:
1316:
1309:
1302:
1299:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1272:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1229:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1186:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1127:
1124:
1119:
1117:0-442-20623-2
1113:
1108:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1085:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1053:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1038:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1008:
1005:
1000:
998:9780521880060
994:
990:
983:
980:
974:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
942:
939:
934:
930:
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920:
916:
912:
908:
901:
898:
893:
889:
884:
879:
875:
871:
866:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
834:
831:
826:
824:9780128036891
820:
816:
812:
808:
801:
798:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
759:
756:
751:
747:
743:
741:9781405107778
737:
733:
726:
724:
722:
720:
716:
704:
700:
696:
691:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
659:
656:
651:
647:
642:
641:2027.42/95131
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
602:
599:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
551:
548:
543:
539:
535:
529:
525:
518:
515:
508:
503:
500:
497:
494:
492:
489:
488:
484:
479:
478:Cascade Range
475:
471:
467:
464:
460:
459:Mariana Plate
456:
455:Pacific Plate
452:
449:
445:
441:
440:African Plate
437:
433:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
413:Pacific Plate
410:
407:
403:
399:
395:
392:
388:
384:
383:Pacific Plate
380:
378:
374:
373:Southern Alps
370:
369:Pacific Plate
366:
362:
359:
355:
351:
347:
346:
342:
337:
330:
328:
326:
320:
312:
310:
308:
304:
299:
297:
292:
290:
286:
280:
278:
272:
264:
262:
260:
253:
245:
243:
241:
237:
233:
227:
221:
213:
211:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
185:
181:
176:
173:
169:
163:
155:
153:
151:
147:
140:
132:
130:
127:
119:
117:
115:
106:
104:
99:
95:
89:
81:
79:
77:
73:
69:
64:
60:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
21:
2686:Water column
2634:Oceanography
2609:Observations
2604:Explorations
2574:Marginal sea
2567:
2525:OSTM/Jason-2
2357:Volcanic arc
2332:Slab suction
2271:
2049:Head of tide
1939:Loop Current
1879:Ekman spiral
1665:Stokes drift
1575:Gravity wave
1550:Cnoidal wave
1460:
1442:. Retrieved
1439:ScienceDaily
1438:
1428:
1416:. Retrieved
1413:UNM Newsroom
1412:
1402:
1369:
1366:GSA Bulletin
1365:
1359:
1318:
1314:
1301:
1291:23 September
1289:. Retrieved
1280:
1271:
1238:
1234:
1228:
1195:
1191:
1185:
1136:
1132:
1126:
1097:
1087:
1075:. Retrieved
1066:
1062:
1052:
1040:
1024:(1): 63â75.
1021:
1017:
1007:
988:
982:
955:
951:
941:
914:
910:
900:
847:
843:
833:
806:
800:
789:. Retrieved
772:
768:
758:
731:
707:. Retrieved
675:(B6): 2291.
672:
668:
658:
615:
611:
601:
560:
556:
550:
523:
517:
476:to form the
472:beneath the
457:beneath the
415:beneath the
404:to form the
400:beneath the
354:Indian Plate
322:
300:
293:
281:
274:
255:
232:volcanic arc
229:
180:magma series
177:
165:
162:Volcanic arc
142:
123:
110:
101:
65:
61:
32:
28:
26:
2757:Lithosphere
2676:Thermocline
2393:Mesopelagic
2366:Ocean zones
2337:Slab window
2202:Hydrography
2142:Abyssal fan
2109:Tidal range
2099:Tidal power
2094:Tidal force
1979:Rip current
1914:Gulf Stream
1874:Ekman layer
1864:Downwelling
1839:Baroclinity
1826:Circulation
1722:Wave height
1712:Wave action
1695:megatsunami
1675:Stokes wave
1635:Rossby wave
1600:Kelvin wave
1580:Green's law
1077:26 November
461:formed the
442:formed the
425:New Zealand
421:Tonga Plate
398:Nazca Plate
385:and the NW
377:New Zealand
114:island arcs
68:continental
57:deformation
53:lithosphere
2746:Categories
2614:Reanalysis
2513:Satellites
2494:Sofar bomb
2342:Subduction
2317:Ridge push
2212:Ocean bank
2192:Contourite
2119:Tide gauge
2104:Tidal race
2089:Tidal bore
2079:Slack tide
2044:Earth tide
1964:Ocean gyre
1784:Wind setup
1779:Wind fetch
1742:Wave setup
1737:Wave radar
1732:Wave power
1630:Rogue wave
1560:Dispersion
1468:Subduction
791:2018-12-06
709:2019-09-01
509:References
429:New Guinea
317:See also:
271:Earthquake
269:See also:
250:See also:
224:See also:
203:shoshonite
160:See also:
137:See also:
92:See also:
88:Subduction
49:orogenesis
41:subduction
2476:Acoustics
2428:Sea level
2327:Slab pull
2264:tectonics
2172:Cold seep
2134:Landforms
2011:Whirlpool
2006:Upwelling
1789:Wind wave
1717:Wave base
1645:Sea state
1565:Edge wave
1555:Cross sea
1394:0016-7606
1351:128854343
1343:1525-2027
1263:0040-1951
1220:0040-1951
1161:1476-4687
1098:Petrology
917:: 36â46.
874:0027-8424
781:1052-5173
769:GSA Today
750:132681514
699:2156-2202
650:2156-2202
585:1095-9203
542:795757302
502:Obduction
358:Himalayas
191:potassium
168:amphibole
2709:Category
2661:Seawater
2388:Littoral
2383:Deep sea
2242:Seamount
2124:Tideline
2069:Rip tide
1999:shutdown
1969:Overflow
1702:Undertow
1545:Clapotis
1285:Archived
1169:11919628
1071:Archived
933:56219404
892:11038569
785:Archived
703:Archived
593:10856206
485:See also
438:and the
367:and the
352:and the
331:Examples
207:andesite
150:Caucasus
2719:Commons
2589:Mooring
2539:Related
2530:Jason-3
2520:Jason-1
2403:Pelagic
2398:Oceanic
2373:Benthic
1690:Tsunami
1660:Soliton
1374:Bibcode
1323:Bibcode
1243:Bibcode
1200:Bibcode
1177:4341911
1141:Bibcode
960:Bibcode
911:GeoResJ
852:Bibcode
677:Bibcode
620:Bibcode
565:Bibcode
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