South Kasai - Knowledge

2513:" title was chosen in order to re-enforce the impression that the secession was not a rejection of Congolese sovereignty, but the creation of a federally-governed region of the Congo. The secession had some support among journalists, intellectuals and politicians in Léopoldville, with one newspaper calling it "a model by which the many new states now mushrooming in the Congo might form a new federation". In practice South Kasai had considerably more independence than a regular province and, by mandating its own federated powers unilaterally, was effectively seceding from the Congo. It also did not forward any taxes to the central government and locals—drawing a comparison to the secessionist state to the south—sometimes referred to it as "Little Katanga". MNC-K deputies also initially refused to sit in the Congolese Parliament in Léopoldville. 352: 327: 2887:. It was believed that, with Lumumba dead, it might be possible to create a federal constitution that could reconcile the three parties. The agreements instead led to more uncertainty. The ousting of Ngalula—the chief organiser of the South Kasai state—in July hastened internal collapse. He established his own political party, the Democratic Union, to oppose the Kalonjists. Later that month Parliament reconvened with Kalonji and the other South Kasain deputies in attendance. A new Congolese central government was formed on 2 August with Ngalula as Minister of Education, and Kalonji went back to South Kasai. In late October 1961 Kalonji and several Lulua leaders made a symbolic union in an attempt to end the Luba-Lulua tribal conflict. 2864:

campaign against Katangese forces continued. A UN-sponsored ceasefire in September 1960 gave pause to the Luba-Lulua conflict, but by November Kalonji's forces had broken the truce. Throughout much of the period, the South Kasaian gendarmerie fought with Kanyok and Lulua militias across the region while local ethnic violence persisted. In January 1961 Kasa-Vubu flew to Bakwanga to meet with Kalonji. The trip began acrimoniously as Kasa-Vubu refused to recognise the South Kasaian honour guard present at the airport and ride in the provided limousine, which was flying the South Kasian flag. Kalonji eventually removed the flag and the two reconciled.

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that they would integrated into the ANC at their current rank and pay. Kalonji and General Dinanga were placed under house arrest, while the other South Kasaian ministers were imprisoned in a single home. Kalonji and Dinanga escaped a few days later; the former took a lorry to Katanga. Kankolongo reacted by immediately flying out the remaining ministers to Léopoldville. On 5 October 1962, central government troops again arrived in Bakwanga to support the mutineers and help suppress the last Kalonjist loyalists, marking the end of the secession. Kalonji took up residence in

5798: 3075: 84: 5786: 2744:(ANC) were already fighting Katangese troops in the Kasai region. South Kasai held important railway junctions needed by the Congolese army for its campaign in Katanga, and therefore soon became an important objective. South Kasai also had important mineral wealth which the central government was anxious to return to the Congo. The central government also misunderstood the South Kasaian position, believing that, like Katanga, the region had declared full independence from the Congo and rejected Congolese sovereignty. 1834:(Lulua Brothers) was established to campaign for socio-economic advancement of the Lulua group and became an unofficial representative of the Bena Lulua. In 1959, Luba-Lulua animosity was brought to a head by the discovery of a colonial proposal to move Luba farmers out of Lulua land to the less fertile land on Luba territory. As a result, hostility increased and violent clashes broke out. In August 1959, Luba demonstrations against the plan which were violently repressed by the colonial military and police. 2074: 2534:

support the South Kasaian army. Governance of South Kasai was complicated by the dynamic Luba politics in which it was embedded. Tensions rose between Kalonji and Ngalula, who had different ideas for how the state was to be run; Kalonji wanted the government to be based in tradition and relied on customary chiefs, while Ngalula preferred a democratic system and worked with the intellectual elite. South Kasai had five different governments in the first few months of its existence.

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as an elected deputy, criticised the proposed cabinet, expressing dissatisfaction that his party had not been consulted in its formation and declaring that he was proud not to be included in an "anti-Baluba" and "anti-Batshoke" government which had shown contempt for the wishes of Kasai's people. He also stated his intentions to encourage the Baluba and Batshoke to refrain from participating in the government and to take his own steps to form a sovereign state centered in

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rejecting earlier proposals for Luba repatriations to the province in January 1960, the Kalonjists made an official call to the Baluba across the Congo to return to their Kasaian "homeland" on 16 July. Initially, the Kalonjists envisaged the division of Kasai Province in two in order to allow for the creation of a quasi-autonomous MNC-K and Luba-dominated provincial government. The proposed province was termed the Federated State of South Kasai (

57: 2553:), declaring the state itself both "sovereign and democratic" but also part of a hypothetical "Federal Republic of the Congo". The constitution also provided for a bicameral legislature, with a lower chamber composed of all national deputies, senators, and provincial assemblymen elected in constituencies within South Kasai's territory, and an upper chamber filled by traditional chiefs. A judicial system was organised, with 2019:, which, although it represented the Baluba of Katanga Province, was in favour of centralism. The Kalonjists, who believed themselves to be acting on behalf of all the Luba-Kasai, created an animosity between the Luba-Kasai and the Luba-Katanga but also failed to gain the full support of CONAKAT, much of which had racial prejudice against the Baluba and supported only the "authentic Katangese". 2629:, was the state's principal supporter and received concessions from South Kasai in exchange for financial support. After the secession, South Kasai's diamonds were rerouted through Congo-Brazzaville for export to international markets. The comparatively large income from the mining companies meant that South Kasai was able to support significant public services and cope with large numbers of 2896: 2484: 1947: 2605: 3035:. Once established as the sole source of political power, Mobutu gradually consolidated his control in the Congo. The number of provinces was reduced, and their autonomy curtailed, resulting in a highly centralised state. Mobutu increasingly placed his supporters in the remaining positions of importance. In 1967, to illustrate his legitimacy, he created a party, the 3019:

until 1963 when they also accepted integration into the ANC. Soon after the end of the secession, the city of Bakwanga was renamed Mbuji-Mayi after the local river in an attempt to signify a Luba intra-ethnicity reconciliation. Regardless, violence among Luba factions lasted through 1964, and a political solution was not reached until 1965 with the election of

2699:("homeland"), Kalonji was able to closely tie himself and the South Kasaian state to the Luba Empire to increase its legitimacy in the eyes of the Baluba. In order to avoid accusations of impropriety, the title was bestowed on Kalonji's father on 12 April 1961, who then immediately abdicated in favour of his son. With the accession of Kalonji to the title of 2931:'s new aggressive stance against secession following Hammarskjöld's death. In Léopoldville, Kalonji was sentenced to five years' imprisonment. On 7 September, however, Kalonji escaped from prison and returned to South Kasai where he hoped to regain an official position in local elections and, at the head of a government, regain his immunity. 1784:. On many occasions, the interests of the government and private enterprise became closely tied and the state helped companies break strikes and remove other barriers imposed by the indigenous population. The country was split into hierarchically-organised administrative subdivisions, and run uniformly according to a set "native policy" ( 1627:. As sectarian violence broke out across the country, the state declared its secession from the Congo on 9 August 1960 and its government and called for the Baluba living in the rest of the Congo to return to their "homeland". Kalonji was appointed president. Although the South Kasaian government claimed to form an autonomous part of a 2549:

employment. Social services were "relatively well-run". State revenue was estimated to total $ 30,000,000 annually. The state produced three constitutions, with the first being promulgated in November 1960 and the last on 12 July 1961. The July constitution transformed the state into the Federated State of South Kasai (

1757:, was annexed into the new state in 1889. By the turn of the century, the violence of Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction had led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country, which it did in 1908, creating the 2596:. Non-Luba groups were increasingly marginalised. Political opponents were killed or driven into exile, including Ngalula, who had a falling out with Kalonji in July 1961. Non-Luba groups in the region, especially the Kanyok, fought a constant but low-level insurgency against the South Kasaian government. 2947:

On the night of 29–30 September 1962, military commanders in South Kasai, led by Kankolongo, launched a coup d'état in Bakwanga against the Kalonjist regime. An appeal was broadcast over Radio Bakwanga to all officers of the South Kasaian gendarmerie to support the central government with the promise

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to the Congo in July 1960, would help the central government suppress both Katangese and South Kasaian secessions. The UN was reluctant to do so, however, considering the secessions to be internal political matters and its own mission to be maintaining basic law and order. Rejected by both the UN and

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Though there has been little study of the ANC atrocities in South Kasai, no information has ever been presented to corroborate the notion that Lumumba or other officials intended to eliminate certain populations and the use of the term "genocide" was primarily a rhetorical device meant to damage his

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The Republic of the Congo received independence on 30 June 1960 with Kasa-Vubu as president and Lumumba as prime minister. The Chamber of the Léopoldville Parliament had convened one week prior to review Lumumba's cabinet and give it a vote of confidence. During the session, Kalonji, in his capacity

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During the 1950s when the Belgians began to fear that the rise of a powerful Luba elite would become a threat to colonial rule, the administration began to support Lulua organisations. This further contributed to the growing ethnic polarisation between the two groups. In 1952, an organisation called

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The majority of the South Kasaian soldiers were integrated into the ANC after the dissolution of the state but nearly 2,000 loyalists went into hiding to await Kalonji's possible restoration. The rebels were led by General Mwanzambala and fought a guerrilla war against the new provincial government

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from whom state power originated. Tribal leaders from Luba and other ethnic groups enjoyed a close, client-like relationship with Kalonji himself and received preferential treatment in exchange for services rendered. In particular, Kalonji was reliant on tribal leaders to mobilise paramilitaries to

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Kalonji went to great lengths to secure international recognition and support for the state of South Kasai. The former colonial power, Belgium, distrusted the Congolese central government and supported both the governments of South Kasai and Katanga. Like Katanga, South Kasai had important mineral

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Kalonji was declared president and Joseph Ngalula prime minister. Although the Luba-Kasai had never lived in a single state before, Kalonji was able to gain the broad support of the Luba chiefs for the secession. He was able to portray the secession internationally as the result of the persecution

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split away in July 1959, but failed to induce mass defections by other MNC members. The dissident faction became known as the MNC-Kalonji (MNC-K), while the majority group became the MNC-Lumumba (MNC-L). The split divided the party's support base into those who endured with Lumumba, chiefly in the

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area to be ethnically different from the Baluba and dubbed them the Bena Lulua. The colonists believed the Baluba to be more intelligent, hardworking and open to new ideas than the Bena Lulua who were believed to be more reactionary and stupid. As a result, from the 1930s, the state began to treat

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from the office of prime minister in late 1960 and Lumumba's later arrest and assassination. As a result, South Kasai remained on relatively good terms with the new Congolese government from 1961. Its leaders, including Kalonji himself, served in both the South Kasaian government and the Congolese

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estimated that his company paid approximately $ 12,000,000 in taxes annually to the South Kasaian government. Other Belgians estimated that the regime, in taking half of the diamond mines' profits, extracted BEF 350,000,000 ($ 7,000,000) per year and an additional BEF 235,000,000 ($ 4,700,000) in

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The issues of federalism, ethnicity in politics, and state centralisation were not resolved by the crisis and partly contributed to a decline in support for the concept of the state among Congolese people. Mobutu was strongly in favour of centralisation and one of his first acts, in 1965, were to

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sent one million small pox vaccines to South Kasai to alleviate the problem. The epidemic had been preceded by widespread famine which by December was killing an estimated 200 people daily. The UN appealed to its member states for relief, and by late January government and private aid had reduced

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Despite the occupation of South Kasai, the South Kasaian state was not dismantled and co-existed with the rest of the Congo. Congolese delegates, as well as ANC and UN troops were generally able to move around the territory without conflict with the South Kasaian authorities while their sporadic

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grew from just 250 members at its inception to nearly 3,000 by 1961. It was led by 22-year-old "General" Floribert Dinanga with the assistance of nine European officers. In 1961, the military led a campaign to expand the size of the state's territory at the expense of neighbouring ethnic groups.

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The Kalonjists, who felt rejected and marginalised by the central government, began supporting alternative parties. Among them, the Kalonjists supported Tshombe's CONAKAT party in nearby Katanga which, because of its strongly federalist stance, opposed to Lumumba's conception of a strong central

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In October 1962, South Kasai returned to the Republic of the Congo. The State of Katanga continued to hold out against the central government until it too collapsed in January 1963 after UN forces began to take a more aggressive stance under Thant. As a compromise, South Kasai was one of the 21

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who had recently deployed a large peacekeeping force to the Congo, referred to the massacres as "a case of incipient genocide". The Baluba were also attacked by the Katangese from the south. In the ensuring massacres, in which ANC or Katangese troops often participated, around 3,000 Baluba were

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During the course of the offensive, the ANC became involved in ethnic violence between the Baluba and Bena Lulua. When government troops arrived in Bakwanga, they released Lulua detainees from prison and began requisitioning civilian vehicles. When David Odia, the South Kasai Minister of Public

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In the aftermath of independence, ethnic tensions flared up across the country, much of it directed against the Baluba, and a number of violent clashes occurred. On 3 July the central government ordered the arrest of the rival MNC-K Kasai government, precipitating unrest in Luluabourg. Despite

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Allegations of genocide and brutality by the ANC were used to provide legitimacy to Kasa-Vubu's dismissal of Lumumba, with the support of Mobutu, in September 1960. In the aftermath of the campaign, the South Kasaian state was able to provide substantial aid to its refugees, many of whom were

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and eventually developed into a number of ethnic subgroups, notably the Luba-Kasai and the Luba-Katanga. Although never united into a single centralised state, the groups retained a degree of emotional attachment based around shared origin myths and cultural practices. Other groups, like the

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The immediate internal problems faced by South Kasai were large number of unsettled Luba refugees and internal dissent from non-Luba minorities. The state was able to direct money from diamond exporting and foreign support to fund public services which allowed Luba refugees to be settled in

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As dissatisfaction with the secession grew, Ngalula and other South Kasaian émigrés in Léopoldville plotted to overthrow the regime in Bakwanga. In September 1962, the Léopoldville government appointed Albert Kankolongo, a former minister in Kalonji's government, as Special Commissioner

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Before the start of the colonial period, the region of South Kasai formed part of the Luba Empire, a federation of local kingdoms with a degree of cultural uniformity. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Baluba spread across large parts of the Kasai-Katanga savannah along the

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and the failure of the Congolese government to sufficiently protect the Baluba in the rest of the Congo. South Kasai's borders frequently changed, never stabilizing during its brief existence. The state's capital was Bakwanga. In 1962 its population was estimated at 2,000,000.

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On 9 March 1962, the recently re-convened Léopoldville Parliament, under Prime Minister Cyrille Adoula, agreed to modify the Constitution and gave South Kasai official provincial status. In April 1962, UN troops were ordered to occupy South Kasai as part of Secretary-General

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who saw his elevation as flagrant opportunism. Soon after his elevation, Kalonji was publicly condemned and disavowed by 10 of South Kasai's 13 representatives in the Léopoldville Parliament, beginning the disintegration of the secessionist state.

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Works, protested, soldiers beat him and fatally injured him. Many Baluba first fled in terror, but then began resisting with home-made shotguns. As a result, the ANC perpetrated a number of large massacres of Luba civilians. In September,

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resettled in homes and jobs. Nevertheless, the invasion caused considerable disruption to the local economy; by December the number of diamonds cut by Forminière and the number of people it employed both had fallen by thousands.

1898:. Lumumba became a leading figure and by the end of 1959, the party claimed to have 58,000 members. However, many found the MNC was too moderate. A number of other parties emerged, distinguished by their radicalism, support for 2998:

of 1964. As the Mobutu regime launched a centralist restructuring of the Congolese state from 1965, South Kasai was one of the few provinces which were retained. The province was later restructured to include new territory in

2695:(usually translated as "King" or "Emperor"), was extremely symbolic because it was the title employed by the rulers of the pre-colonial Luba Empire and had been disused since the 1880s. By taking it, along with the extra name 2541: 7467: 2467:). Rapidly, however, Kalonji realised that the chaos in the rest of the Congo could be used to secede unilaterally and declare full local independence. This decision was further re-enforced by the full secession of the 5589:

Halberstam, David (19 February 1962a). "Rich Diamond Mines at Stake In Congo-South Kasai Struggle : Secession Continues Despite Arrest of State's Leader by Central Regime– Negotiations on Status in Progress".

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a place in his cabinet. Ngalula rejected the offer and on 14 June the MNC-K resolved to establish an alternative government under his leadership. Kalonji did not recognise this government as having any authority.

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Although it was the largest of the African nationalist parties, the MNC had many different factions within it that took differing stances on a number of issues. It was increasingly polarised between moderate

83: 2793:. Within days of the secession and with Soviet logistical support, 2,000 ANC troops launched a major offensive against South Kasai. The attack was successful. On 27 August, ANC soldiers arrived in Bakwanga. 7505: 7353: 1683:

assumed power as acting head of state. UN and Congolese troops occupied South Kasai. In September 1962, shortly after his escape from prison and return to South Kasai, Kalonji was ousted by a military

1299: 1741:. The Belgian government's ambivalence about the idea led Leopold to eventually create the colony on his own account. With support from a number of Western countries, who viewed Leopold as a useful 2505:

Unlike Katanga, however, South Kasai's secession did not explicitly mean the rejection of its position within the Republic of the Congo. Rather, it resembled the self-declared local governments in

2475:), led by Tshombe, on 11 July 1960. Kalonji visited Katanga at the start of August 1960, shortly after its secession, where, on the 8 August, he declared that Kasai "must be divided at all costs." 3242:) was deliberately ambiguous, allowing Kalonji to avoid specifying whether the South Kasai claimed to independence as a nation-state in imitation of Katanga, or as a province within the Congo. 8019: 7498: 3201: 2714:

was heavily criticised even by many Luba in South Kasai. The move was also mocked in Western media. Kalonji remained popular among some groups, but lost the support of the South Kasaian

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reunify provinces and abolish much of their independent legislative capacity. Subsequent loss of faith in central government is one of the reasons that the Congo has been labeled as a

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and he was taken into custody by the ANC in Léopoldville. A delegation of around 400 Luba tribal elders sent to Léopoldville to protest were also briefly arrested. Mobutu and General

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against it. The resulting campaign, planned to be the first act of a larger action against Katanga, was accompanied by widespread massacres of Baluba and a refugee crisis termed a

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killed. The violence of the advance caused an exodus of many thousands of Luba civilians who fled their homes to escape the fighting; more than 35,000 went to refugee camps in

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Congo-wide state, it exercised a degree of regional autonomy and even produced its own constitution and postage stamps. The state, supported by foreign powers, particularly

5750: 2944:) for South Kasai, giving him full military and civil power, to dismantle the local state. Ngalula approached Kankolongo to lead a mutiny and coup d'état against Kalonji. 1361: 490: 7521: 1876:). The movement was divided into a number of parties and groups which were broadly divided on ethnic and geographical lines and opposed to one another. The largest, the 5002: 2665:. The South African government refused to furnish military equipment but informed the delegation that they could purchase hardware offered on the South African market. 2048: 5364: 1028: 5548: 4980: 7285: 7066: 6152: 6145: 6138: 5830: 3088: 815: 2687:

Because of the importance of the Luba ethnicity to South Kasai, Kalonji used his support from the traditional Luba tribal authorities to have himself declared

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region in the north-east, and those who backed the MNC-K, popular in the south and among Kalonji's own ethnic group, the Baluba. The MNC-K later formed a

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One of the major legacies of colonial rule in Kasai was the arbitrary redivision of the population into new ethnic groups. Despite the shared language (

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interests. The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of capital flowed into the Congo and that individual regions became

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Some Kalonji detractors noted that the Luba Empire was historically centered in Katanga, not Kasai, and that the Kasai Baluba had never been led by a

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exports, managed numerous crises, including those caused by the large emigration of Luba refugees, but became increasingly militarist and repressive.

1143: 1598:. Unlike Katanga, however, South Kasai did not explicitly declare full independence from the Republic of the Congo or reject Congolese sovereignty. 951: 6725: 1690:

The end of South Kasai's secession is usually held to be either December 1961, the date of Kalonji's arrest, or October 1962 with the anti-Kalonji

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organisation dedicated to achieving independence "within a reasonable" time. It was created around a charter which was signed by, among others,

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by some contemporaries. The state was rapidly overrun by Congolese troops. The violence in the suppression of Kasai provided much legitimacy to

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After the coup d'état which removed Lumumba from power, Kalonji tried to cultivate good relations with the Congolese government. General

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mortality by 75 percent. Further assistance in the form of an emergency food airlift, additional medical personnel, and seeds from the

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On 9 August 1960, Kalonji, still in Katanga, declared the region of south-eastern Kasai to be the new Mining State of South Kasai (

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Despite receiving some support from Belgium, the gendarmerie was poorly equipped and constantly low on supplies and ammunition.

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the two groups differently and applied different policies to each and promoted the Baluba to positions above other ethnicities.

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ensured that the famine was almost entirely resolved by March 1961. UN relief workers were withdrawn following the April 1961

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along the lines suggested by Kalonji. The motion, which would have required the modification of the Congo's new constitution (

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to attempt to broker a peaceful reconciliation between the secessionist factions and the central government in the face of a

2672:, in particular, was able to use South Kasai for the execution of his political opponents and dissident Lumumbists including 2173: 1511: 1309: 1225: 1019: 639: 6452: 3194:'s rule in the Congo (1965–97), large numbers of place names created during the colonial period were changed as part of his 2985: 763: 7923: 7691: 6840: 2740: 2506: 2119: 2099: 451: 68: 5399: 7842: 7230: 7085: 6914: 6872: 6707: 6483: 5816: 3020: 2630: 2317: 2265: 1878: 1611: 1544: 1383: 1138: 1111: 1004: 820: 783: 671: 511: 7195: 6117: 5073: 4693: 2637:, Kalonji was supported by Western powers and moderates in the Congolese government who viewed him as both a moderate 989: 832: 717: 7097: 842: 1984:

The 1960 elections degenerated into an "anti-Baluba plebiscite" in Kasai as the Luba MNC-K succeeded in obtaining a

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Soon after its secession, South Kasaian and Congolese troops clashed after the Congolese central government ordered

7930: 6897: 6518: 5776: 5294: 4716: 2880: 2570: 2459:), was received by a legislature divided between Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu factions and no agreement could be reached. 2452: 2337: 1582:) which was semi-independent between 1960 and 1962. Initially proposed as only a province, South Kasai sought full 1408: 1208: 1153: 879: 795: 536: 2290: 7828: 7772: 7235: 6364: 5245: 2827: 1726: 1203: 1121: 1009: 758: 6427: 6332: 5410: 2826:, were widespread and reached "epidemic proportions" among Luba refugees between October and December 1960. The 7821: 7383: 6732: 6385: 4928: 3094: 2422: 2275: 1977: 1319: 1178: 145: 56: 7980: 7958: 6413: 6406: 6208: 5862: 2557:, magistrates' courts, and a court of appeal. The state had its own flag and coat of arms, published its own 7540: 7457: 7373: 7225: 6890: 6509: 6233: 5966: 5055: 4862: 3196: 3044: 2995: 2989:

1963 stamp celebrating the "reconciliation" of South Kasai and Katanga with the Congolese central government

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since they appear to be directed towards the extermination of a specific ethnic group, the Balubas [

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The Management of Secondary Cities in Sub-Saharan Africa: Traditional and Modern Institutional Arrangements

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fields, and Belgian companies had large sums of money tied up in mines in the area. A Belgian company,

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Map showing the situation in the Congo in 1961 with the territory split between four opposing factions

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but failed to take control of the provincial government. Instead, Lumumba promoted a Lulua candidate,

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to create a Luba-focused state in the group's traditional heartland in the south-eastern parts of the

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between rival colonial powers, Leopold achieved international recognition for a personal colony, the

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In the period shortly after its formation, South Kasai's official title remained unclear. Beside

2673: 2372: 2168: 2129: 1993: 1985: 1907: 1277: 1245: 1131: 910: 904: 894: 889: 456: 5904: 2810:(the capital of Katanga) alone. As many as 100,000 sought refuge in Bakwanga. Diseases, notably 1707: 1679:. In December 1961, Kalonji was arrested on a legal pretext in Léopoldville and imprisoned, and 3031:

In 1965, Mobutu launched a second coup d'état against the central government and took personal

2537: 1842: 17: 7944: 7677: 7575: 7565: 7438: 7311: 7188: 7041: 7034: 7019: 5876: 5686: 5664: 5644: 5391: 5319: 5298: 5286: 5272: 5249: 5221: 5198: 5175: 5150: 5129: 5106: 5085: 5059: 5036: 5032: 5011: 4965: 4940: 4914: 4895: 4866: 4843: 4824: 4805: 4784: 4757: 4720: 4697: 3099: 2953: 2904: 2876: 2178: 1792:

whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight.

1684: 1198: 1096: 984: 778: 768: 710: 687: 5488: 5122:

Decolonisation and Regional Geopolitics : South Africa and the 'Congo Crisis', 1960–1965

4528: 4526: 1615:

or MNC-K) before decolonisation, exploited ethnic tensions between his own ethnic group, the

7937: 7712: 7698: 7605: 7570: 7479: 7297: 7118: 7107: 7092: 6946: 6936: 6880: 6792: 6564: 6550: 6495: 6279: 6247: 5946: 5918: 5897: 5726: 5422: 5381: 4773: 4743: 3191: 3032: 3004: 3000: 2965: 2920: 2856: 2669: 2662: 2593: 2558: 2468: 2451:

On 26 June, MNC-K officials petitioned the Léopoldville Parliament to peacefully divide the

2322: 2195: 1935: 1925: 1917: 1746: 1715: 1680: 1651: 1587: 1442: 1432: 1391: 1287: 1240: 1235: 1220: 1101: 873: 858: 837: 790: 570: 560: 519: 434: 89: 7891: 7600: 7252: 7131: 7051: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6909: 6830: 6700: 6664: 6621: 6614: 6607: 6420: 5998: 5911: 5754: 5610:

Garrison, Lloyd (9 September 1962b). "Kalonji, 'King' of South Kasai, Out of Congo Jail".

5315: 4892: 3150: 2969: 2884: 2676:. Such activity led the secessionist state to be nicknamed "the national butcher's yard". 2574: 2367: 2220: 2190: 1962:

and the more radical mass membership. A radical and federalist faction headed by Ileo and

1887: 1846: 1672: 1655: 1560: 1539: 1518: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1148: 1091: 1086: 999: 979: 921: 916: 753: 732: 666: 646: 613: 608: 603: 298: 129: 7555: 5569:

Hofmann, Paul (3 November 1960). "'Civil War' in South Kasai Reported by U.N. in Congo".

5078:

The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912

2009:. As part of this, the Kalonjists supported CONAKAT against their main local rivals, the 1992:, as provincial president while Kalonji was denied an important ministerial portfolio in 1821:) and culture of the two groups, colonial administrators believed the inhabitants of the 5436:"La décolonisation du droit et de l'organisation judiciaire dans la République du Congo" 2588:

As government authority in South Kasai was consolidated, the regime became increasingly

7814: 7595: 7560: 7535: 7348: 7177: 7125: 6967: 6820: 6591: 6378: 6357: 5890: 5869: 5855: 5678: 5386: 5239: 3252: 3063:, and has contributed violence by factions advocating ethnic and localised federalism. 3008: 2916: 2777: 2487: 2417: 2357: 2235: 2230: 2210: 2158: 1997: 1963: 1950: 1895: 1891: 1859: 1663:

troops were able to move through the territory without conflict with the South Kasaian

1660: 1602: 1463: 1294: 1215: 994: 968: 591: 177: 5028:

Katanga 1960–63: Mercenaries, Spies and the African Nation that Waged War on the World

3846: 3844: 2851: 8013: 7951: 7765: 7585: 7319: 7272: 7215: 6931: 6804: 6543: 6325: 5925: 5790: 5656: 5268: 4933: 3318: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3308: 2786: 2642: 2638: 2624: 2566: 2347: 2205: 2094: 2026: 1807: 1789: 1758: 1659:

parliament. South Kasai continued to exercise quasi-independence while Congolese and

1591: 1427: 1183: 1116: 1073: 555: 446: 5526: 1788:) – in contrast to the British and the French, who generally favoured the system of 7863: 7800: 7793: 6862: 6445: 6392: 6318: 6272: 5839: 5531: 4880: 3140:. The state's name changed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo in August 1964. 3133: 3060: 2872: 2790: 2750: 2305: 2200: 2016: 1921: 1883: 1773: 1754: 1742: 1624: 1620: 1595: 1371: 500: 257: 204: 191: 5527:"Congo-Kinshasa: Le 8 août 1960, Albert Kalonji proclame l'autonomie du Sud-Kasaï" 2952:

and attempted to meet Tshombe, but was rebuffed by Katangese Minister of Interior

2911:

against a political prisoner in South Kasai. Parliament voted to remove Kalonji's

2398: 1868: 1590:, to its south, during the political turmoil arising from the independence of the 5469: 5165: 5144: 5100: 5026: 4955: 4856: 4799: 4747: 4687: 2839:

due to security concerns, though food aid continued to be brought to the border.

1849:

split with Kalonji in 1959 and denied his supporters roles in central government.

7625: 7550: 6459: 6240: 5619: 5599: 5578: 5549:"The stamps of short-lived South Kasai, spreadsheet stamp images: Inside Linn's" 5508:. Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa (EISA). Archived from 4775:

The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800

3165: 3137: 2895: 2811: 2581: 2411: 1873: 1822: 1802: 1750: 1738: 1711: 1664: 1616: 5146:

Legal problems arising from the United Nations military operations in the Congo

2703:

on 16 July, the state's title changed to the Federated Kingdom of South Kasai (

7870: 7779: 7747: 7733: 7645: 7640: 7630: 6350: 4713:

Peace Enforcement: The United Nations Experience in Congo, Somalia, and Bosnia

3360: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3070: 2807: 2589: 2445: 2225: 1899: 1769: 1628: 153: 111: 7995: 7982: 5748:

Congo-Zaïre : l'empire du crime permanent : le massacre de Bakwanga

3051:, corruption, and economic mismanagement. Dissatisfaction with the regime in 7684: 5731: 5714: 5648: 5194: 5125: 2961: 2573:. Unlike Katanga, South Kasai maintained no diplomatic missions abroad. The 2530: 2483: 2011: 1968: 1946: 1571: 5808: 5395: 2604: 5426: 5302: 4847: 88:

Map of the Congo in 1961 with South Kasai highlighted in red, bordered by

7719: 7580: 7029: 5421:(30). Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques: 1–24. 1961. 5171: 3048: 2903:

On 2 December 1961, Kalonji was accused by another deputy, the communist

2868: 2819: 2754: 2634: 2006: 1676: 1671:("King of the Baluba") to tie the state more closely to the pre-colonial 1647: 705: 149: 138: 377: 7877: 7849: 7726: 7660: 7635: 7620: 7615: 7474: 7024: 5939: 2928: 2815: 2618: 2609: 1930: 1734: 1636: 1632: 926: 700: 122: 3128:

Not to be confused with the neighbouring state currently known as the

7807: 7655: 7590: 3154: 3104: 2949: 2823: 2525:

Once established in power, Kalonji positioned himself personally as "

1972: 1866:

developed in the Belgian Congo during the 1950s, primarily among the

5265:

White Malice : The CIA and the Covert Recolonization of Africa

4736:

Hammarskjöld's approach to the United Nations and international law

2612:

from South Kasai; diamond exporting was a major asset to the state.

1764:

Belgian rule in the Congo was based around the "colonial trinity" (

4981:"Chronology of the Democratic Republic of Congo/Zaire (1960-1997)" 4821:

The Tragic State of the Congo: From Decolonization to Dictatorship

3900: 3898: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3819: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3631: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3465: 3463: 3426: 3424: 3213:

The Batshoke were an ethnic group that was allied with the Baluba.

3040: 2984: 2957: 2894: 2850: 2603: 2536: 2482: 1945: 1912: 1841: 1706: 1687:

which forced him into exile and brought the secession to an end.

7061: 810: 7494: 6748: 5812: 3251:

South Kasai issued a total of 28 unique postage stamps and one

3181:

Some sources instead date the state's proclamation to 8 August.

2385: 2302: 2248: 2142: 2081: 2030: 1343: 1339: 1259: 1045: 940: 855: 729: 684: 472: 381: 2759: 1953:

broke with Lumumba and later led the secession of South Kasai.

4686:

Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Gates, Henry Louis, eds. (2012).

5683:

Congo 1960, la sécession du Sud-Kasaï: La vérité du Mulopwe

5481:"Que sont-ils devenus?: Albert Kalonji-Ditunga dit Mulopwe" 4885:

The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo

4738:. Documentos. Chile: Instituto de estudios internacionales. 5010:(in French). Tervuren: Musée royal de l’Afrique centrale. 4840:

The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961

4749:

A Continent for the Taking: The Tragedy and Hope of Africa

3589: 3202:

former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

2645:. Although both Katanga and South Kasai were supported by 4648: 4646: 4597: 4595: 4543: 4541: 4513: 4511: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3682: 3680: 1586:

in similar circumstances to the much larger neighbouring

5641:

Chimères Baluba: Le Sud-Kasaï, 1960–1962 à feu et à sang

4366: 4364: 4336: 4334: 4332: 4181: 4179: 4177: 4083: 4081: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3727: 3725: 5004:

Kasaï-Oriental: Un nœud gordien dans l'espace congolais

4220: 4218: 4152: 4150: 4098: 4096: 3773: 3771: 3091:— popular idiom referring to South Kasai's constitution 1934:(CONAKAT), a strongly federalist party in the southern 5365:"An Epidemic of Kwashiorkor in the South Kasai, Congo" 5291:

Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence

4137: 4135: 2923:

assumed power as acting head of state of South Kasai.

5774: 4935:

The Congo, From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History

3928: 2789:, Lumumba sought military support from the communist 2738:

When South Kasai seceded, government troops from the

2544:

overprinted onto earlier issues of the Belgian Congo.

5700:

Keller, Edmond J. (2007). "Secessionism in Africa".

3160:

is added to a human noun to form a plural. As such,

1981:(PSA) to call for a united, but federalised, Congo. 7915: 7757: 7669: 7528: 7419: 7396: 7341: 7310: 7261: 7214: 7176: 7169: 7106: 7050: 7007: 6861: 6813: 6717: 6685: 6473: 6437: 6342: 6296: 6264: 6225: 6218: 6086: 6068: 6008: 5976: 5956: 5847: 3850: 3322: 2657:, neither state ever received any form of official 366: 294: 280: 271: 254: 244: 234: 224: 214: 201: 187: 171: 159: 117: 107: 97: 34: 8020:Separatism in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 4932: 4772: 4320: 2749:" involve a most flagrant violation of elementary 1931:Confédération des Associations Tribales du Katanga 7522:Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo 7463:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations 4559: 5241:Patrimonialism and Political Change in the Congo 4911:Africa since Independence: A Comparative History 4858:Growing to One World: The Life of J. King Gordon 4418: 4126: 4036: 3904: 3865: 3835: 3804: 3635: 3604: 3577: 3469: 3454: 3442: 3430: 4586: 4114: 3230:, it is sometimes termed Province of the Luba ( 2747: 1814:, also had long histories in the Kasai region. 4357:. Associated Press. 3 January 1961. p. 6. 3671: 1667:. In April 1961, Kalonji took the royal title 8050:States and territories disestablished in 1962 7506: 6760: 5824: 3089:Article 15 (Democratic Republic of the Congo) 2753:and have the characteristics of the crime of 2042: 1355: 1057: 952: 484: 393: 8: 5770:Association Kasayienne d'Entre-aide Mutuelle 5099:Pandey, Gyanendra; Geschiere, Peter (2003). 3364: 2934: 2622: 2490:was appointed Prime Minister of South Kasai. 1601:The South Kasaian leader and main advocate, 5719:Electronic Journal of Africana Bibliography 5218:United Nations Centre for Human Settlements 5191:The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth, and Reality 1920:, a more radical party supported among the 1838:Nationalist movement and Congolese politics 8035:States and territories established in 1960 7513: 7499: 7491: 7338: 7307: 7258: 7211: 7173: 6767: 6753: 6745: 6222: 5831: 5817: 5809: 4260: 4048: 3200:campaign. For the modern equivalents, see 2382: 2299: 2245: 2139: 2078: 2049: 2035: 2027: 2012:Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga 1362: 1348: 1340: 1256: 1064: 1050: 1042: 959: 945: 937: 852: 726: 681: 491: 477: 469: 400: 386: 378: 82: 31: 5730: 5465:. Léopoldville. 17 June 1960. p. I1. 5385: 5373:Bulletin of the World Health Organization 4296: 5999:Armée Populaire de Libération ("Simbas") 4287:, Chapter 16: "Hammarskjöld and Beyond". 4272: 4012: 3916: 3692: 3391: 3379: 3023:as Provincial President of South Kasai. 2847:Coexistence and attempted reconciliation 2563:Moniteur de l'État Autonome du Sud-Kasaï 1694:and final arrival of government troops. 6125:White Legion (Compagnie Internationale) 5781: 5411:"Onze mois de crise politique au Congo" 4574: 4547: 4517: 4502: 4490: 4478: 4466: 4454: 4442: 4430: 4406: 4394: 4382: 4370: 4353:"Protocol Disputes Mar Kasavubu Tour". 4340: 4308: 4209: 4197: 4087: 4072: 4000: 3988: 3955: 3943: 3889: 3750: 3731: 3716: 3647: 3304: 3121: 3081:Democratic Republic of the Congo portal 2710:Kalonji's accession to the position of 1605:, who had represented a faction of the 270: 5506:"DRC: Background to the 1965 election" 5471:Daily Report: Foreign Radio Broadcasts 5461:"Mukenge Announces Kasai Government". 4664: 4652: 4637: 4625: 4613: 4601: 4284: 4248: 4236: 4224: 4185: 4168: 4141: 4024: 3777: 3704: 3565: 3553: 3541: 3529: 3517: 3505: 3493: 3481: 3415: 3403: 3164:refers collectively to members of the 2994:provinces formally established by the 2867:In mid-1961, conferences were held at 2771:, UN Secretary-General, September 1960 2577:was retained as the state's currency. 2498:) or Autonomous State of South Kasai ( 2110:Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference 1942:Kalonji-Lumumba split and polarisation 900:Assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila 27:1960–1962 unrecognised state in Africa 6905:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government 6694:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government 6017:United Nations Operation in the Congo 4532: 4156: 4102: 4060: 3967: 3877: 3789: 3762: 3659: 3650:, 1 THE CONGOLESE CRISIS (1960–1963). 2935:Coup d'état of September–October 1962 2633:Luba refugees. In the context of the 1535:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government 662:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government 279: 275: 253: 243: 233: 223: 213: 200: 196: 170: 166: 158: 7: 5715:"Luba-Kasai: A Working Bibliography" 5713:Muyumba, Valentine Kanyinda (2004). 5001:Omasombo Tshonda, Jean, ed. (2014). 4986:Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence 4939:(3rd ed.). New York: Palgrave. 3337: 1753:, the largest regional power in the 1612:Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji 346:Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville) 333:Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville) 6836:East African campaign (World War I) 6726:Belgian general strike of 1960–1961 5547:Snee, Charles (15 September 2017). 4957:The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98 4842:. London: Oxford University Press. 2871:(modern-day Mbandaka) and later in 2782:a multi-national peacekeeping force 1727:European colonial rule in the Congo 1283:Allied Democratic Forces insurgency 5663:(Trans. ed.). London: Verso. 5149:(illustrated ed.). Springer. 4535:, Chapter 24: "The Flying Horror". 3037:Popular Movement of the Revolution 2919:visited Bakwanga soon afterwards. 2776:Initially, Lumumba hoped that the 25: 7410:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency 5702:Journal of African Policy Studies 4979:Olivier, Lanotte (6 April 2010). 4715:(1st ed.). Westport, Conn.: 3045:to remove all colonial influences 2855:Kalonji with Congolese President 2833:Food and Agriculture Organization 2728:Campaign of August–September 1960 1273:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency 8045:1962 disestablishments in Africa 6777:Democratic Republic of the Congo 6118:6th Commando Battalion (Belgium) 6111:4th Commando Battalion (Belgium) 6104:2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium) 5967:Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC) 5803:Democratic Republic of the Congo 5796: 5784: 5342:"Les Timbres-poste du Sud-Kasaï" 5340:Dufresne, André (January 2011). 4960:(illustrated ed.). London: 4913:. New York: Palgrave-MacMillan. 4798:Gondola, Charles Didier (2002). 4754:Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group 3238:). The use of the word "state" ( 3073: 2072: 2005:government based in the capital 1729:began in the late 19th century. 1580:Democratic Republic of the Congo 371:Democratic Republic of the Congo 350: 325: 67: 55: 5679:Kalonji Ditunga Mulopwe, Albert 5479:Mopipi, Jacky (15 March 2010). 5167:A History of Genocide in Africa 4823:. New York: Algora Publishing. 4689:Dictionary of African Biography 1910:. The MNC's main rival was the 18:Coup d'état of South Kasai 6910:Torture and killing of Lumumba 6701:Torture and killing of Lumumba 5525:Ngapi, Rich (15 August 2008). 5415:Courrier Hebdomadaire du CRISP 5164:Stapleton, Timothy J. (2017). 4804:. Wesport (Conn.): Greenwood. 2174:Walter Ganshof van der Meersch 1540:Torture and killing of Lumumba 667:Torture and killing of Lumumba 1: 8040:1960 establishments in Africa 8025:Former unrecognized countries 6841:Belgian Congo in World War II 5643:. Brussels: Dedeken Editeur. 5363:Lowenstein, Frank W. (1962). 5312:Lumumba: Africa's Lost Leader 4779:(2nd ed.). Basingstoke: 2542:Postage stamps of South Kasai 2120:Lumumba's independence speech 1994:Lumumba's national government 1719: 7231:2009 Eastern Congo offensive 5661:The Assassination of Lumumba 5351:(292): 25–31. Archived from 2883:in the Eastern Congo led by 2565:, and even produced its own 2318:Mutiny of the Force Publique 1879:Mouvement National Congolais 1189:M23 offensive (2022–present) 1112:2009 Eastern Congo offensive 784:Assassination of Habyarimana 216:• Unilateral secession 7196:Operation North Night Final 7098:Ascension of Laurent Kabila 5124:(online ed.). London: 5025:Othen, Christopher (2015). 4838:Hoskyns, Catherine (1965). 4694:Oxford University Press USA 4587:Pandey & Geschiere 2003 4115:Akyeampong & Gates 2012 3266:Societé Minière de Bakwanga 2705:Royaume fédéré du Sud-Kasaï 2571:vehicle registration plates 2465:État fédératif du Sud-Kasaï 1906:and affiliation to certain 1872:class (the urbanised black 1325:Child soldiers in the Congo 843:Ascension of Laurent Kabila 718:Non-aggression pact of 1979 226:• Monarchy proclaimed 8066: 5766:La Vérité sur le Sud-Kasaï 5463:Belgian Congo Home Service 5295:Princeton University Press 5120:Passemiers, Lazlo (2019). 4954:O'Ballance, Edgar (1999). 4855:Janzen, Eileen R. (2013). 4819:Haskin, Jeanne M. (2005). 3591:Belgian Congo Home Service 2942:commissaire extraordinaire 2741:Armée Nationale Congolaise 2731: 2723:Collapse and reintegration 2655:Central African Federation 2580:The South Kasaian army or 2500:État autonome du Sud-Kasaï 2388:Miscellaneous and cultural 796:Great Lakes refugee crisis 7236:2014 North Kivu offensive 6915:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld 6783: 6708:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld 5639:Dedeken, Noël C. (1978). 5246:Stanford University Press 5102:The Forging of Nationhood 5080:(13th ed.). London: 5050:Packham, Eric S. (1996). 4929:Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges 4692:. Vol. 3. New York: 3168:. Its adjectival form is 3055:was particularly strong. 2828:World Health Organization 2439:Persecution of the Baluba 2394: 2313: 2257: 2151: 2090: 2070: 2015:(BALUBAKAT) party led by 1545:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld 1379: 1268: 1122:2014 North Kivu offensive 1081: 976: 868: 764:War in Uganda (1986–1994) 759:Second Sudanese Civil War 742: 697: 672:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld 508: 418: 304: 290: 276: 267: 236:• Arrest of Kalonji 197: 183: 167: 81: 51: 46: 7384:Western DR Congo clashes 7073:AFD insurgency (1996–99) 6733:Decolonisation of Africa 6386:Hubert Fauntleroy Julian 6059:Ghana, Nigeria and Egypt 5263:Williams, Susan (2021). 5193:(2nd ed.). London: 5031:(illustrated ed.). 3264:An administrator of the 3095:Decolonisation of Africa 2551:État fédéré du Sud-Kasaï 2496:État minier du Sud-Kasaï 2423:Decolonisation of Africa 1978:Parti Solidaire Africain 1320:Western DR Congo clashes 1300:2011 coup d'etat attempt 7374:Kamwina Nsapu rebellion 7325:M23 offensive (2022–24) 7226:2008 Nord-Kivu campaign 7144:Assassination of Kabila 6873:Force Publique mutinies 6484:Force Publique mutinies 6453:William "Rip" Robertson 6209:Cuban Exile Naval Force 5863:Egide Bocheley-Davidson 5732:10.17077/1092-9576.1001 5625:(subscription required) 5605:(subscription required) 5584:(subscription required) 5189:Turner, Thomas (2007). 3027:End of the Congo Crisis 2996:federalist constitution 2734:Invasion of South Kasai 1384:Force Publique mutinies 1315:Kamwina Nsapu rebellion 1117:M23 rebellion (2012–13) 1107:2008 Nord-Kivu campaign 512:Force Publique mutinies 6973:Port Francqui incident 6599:Port Francqui incident 5685:. Paris: L'Harmattan. 4711:Boulden, Jane (2001). 3234:) or Mining Province ( 3136:, with its capital at 3043:and efforts were made 2990: 2913:parliamentary immunity 2900: 2890: 2860: 2837:Port Francqui incident 2765: 2659:diplomatic recognition 2623: 2613: 2545: 2491: 2338:Stanleyville rebellion 1954: 1850: 1723: 1564: 1469:Port Francqui incident 1231:Kasindi church bombing 1005:October 2020 offensive 597:Port Francqui incident 205:Congolese independence 7451:during the Congo Wars 7364:2013 Kinshasa attacks 7087:Operation Thunderbolt 7062:Formation of the AFDL 7015:Stanleyville mutinies 6676:Stanleyville mutinies 6305:Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur 6202:211th Makasi Squadron 5985:Katangese Gendarmerie 5443:Bulletins des Séances 5427:10.3917/cris.120.0001 5143:Simmonds, R. (2012). 4909:Nugent, Paul (2004). 4893:Schenkman Books, Inc. 4887:(expanded ed.). 4771:Freund, Bill (1998). 4419:Omasombo Tshonda 2014 4127:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007 4037:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007 3905:Omasombo Tshonda 2014 3866:Omasombo Tshonda 2014 3836:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007 3805:Omasombo Tshonda 2014 3636:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007 3605:Omasombo Tshonda 2014 3578:Omasombo Tshonda 2014 3470:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007 3455:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007 3443:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007 3431:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007 3190:During the period of 3130:Republic of the Congo 2988: 2898: 2854: 2607: 2600:International support 2555:justices of the peace 2540: 2486: 2328:South Kasai secession 2125:Republic of the Congo 1949: 1854:Congolese nationalism 1845: 1710: 1576:Republic of the Congo 1310:2013 Kinshasa attacks 1194:Anti-MONUSCO protests 811:Formation of the AFDL 134:Republic of the Congo 7369:2014 Mutarule attack 7278:2017 Semuliki attack 7241:2017 CNPSC offensive 7202:Plaine Savo massacre 6846:Masisi-Lubutu revolt 6657:Violettes Imperiales 6280:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 6234:Conor Cruise O'Brien 6132:5 Mechanised Brigade 5919:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 5434:Rubbens, A. (1961). 5405:on January 27, 2005. 5310:Zeilig, Leo (2008). 5236:Willame, Jean-Claude 4863:McGill-Queen's Press 4801:The History of Congo 4752:(reprint ed.). 4640:, pp. 117, 119. 4409:, pp. 374, 377. 3807:, pp. 200, 204. 3111:Notes and references 2907:, of having ordered 2803:UN Secretary-General 2670:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 2631:internally-displaced 2617:deposits, including 2405:Indépendance Cha Cha 1913:Alliance des Bakongo 1864:nationalist movement 1607:nationalist movement 1513:Violettes Imperiales 1127:2017 CNPSC offensive 641:Violettes Imperiales 90:secessionist Katanga 7992: / 7468:tensions since 2022 7458:Belgian colonialism 7397:Perennial conflicts 7379:2018 Yumbi massacre 7282:Nationwide attacks 7170:Post-2003 conflicts 7093:Overthrow of Mobutu 6333:Frédéric Vandewalle 5491:on 4 September 2017 5052:Freedom and Anarchy 4734:Bring, Ove (2011). 4628:, pp. 236–239. 4616:, pp. 234–235. 4493:, pp. 155–156. 4469:, pp. 40, 155. 4275:, pp. 243–244. 4129:, pp. 105–106. 3580:, pp. 181–182. 3445:, pp. 102–103. 3394:, pp. 588–549. 3382:, pp. 253–255. 2960:before settling in 2909:corporal punishment 2363:Operation Grandslam 2353:Siege of Jadotville 2343:Operation Rum Punch 1975:with ABAKO and the 1226:August 2022 attacks 885:Gbadolite Agreement 838:Overthrow of Mobutu 774:Burundian Civil War 246:• Coup d'état 7439:Conflict resources 7404:Katanga insurgency 7359:Batwa–Luba clashes 7155:Effacer le tableau 7149:Kisangani massacre 7079:Kichwamba massacre 7067:Massacres of Hutus 6898:Congo-Stanleyville 6853:Léopoldville riots 6826:Batetela rebellion 6686:Other major events 6519:Congo-Stanleyville 5992:South Kasai forces 5753:2022-05-27 at the 5612:The New York Times 5592:The New York Times 5571:The New York Times 5287:Young, M. Crawford 4889:Rochester, Vermont 4781:Palgrave-Macmillan 4355:The New York Times 4322:The New York Times 3852:The New York Times 3324:The New York Times 2991: 2956:. He then fled to 2901: 2861: 2674:Jean-Pierre Finant 2614: 2546: 2492: 2373:Kisangani Mutinies 2169:August de Schryver 2130:Lumumba Government 2105:Léopoldville riots 2062:Congo-Léopoldville 1990:Barthélemy Mukenge 1955: 1924:in the north, and 1851: 1786:politique indigène 1724: 1572:secessionist state 1529:Other major events 1409:Congo-Stanleyville 1305:Batwa–Luba clashes 1278:Katanga insurgency 1246:Kirindera massacre 1020:Nyamamba and Mbogi 911:Effacer le tableau 905:Kisangani massacre 890:Sun City Agreement 816:Massacres of Hutus 656:Other major events 537:Congo-Stanleyville 464:Léopoldville riots 457:1944 Kivu uprising 282:• 1962 est.; 102:Unrecognised state 7975: 7974: 7529:Current provinces 7488: 7487: 7392: 7391: 7354:2011 coup attempt 7337: 7336: 7333: 7332: 7306: 7305: 7210: 7209: 7189:Operation Artemis 7161:ICC investigation 7042:1991 Zaire unrest 7035:Battle of Kolwezi 6877:Secession crisis 6775:Conflicts in the 6742: 6741: 6474:Main operations / 6469: 6468: 6097:White mercenaries 5959:government forces 5877:Christophe Gbenye 5848:Political leaders 5573:. pp. 1, 8. 5554:Linn's Stamp News 5485:Congo Indépendant 5349:Philatélie Québec 5325:978-1-905791-02-6 5278:978-1-5417-6829-1 5227:978-92-1-131160-0 5204:978-1-84277-688-9 5091:978-0-349-10449-2 5033:The History Press 5017:978-9-4916-1524-5 4946:978-1-84277-053-5 4920:978-0-333-68273-9 4790:978-0-333-69872-3 4744:French, Howard W. 4703:978-0-19-538207-5 4561:Congo Indépendant 4445:, pp. 88–89. 4385:, pp. 37–38. 4171:, pp. 5, 23. 3958:, pp. 66–67. 3930:Linn's Stamp News 3919:, pp. 25–26. 3556:, pp. 83–85. 3544:, pp. 82–83. 3508:, pp. 64–65. 3166:Luba ethnic group 3100:Conflict diamonds 3005:Sankuru Districts 2954:Godefroid Munongo 2905:Christophe Gbenye 2780:(UN), which sent 2507:Équateur Province 2453:Province of Kasai 2435: 2434: 2431: 2430: 2381: 2380: 2323:Katanga secession 2298: 2297: 2244: 2243: 2216:Cléophas Kamitatu 2138: 2137: 1858:An anti-colonial 1803:Kasai river basin 1766:trinité coloniale 1654:'s deposition of 1553: 1552: 1388:Secession crisis 1337: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1255: 1254: 1199:Kishishe massacre 1097:Makobola massacre 1041: 1040: 1037: 1036: 990:North Night Final 932:ICC investigation 851: 850: 779:Rwandan Civil War 769:1991 Zaire unrest 725: 724: 711:Battle of Kolwezi 680: 679: 516:Secession crisis 376: 375: 362: 361: 358: 357: 338: 337: 250:29 September 1962 173:• 1960–1962 160:President/Emperor 146:semi-presidential 16:(Redirected from 8057: 8007: 8006: 8004: 8003: 8002: 7997: 7996:6.150°S 23.600°E 7993: 7990: 7989: 7988: 7985: 7787:Katanga Oriental 7773:Cuvette-Centrale 7699:Kasaï-Occidental 7515: 7508: 7501: 7492: 7480:Rwandan genocide 7339: 7308: 7298:Operation Shujaa 7259: 7212: 7174: 7119:Operation Kitona 7108:Second Congo War 6937:Battle of Kabalo 6793:Congo Free State 6769: 6762: 6755: 6746: 6735: 6728: 6710: 6703: 6696: 6678: 6669: 6660: 6651: 6642: 6633: 6624: 6617: 6610: 6601: 6594: 6587: 6576: 6569: 6560: 6553: 6551:Battle of Kabalo 6546: 6539: 6530: 6521: 6512: 6505: 6498: 6491: 6490:Secession crisis 6486: 6462: 6455: 6448: 6430: 6423: 6416: 6409: 6402: 6400:Siegfried Müller 6395: 6388: 6381: 6374: 6367: 6360: 6353: 6335: 6328: 6321: 6314: 6312:Jules Crèvecoeur 6307: 6289: 6282: 6275: 6257: 6250: 6248:Dewan Prem Chand 6243: 6236: 6223: 6211: 6204: 6197: 6190: 6183: 6176: 6169: 6162: 6155: 6148: 6141: 6134: 6127: 6120: 6113: 6106: 6099: 6079: 6061: 6054: 6047: 6040: 6033: 6026: 6019: 6001: 5994: 5987: 5969: 5949: 5942: 5935: 5933:Gaston Soumialot 5928: 5921: 5914: 5907: 5900: 5898:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 5893: 5886: 5884:Dag Hammarskjöld 5879: 5872: 5865: 5858: 5833: 5826: 5819: 5810: 5801: 5800: 5799: 5789: 5788: 5787: 5780: 5736: 5734: 5709: 5696: 5674: 5652: 5626: 5623: 5606: 5603: 5585: 5582: 5565: 5563: 5561: 5543: 5541: 5539: 5521: 5519: 5517: 5500: 5498: 5496: 5487:. 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Archived from 5389: 5369: 5359: 5357: 5346: 5329: 5306: 5282: 5259: 5231: 5208: 5185: 5160: 5139: 5116: 5095: 5074:Pakenham, Thomas 5069: 5046: 5021: 5009: 4997: 4995: 4993: 4975: 4950: 4938: 4924: 4905: 4881:Kanza, Thomas R. 4876: 4851: 4834: 4815: 4794: 4778: 4767: 4739: 4730: 4707: 4668: 4662: 4656: 4650: 4641: 4635: 4629: 4623: 4617: 4611: 4605: 4599: 4590: 4584: 4578: 4572: 4566: 4557: 4551: 4545: 4536: 4530: 4521: 4515: 4506: 4500: 4494: 4488: 4482: 4476: 4470: 4464: 4458: 4452: 4446: 4440: 4434: 4428: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4404: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4380: 4374: 4368: 4359: 4358: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4327: 4318: 4312: 4306: 4300: 4294: 4288: 4282: 4276: 4270: 4264: 4258: 4252: 4246: 4240: 4234: 4228: 4222: 4213: 4207: 4201: 4195: 4189: 4183: 4172: 4166: 4160: 4154: 4145: 4139: 4130: 4124: 4118: 4112: 4106: 4100: 4091: 4085: 4076: 4070: 4064: 4058: 4052: 4046: 4040: 4034: 4028: 4022: 4016: 4010: 4004: 3998: 3992: 3986: 3971: 3965: 3959: 3953: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3926: 3920: 3914: 3908: 3902: 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Kasa-Vubu 2146: 2140: 2085: 2079: 2076: 2065: 2063: 2058:Independence of 2051: 2044: 2037: 2028: 1936:Katanga Province 1918:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 1908:ethnic groupings 1747:Congo Free State 1721: 1716:Congo Free State 1681:Ferdinand Kazadi 1652:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 1635:, and funded by 1588:state of Katanga 1578:(the modern-day 1433:Battle of Kabalo 1374: 1364: 1357: 1350: 1341: 1288:Operation Shujaa 1263: 1257: 1241:Mukondi massacre 1236:Makugwe massacre 1221:Otomabere attack 1102:Makombo massacre 1076: 1066: 1059: 1052: 1043: 971: 961: 954: 947: 938: 880:Lusaka Ceasefire 874:Operation Kitona 863: 861: 860:Second Congo War 853: 791:Rwandan genocide 737: 735: 727: 692: 690: 682: 561:Battle of Kabalo 503: 493: 486: 479: 470: 435:Congo Free State 413: 402: 395: 388: 379: 354: 353: 342: 341: 329: 328: 322: 321: 306: 305: 240:30 December 1961 86: 71: 59: 32: 21: 8065: 8064: 8060: 8059: 8058: 8056: 8055: 8054: 8010: 8009: 8000: 7998: 7994: 7991: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7979: 7978: 7976: 7971: 7911: 7906:Unité Kasaïenne 7753: 7665: 7524: 7519: 7489: 7484: 7446:Sexual violence 7434:Mining industry 7421: 7415: 7388: 7329: 7302: 7265: 7257: 7253:Kipupu massacre 7218: 7206: 7180: 7165: 7132:Bogoro massacre 7110: 7102: 7054: 7052:First Congo War 7046: 7020:Shaba invasions 7003: 6990:Simba rebellion 6985:Kwilu rebellion 6980:Kanyarwanda War 6920:UN intervention 6865: 6857: 6831:Battle of Rejaf 6809: 6779: 6773: 6743: 6738: 6731: 6724: 6713: 6706: 6699: 6692: 6681: 6674: 6663: 6654: 6645: 6636: 6627: 6622:Simba rebellion 6620: 6615:Kwilu rebellion 6613: 6608:Kanyarwanda War 6606: 6597: 6590: 6581: 6572: 6563: 6556: 6549: 6542: 6533: 6528:UN intervention 6526: 6517: 6508: 6501: 6494: 6489: 6482: 6475: 6465: 6458: 6451: 6444: 6433: 6426: 6421:Roger Trinquier 6419: 6412: 6405: 6398: 6391: 6384: 6377: 6370: 6365:Charles Gardien 6363: 6356: 6349: 6338: 6331: 6324: 6317: 6310: 6303: 6292: 6285: 6278: 6271: 6260: 6253: 6246: 6239: 6232: 6214: 6207: 6200: 6193: 6186: 6179: 6172: 6165: 6158: 6151: 6144: 6137: 6130: 6123: 6116: 6109: 6102: 6095: 6089:mercenary units 6088: 6082: 6075: 6064: 6057: 6050: 6043: 6036: 6029: 6022: 6015: 6004: 5997: 5990: 5983: 5972: 5965: 5958: 5952: 5945: 5938: 5931: 5924: 5917: 5912:Patrice Lumumba 5910: 5903: 5896: 5889: 5882: 5875: 5868: 5861: 5854: 5843: 5837: 5807: 5797: 5795: 5785: 5783: 5775: 5755:Wayback Machine 5744: 5739: 5712: 5699: 5693: 5677: 5671: 5655: 5638: 5634: 5632:Further reading 5629: 5624: 5609: 5604: 5588: 5583: 5568: 5559: 5557: 5546: 5537: 5535: 5524: 5515: 5513: 5512:on 25 July 2014 5503: 5494: 5492: 5478: 5468: 5460: 5457: 5438: 5433: 5409: 5402: 5367: 5362: 5355: 5344: 5339: 5336: 5326: 5309: 5285: 5279: 5262: 5256: 5234: 5228: 5212:UN-CHS (1991). 5211: 5205: 5188: 5182: 5163: 5157: 5142: 5136: 5119: 5113: 5098: 5092: 5072: 5066: 5049: 5043: 5024: 5018: 5007: 5000: 4991: 4989: 4978: 4972: 4953: 4947: 4927: 4921: 4908: 4902: 4879: 4873: 4854: 4837: 4831: 4818: 4812: 4797: 4791: 4770: 4764: 4742: 4733: 4727: 4710: 4704: 4685: 4682: 4676: 4671: 4663: 4659: 4651: 4644: 4636: 4632: 4624: 4620: 4612: 4608: 4600: 4593: 4585: 4581: 4573: 4569: 4558: 4554: 4546: 4539: 4531: 4524: 4516: 4509: 4501: 4497: 4489: 4485: 4477: 4473: 4465: 4461: 4453: 4449: 4441: 4437: 4429: 4425: 4417: 4413: 4405: 4401: 4393: 4389: 4381: 4377: 4369: 4362: 4352: 4351: 4347: 4339: 4330: 4319: 4315: 4307: 4303: 4295: 4291: 4283: 4279: 4271: 4267: 4261:Lowenstein 1962 4259: 4255: 4247: 4243: 4235: 4231: 4223: 4216: 4208: 4204: 4196: 4192: 4184: 4175: 4167: 4163: 4155: 4148: 4140: 4133: 4125: 4121: 4113: 4109: 4101: 4094: 4086: 4079: 4071: 4067: 4059: 4055: 4049:Passemiers 2019 4047: 4043: 4035: 4031: 4023: 4019: 4011: 4007: 3999: 3995: 3987: 3974: 3966: 3962: 3954: 3950: 3942: 3938: 3927: 3923: 3915: 3911: 3903: 3896: 3888: 3884: 3876: 3872: 3864: 3860: 3849: 3842: 3834: 3811: 3803: 3799: 3788: 3784: 3776: 3769: 3761: 3757: 3749: 3738: 3730: 3723: 3715: 3711: 3703: 3699: 3691: 3678: 3672:O'Ballance 1999 3670: 3666: 3658: 3654: 3646: 3642: 3634: 3611: 3603: 3599: 3588: 3584: 3576: 3572: 3564: 3560: 3552: 3548: 3540: 3536: 3528: 3524: 3516: 3512: 3504: 3500: 3492: 3488: 3480: 3476: 3468: 3461: 3453: 3449: 3441: 3437: 3429: 3422: 3414: 3410: 3402: 3398: 3390: 3386: 3378: 3374: 3363: 3344: 3336: 3332: 3321: 3306: 3302: 3297: 3296: 3290: 3286: 3277: 3273: 3263: 3259: 3250: 3246: 3236:Province minier 3232:Province muluba 3221: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3189: 3185: 3180: 3176: 3151:Bantu languages 3148: 3144: 3132:, formerly the 3127: 3123: 3118: 3113: 3079: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3029: 2983: 2978: 2937: 2893: 2885:Antoine Gizenga 2849: 2774: 2767: 2736: 2730: 2725: 2685: 2602: 2575:Congolese franc 2523: 2481: 2473:État du Katanga 2441: 2436: 2427: 2390: 2387: 2377: 2368:Simba Rebellion 2333:UN intervention 2309: 2304: 2294: 2253: 2250: 2240: 2221:Antoine Gizenga 2191:Patrice Lumumba 2147: 2144: 2134: 2086: 2083: 2077: 2066: 2061: 2059: 2057: 2055: 2025: 1944: 1916:(ABAKO) led by 1888:Patrice Lumumba 1856: 1847:Patrice Lumumba 1840: 1798: 1778:private company 1749:, in 1885. The 1731:King Leopold II 1705: 1700: 1656:Patrice Lumumba 1554: 1549: 1486:Simba rebellion 1481:Kwilu rebellion 1476:Kanyarwanda War 1416:UN intervention 1375: 1370: 1368: 1338: 1329: 1264: 1261: 1251: 1250: 1149:Kipupu massacre 1092:Kasika massacre 1087:Lemera massacre 1077: 1072: 1070: 1033: 1010:Boga and Tchabi 972: 967: 965: 936: 922:Pretoria Accord 917:Bogoro massacre 864: 859: 857: 847: 800: 754:Shaba Invasions 738: 734:First Congo War 733: 731: 721: 693: 689:Shaba Invasions 688: 686: 676: 614:Simba rebellion 609:Kwilu rebellion 604:Kanyarwanda War 544:UN intervention 504: 499: 497: 468: 414: 408: 406: 351: 326: 299:Congolese franc 283: 260: 247: 237: 227: 217: 207: 174: 143: 136: 130:federated state 127: 93: 77: 76: 75: 72: 64: 63: 60: 42: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8063: 8061: 8053: 8052: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8012: 8011: 8001:-6.150; 23.600 7973: 7972: 7970: 7969: 7962: 7955: 7948: 7941: 7934: 7927: 7919: 7917: 7913: 7912: 7910: 7909: 7902: 7895: 7888: 7881: 7874: 7867: 7860: 7853: 7846: 7839: 7832: 7825: 7818: 7811: 7804: 7797: 7790: 7783: 7776: 7769: 7761: 7759: 7755: 7754: 7752: 7751: 7744: 7737: 7730: 7723: 7716: 7709: 7706:Kasaï-Oriental 7702: 7695: 7688: 7681: 7673: 7671: 7667: 7666: 7664: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7613: 7608: 7603: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7583: 7578: 7576:Kasaï-Oriental 7573: 7568: 7563: 7558: 7553: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7532: 7530: 7526: 7525: 7520: 7518: 7517: 7510: 7503: 7495: 7486: 7485: 7483: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7471: 7470: 7460: 7455: 7454: 7453: 7443: 7442: 7441: 7431: 7429:Child soldiers 7425: 7423: 7422:related topics 7417: 7416: 7414: 7413: 7412:(1987–present) 7407: 7406:(1963–present) 7400: 7398: 7394: 7393: 7390: 7389: 7387: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7349:Dongo conflict 7345: 7343: 7335: 7334: 7331: 7330: 7328: 7327: 7322: 7316: 7314: 7304: 7303: 7301: 7300: 7295: 7294: 7293: 7288: 7280: 7275: 7269: 7267: 7263:AFD insurgency 7256: 7255: 7250: 7249: 7248: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7222: 7220: 7219:(2004–present) 7208: 7207: 7205: 7204: 7199: 7192: 7184: 7182: 7178:Ituri conflict 7171: 7167: 7166: 7164: 7163: 7158: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7135: 7134: 7126:Ituri conflict 7122: 7114: 7112: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7083: 7082: 7081: 7069: 7064: 7058: 7056: 7048: 7047: 7045: 7044: 7039: 7038: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7017: 7011: 7009: 7005: 7004: 7002: 7001: 7000: 6999: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6976: 6975: 6970: 6968:Kindu atrocity 6965: 6958: 6957: 6956: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6901: 6900: 6895: 6894: 6893: 6883: 6875: 6869: 6867: 6859: 6858: 6856: 6855: 6850: 6849: 6848: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6821:Congo Arab war 6817: 6815: 6811: 6810: 6808: 6807: 6802: 6801: 6800: 6790: 6784: 6781: 6780: 6774: 6772: 6771: 6764: 6757: 6749: 6740: 6739: 6737: 6736: 6729: 6721: 6719: 6715: 6714: 6712: 6711: 6704: 6697: 6689: 6687: 6683: 6682: 6680: 6679: 6672: 6671: 6670: 6661: 6652: 6643: 6634: 6618: 6611: 6604: 6603: 6602: 6595: 6592:Kindu atrocity 6588: 6579: 6578: 6577: 6561: 6554: 6547: 6540: 6524: 6523: 6522: 6515: 6514: 6513: 6499: 6487: 6479: 6477: 6471: 6470: 6467: 6466: 6464: 6463: 6456: 6449: 6441: 6439: 6435: 6434: 6432: 6431: 6428:Hugh van Oppen 6424: 6417: 6410: 6403: 6396: 6389: 6382: 6375: 6368: 6361: 6358:Roger Faulques 6354: 6346: 6344: 6340: 6339: 6337: 6336: 6329: 6322: 6315: 6308: 6300: 6298: 6294: 6293: 6291: 6290: 6283: 6276: 6268: 6266: 6262: 6261: 6259: 6258: 6251: 6244: 6237: 6229: 6227: 6226:United Nations 6220: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6212: 6205: 6198: 6191: 6184: 6177: 6170: 6163: 6156: 6149: 6142: 6135: 6128: 6121: 6114: 6107: 6100: 6092: 6090: 6084: 6083: 6081: 6080: 6072: 6070: 6069:Other entities 6066: 6065: 6063: 6062: 6055: 6048: 6041: 6034: 6027: 6020: 6012: 6010: 6006: 6005: 6003: 6002: 5995: 5988: 5980: 5978: 5974: 5973: 5971: 5970: 5962: 5960: 5954: 5953: 5951: 5950: 5943: 5936: 5929: 5922: 5915: 5908: 5901: 5894: 5891:Albert Kalonji 5887: 5880: 5873: 5870:Gaston Eyskens 5866: 5859: 5856:Cyrille Adoula 5851: 5849: 5845: 5844: 5838: 5836: 5835: 5828: 5821: 5813: 5806: 5805: 5793: 5773: 5772: 5763: 5743: 5742:External links 5740: 5738: 5737: 5710: 5697: 5691: 5675: 5669: 5657:De Witte, Ludo 5653: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5627: 5614:. p. 22. 5607: 5586: 5566: 5544: 5522: 5501: 5476: 5456: 5453: 5452: 5451: 5431: 5407: 5380:(6): 751–758. 5360: 5358:on 2011-08-15. 5335: 5332: 5331: 5330: 5324: 5307: 5283: 5277: 5260: 5254: 5232: 5226: 5209: 5203: 5186: 5180: 5161: 5155: 5140: 5134: 5117: 5111: 5096: 5090: 5070: 5064: 5047: 5041: 5022: 5016: 4998: 4976: 4970: 4951: 4945: 4925: 4919: 4906: 4900: 4877: 4871: 4852: 4835: 4829: 4816: 4810: 4795: 4789: 4768: 4762: 4740: 4731: 4725: 4708: 4702: 4681: 4678: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4669: 4667:, p. 117. 4657: 4655:, p. 185. 4642: 4630: 4618: 4606: 4604:, p. 233. 4591: 4589:, p. 203. 4579: 4567: 4552: 4537: 4522: 4520:, p. 158. 4507: 4505:, p. 157. 4495: 4483: 4481:, p. 156. 4471: 4459: 4447: 4435: 4423: 4421:, p. 217. 4411: 4399: 4397:, p. 111. 4387: 4375: 4360: 4345: 4328: 4313: 4311:, p. 286. 4301: 4297:Stapleton 2017 4289: 4277: 4265: 4263:, p. 751. 4253: 4251:, p. 129. 4241: 4229: 4214: 4212:, p. 194. 4202: 4190: 4188:, p. 114. 4173: 4161: 4159:, p. 160. 4146: 4131: 4119: 4117:, p. 275. 4107: 4105:, p. 396. 4092: 4077: 4075:, p. 187. 4065: 4063:, p. 325. 4053: 4041: 4039:, p. 101. 4029: 4017: 4015:, p. 212. 4005: 3993: 3972: 3970:, p. 454. 3960: 3948: 3936: 3921: 3909: 3907:, p. 197. 3894: 3892:, p. 799. 3882: 3880:, p. 395. 3870: 3868:, p. 198. 3858: 3840: 3838:, p. 106. 3809: 3797: 3795:, paragraph 5. 3782: 3767: 3765:, p. 284. 3755: 3736: 3721: 3709: 3697: 3676: 3664: 3662:, p. 101. 3652: 3640: 3638:, p. 105. 3609: 3607:, p. 201. 3597: 3582: 3570: 3558: 3546: 3534: 3522: 3510: 3498: 3486: 3484:, p. 199. 3474: 3472:, p. 104. 3459: 3457:, p. 103. 3447: 3435: 3433:, p. 102. 3420: 3408: 3396: 3384: 3372: 3342: 3330: 3303: 3301: 3298: 3295: 3294: 3284: 3271: 3257: 3255:, all in 1961. 3253:souvenir sheet 3244: 3215: 3206: 3183: 3174: 3142: 3120: 3119: 3117: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3108: 3107: 3102: 3097: 3092: 3085: 3084: 3068: 3065: 3053:Kasaï-Oriental 3028: 3025: 3013:Kasaï-Oriental 2982: 2979: 2977: 2974: 2936: 2933: 2917:Victor Lundula 2892: 2889: 2869:Coquilhatville 2848: 2845: 2808:Élisabethville 2778:United Nations 2746: 2732:Main article: 2729: 2726: 2724: 2721: 2684: 2678: 2610:yellow diamond 2601: 2598: 2567:postage stamps 2522: 2519: 2488:Joseph Ngalula 2480: 2477: 2440: 2437: 2433: 2432: 2429: 2428: 2426: 2425: 2420: 2418:Year of Africa 2415: 2408: 2401: 2395: 2392: 2391: 2386: 2379: 2378: 2376: 2375: 2370: 2365: 2360: 2358:Kindu atrocity 2355: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2325: 2320: 2314: 2311: 2310: 2303: 2296: 2295: 2293: 2288: 2283: 2278: 2273: 2268: 2263: 2258: 2255: 2254: 2249: 2242: 2241: 2239: 2238: 2233: 2231:Jean Bolikango 2228: 2223: 2218: 2213: 2211:Albert Kalonji 2208: 2203: 2198: 2193: 2182: 2181: 2179:Émile Janssens 2176: 2171: 2166: 2161: 2159:Gaston Eyskens 2152: 2149: 2148: 2143: 2136: 2135: 2133: 2132: 2127: 2122: 2117: 2115:1960 Elections 2112: 2107: 2102: 2097: 2091: 2088: 2087: 2082: 2071: 2068: 2067: 2056: 2054: 2053: 2046: 2039: 2031: 2024: 2021: 1998:Joseph Ngalula 1964:Albert Kalonji 1951:Albert Kalonji 1943: 1940: 1892:Cyrille Adoula 1855: 1852: 1839: 1836: 1797: 1794: 1714:chiefs of the 1704: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1661:United Nations 1603:Albert Kalonji 1551: 1550: 1548: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1526: 1525: 1524: 1523: 1516: 1509: 1502: 1495: 1483: 1478: 1473: 1472: 1471: 1466: 1464:Kindu atrocity 1461: 1454: 1453: 1452: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1413: 1412: 1411: 1406: 1405: 1404: 1394: 1386: 1380: 1377: 1376: 1369: 1367: 1366: 1359: 1352: 1344: 1335: 1334: 1331: 1330: 1328: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1295:Dongo conflict 1292: 1291: 1290: 1280: 1275: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1260: 1253: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1216:Masambo attack 1213: 1212: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1186: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1151: 1146: 1141: 1136: 1135: 1134: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1083: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1071: 1069: 1068: 1061: 1054: 1046: 1039: 1038: 1035: 1034: 1032: 1031: 1026: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1002: 997: 992: 987: 982: 977: 974: 973: 969:Ituri conflict 966: 964: 963: 956: 949: 941: 935: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 907: 902: 897: 892: 887: 882: 877: 869: 866: 865: 856: 849: 848: 846: 845: 840: 835: 830: 825: 818: 813: 807: 806: 799: 798: 793: 788: 787: 786: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 750: 749: 743: 740: 739: 730: 723: 722: 720: 715: 714: 713: 703: 698: 695: 694: 685: 678: 677: 675: 674: 669: 664: 653: 652: 651: 644: 637: 630: 623: 611: 606: 601: 600: 599: 594: 592:Kindu atrocity 589: 582: 581: 580: 568: 563: 558: 553: 541: 540: 539: 534: 533: 532: 522: 514: 509: 506: 505: 498: 496: 495: 488: 481: 473: 467: 466: 461: 460: 459: 454: 444: 443: 442: 432: 426: 425: 419: 416: 415: 407: 405: 404: 397: 390: 382: 374: 373: 368: 364: 363: 360: 359: 356: 355: 348: 339: 336: 335: 330: 318: 317: 312: 302: 301: 296: 292: 291: 288: 287: 284: 281: 278: 277: 274: 273: 269: 268: 265: 264: 263:5 October 1962 261: 255: 252: 251: 248: 245: 242: 241: 238: 235: 232: 231: 228: 225: 222: 221: 218: 215: 212: 211: 208: 202: 199: 198: 195: 194: 189: 188:Historical era 185: 184: 181: 180: 178:Albert Kalonji 175: 172: 169: 168: 165: 164: 161: 157: 156: 119: 115: 114: 109: 105: 104: 99: 95: 94: 87: 79: 78: 73: 66: 65: 61: 54: 53: 52: 49: 48: 44: 43: 38: 35: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8062: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8017: 8015: 8008: 8005: 7968: 7967: 7963: 7961: 7960: 7956: 7954: 7953: 7949: 7947: 7946: 7942: 7940: 7939: 7935: 7933: 7932: 7928: 7926: 7925: 7921: 7920: 7918: 7914: 7908: 7907: 7903: 7901: 7900: 7896: 7894: 7893: 7889: 7887: 7886: 7882: 7880: 7879: 7875: 7873: 7872: 7868: 7866: 7865: 7861: 7859: 7858: 7854: 7852: 7851: 7847: 7845: 7844: 7840: 7838: 7837: 7833: 7831: 7830: 7826: 7824: 7823: 7819: 7817: 7816: 7812: 7810: 7809: 7805: 7803: 7802: 7798: 7796: 7795: 7791: 7789: 7788: 7784: 7782: 7781: 7777: 7775: 7774: 7770: 7768: 7767: 7766:Congo Central 7763: 7762: 7760: 7756: 7750: 7749: 7745: 7743: 7742: 7738: 7736: 7735: 7731: 7729: 7728: 7724: 7722: 7721: 7717: 7715: 7714: 7710: 7708: 7707: 7703: 7701: 7700: 7696: 7694: 7693: 7689: 7687: 7686: 7682: 7680: 7679: 7675: 7674: 7672: 7668: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7586:Kongo Central 7584: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7572: 7571:Kasaï-Central 7569: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7533: 7531: 7527: 7523: 7516: 7511: 7509: 7504: 7502: 7497: 7496: 7493: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7469: 7466: 7465: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7452: 7449: 7448: 7447: 7444: 7440: 7437: 7436: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7426: 7424: 7418: 7411: 7408: 7405: 7402: 7401: 7399: 7395: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7346: 7344: 7340: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7320:M23 rebellion 7318: 7317: 7315: 7313: 7309: 7299: 7296: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7283: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7273:Beni massacre 7271: 7270: 7268: 7264: 7260: 7254: 7251: 7247: 7246:Uvira clashes 7244: 7243: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7223: 7221: 7217: 7216:Kivu conflict 7213: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7197: 7193: 7191: 7190: 7186: 7185: 7183: 7179: 7175: 7172: 7168: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7156: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7133: 7130: 7129: 7128: 7127: 7123: 7121: 7120: 7116: 7115: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7077: 7076: 7075: 7074: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7059: 7057: 7053: 7049: 7043: 7040: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7022: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7012: 7010: 7006: 6998: 6997: 6993: 6992: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6963: 6959: 6955: 6952: 6951: 6950: 6949: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6932:Niemba ambush 6930: 6928: 6927: 6923: 6922: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6899: 6896: 6892: 6889: 6888: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6878: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6870: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6854: 6851: 6847: 6844: 6843: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6818: 6816: 6812: 6806: 6805:Belgian Congo 6803: 6799: 6796: 6795: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6785: 6782: 6778: 6770: 6765: 6763: 6758: 6756: 6751: 6750: 6747: 6734: 6730: 6727: 6723: 6722: 6720: 6716: 6709: 6705: 6702: 6698: 6695: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6684: 6677: 6673: 6668: 6667: 6662: 6659: 6658: 6653: 6650: 6649: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6635: 6632: 6631: 6626: 6625: 6623: 6619: 6616: 6612: 6609: 6605: 6600: 6596: 6593: 6589: 6586: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6571: 6570: 6568: 6567: 6562: 6559: 6555: 6552: 6548: 6545: 6544:Niemba ambush 6541: 6538: 6537: 6532: 6531: 6529: 6525: 6520: 6516: 6511: 6507: 6506: 6504: 6500: 6497: 6493: 6492: 6488: 6485: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6472: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6450: 6447: 6443: 6442: 6440: 6436: 6429: 6425: 6422: 6418: 6415: 6411: 6408: 6404: 6401: 6397: 6394: 6390: 6387: 6383: 6380: 6376: 6373: 6369: 6366: 6362: 6359: 6355: 6352: 6348: 6347: 6345: 6341: 6334: 6330: 6327: 6326:Jean Schramme 6323: 6320: 6316: 6313: 6309: 6306: 6302: 6301: 6299: 6295: 6288: 6284: 6281: 6277: 6274: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6263: 6256: 6252: 6249: 6245: 6242: 6238: 6235: 6231: 6230: 6228: 6224: 6221: 6217: 6210: 6206: 6203: 6199: 6196: 6192: 6189: 6185: 6182: 6178: 6175: 6171: 6168: 6164: 6161: 6157: 6154: 6150: 6147: 6143: 6140: 6136: 6133: 6129: 6126: 6122: 6119: 6115: 6112: 6108: 6105: 6101: 6098: 6094: 6093: 6091: 6085: 6078: 6074: 6073: 6071: 6067: 6060: 6056: 6053: 6049: 6046: 6042: 6039: 6035: 6032: 6028: 6025: 6021: 6018: 6014: 6013: 6011: 6009:UN contingent 6007: 6000: 5996: 5993: 5989: 5986: 5982: 5981: 5979: 5975: 5968: 5964: 5963: 5961: 5955: 5948: 5947:Moïse Tshombe 5944: 5941: 5937: 5934: 5930: 5927: 5926:Pierre Mulele 5923: 5920: 5916: 5913: 5909: 5906: 5902: 5899: 5895: 5892: 5888: 5885: 5881: 5878: 5874: 5871: 5867: 5864: 5860: 5857: 5853: 5852: 5850: 5846: 5841: 5834: 5829: 5827: 5822: 5820: 5815: 5814: 5811: 5804: 5794: 5792: 5782: 5778: 5771: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5761: 5756: 5752: 5749: 5746: 5745: 5741: 5733: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5698: 5694: 5692:2-7475-8132-2 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5670:1-85984-410-3 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5637: 5636: 5631: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5608: 5601: 5597: 5594:. p. 2. 5593: 5587: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5567: 5556: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5534: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5511: 5507: 5502: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5477: 5473: 5472: 5464: 5459: 5458: 5454: 5449:(6): 798–808. 5448: 5445:(in French). 5444: 5437: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5417:(in French). 5416: 5412: 5408: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5374: 5366: 5361: 5354: 5350: 5343: 5338: 5337: 5333: 5327: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5308: 5304: 5300: 5296: 5293:. Princeton: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5274: 5270: 5269:PublicAffairs 5266: 5261: 5257: 5255:0-8047-0793-6 5251: 5247: 5243: 5242: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5210: 5206: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5187: 5183: 5181:9781440830525 5177: 5173: 5169: 5168: 5162: 5158: 5156:9789401192675 5152: 5148: 5147: 5141: 5137: 5135:9781351138161 5131: 5127: 5123: 5118: 5114: 5112:9788173044250 5108: 5104: 5103: 5097: 5093: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5065:1-56072-232-0 5061: 5057: 5053: 5048: 5044: 5042:9780750965804 5038: 5034: 5030: 5029: 5023: 5019: 5013: 5006: 5005: 4999: 4988: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4973: 4971:9780230286481 4967: 4963: 4959: 4958: 4952: 4948: 4942: 4937: 4936: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4916: 4912: 4907: 4903: 4901:0-87073-901-8 4897: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4872:9780773589629 4868: 4864: 4860: 4859: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4830:0-87586-416-3 4826: 4822: 4817: 4813: 4811:0-313-31696-1 4807: 4803: 4802: 4796: 4792: 4786: 4782: 4777: 4776: 4769: 4765: 4763:9780307424303 4759: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4732: 4728: 4726:0-275-96906-1 4722: 4718: 4714: 4709: 4705: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4690: 4684: 4683: 4679: 4673: 4666: 4661: 4658: 4654: 4649: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4634: 4631: 4627: 4622: 4619: 4615: 4610: 4607: 4603: 4598: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4583: 4580: 4577:, p. 40. 4576: 4571: 4568: 4564: 4562: 4556: 4553: 4550:, p. 68. 4549: 4544: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4529: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4514: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4499: 4496: 4492: 4487: 4484: 4480: 4475: 4472: 4468: 4463: 4460: 4457:, p. 89. 4456: 4451: 4448: 4444: 4439: 4436: 4433:, p. 88. 4432: 4427: 4424: 4420: 4415: 4412: 4408: 4403: 4400: 4396: 4391: 4388: 4384: 4379: 4376: 4373:, p. 37. 4372: 4367: 4365: 4361: 4356: 4349: 4346: 4343:, p. 40. 4342: 4337: 4335: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4323: 4317: 4314: 4310: 4305: 4302: 4299:, p. 92. 4298: 4293: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4278: 4274: 4273:Simmonds 2012 4269: 4266: 4262: 4257: 4254: 4250: 4245: 4242: 4239:, p. 33. 4238: 4233: 4230: 4227:, p. 26. 4226: 4221: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4206: 4203: 4200:, p. 38. 4199: 4194: 4191: 4187: 4182: 4180: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4165: 4162: 4158: 4153: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4138: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4123: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4108: 4104: 4099: 4097: 4093: 4090:, p. 66. 4089: 4084: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4069: 4066: 4062: 4057: 4054: 4051:, p. 61. 4050: 4045: 4042: 4038: 4033: 4030: 4027:, p. 97. 4026: 4021: 4018: 4014: 4013:Williams 2021 4009: 4006: 4003:, p. 90. 4002: 3997: 3994: 3991:, p. 67. 3990: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3964: 3961: 3957: 3952: 3949: 3946:, p. 71. 3945: 3940: 3937: 3933: 3931: 3925: 3922: 3918: 3917:Dufresne 2011 3913: 3910: 3906: 3901: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3886: 3883: 3879: 3874: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3859: 3855: 3853: 3847: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3822: 3820: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3801: 3798: 3794: 3792: 3786: 3783: 3780:, p. 86. 3779: 3774: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3759: 3756: 3753:, p. 66. 3752: 3747: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3737: 3734:, p. 35. 3733: 3728: 3726: 3722: 3719:, p. 37. 3718: 3713: 3710: 3707:, p. 85. 3706: 3701: 3698: 3695:, p. 26. 3694: 3693:Dufresne 2011 3689: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3677: 3674:, p. 15. 3673: 3668: 3665: 3661: 3656: 3653: 3649: 3644: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3618: 3616: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3601: 3598: 3594: 3592: 3586: 3583: 3579: 3574: 3571: 3568:, p. 16. 3567: 3562: 3559: 3555: 3550: 3547: 3543: 3538: 3535: 3532:, p. 74. 3531: 3526: 3523: 3520:, p. 76. 3519: 3514: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3499: 3496:, p. 64. 3495: 3490: 3487: 3483: 3478: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3451: 3448: 3444: 3439: 3436: 3432: 3427: 3425: 3421: 3418:, p. 29. 3417: 3412: 3409: 3406:, p. 28. 3405: 3400: 3397: 3393: 3392:Pakenham 1992 3388: 3385: 3381: 3380:Pakenham 1992 3376: 3373: 3369: 3367: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3331: 3327: 3325: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3305: 3299: 3288: 3285: 3281: 3275: 3272: 3269:excise taxes. 3267: 3261: 3258: 3254: 3248: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3224:État autonome 3219: 3216: 3210: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3198: 3193: 3187: 3184: 3178: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3156: 3152: 3146: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3125: 3122: 3115: 3110: 3106: 3103: 3101: 3098: 3096: 3093: 3090: 3087: 3086: 3082: 3071: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3056: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3016: 3014: 3010: 3009:Eastern Kasai 3006: 3002: 2997: 2987: 2980: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2945: 2943: 2932: 2930: 2924: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2897: 2888: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2865: 2858: 2853: 2846: 2844: 2840: 2838: 2834: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2804: 2800: 2794: 2792: 2788: 2787:United States 2783: 2779: 2773: 2770: 2764: 2762: 2761: 2756: 2752: 2745: 2743: 2742: 2735: 2727: 2722: 2720: 2717: 2713: 2708: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2691:. The title, 2690: 2683: 2679: 2677: 2675: 2671: 2666: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2643:anticommunist 2640: 2639:pro-Westerner 2636: 2632: 2627: 2626: 2620: 2611: 2606: 2599: 2597: 2595: 2594:authoritarian 2591: 2586: 2583: 2578: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2532: 2528: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2512: 2508: 2503: 2501: 2497: 2489: 2485: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2460: 2458: 2454: 2449: 2447: 2438: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2414: 2413: 2409: 2407: 2406: 2402: 2400: 2397: 2396: 2393: 2384: 2374: 2371: 2369: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2354: 2351: 2349: 2348:Niemba Ambush 2346: 2344: 2341: 2339: 2336: 2334: 2331: 2329: 2326: 2324: 2321: 2319: 2316: 2315: 2312: 2307: 2301: 2292: 2289: 2287: 2284: 2282: 2279: 2277: 2274: 2272: 2269: 2267: 2264: 2262: 2259: 2256: 2247: 2237: 2234: 2232: 2229: 2227: 2224: 2222: 2219: 2217: 2214: 2212: 2209: 2207: 2206:Moise Tshombe 2204: 2202: 2199: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2188: 2187: 2186: 2180: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2164:King Baudouin 2162: 2160: 2157: 2156: 2155: 2150: 2141: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2101: 2098: 2096: 2095:Belgian Congo 2093: 2092: 2089: 2080: 2075: 2069: 2064: 2052: 2047: 2045: 2040: 2038: 2033: 2032: 2029: 2022: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2013: 2008: 2002: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1982: 1980: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1965: 1961: 1952: 1948: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1933: 1932: 1927: 1926:Moïse Tshombe 1923: 1919: 1915: 1914: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1882:(MNC), was a 1881: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1870: 1865: 1861: 1853: 1848: 1844: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1827: 1824: 1820: 1815: 1813: 1809: 1804: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1790:indirect rule 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1762: 1760: 1759:Belgian Congo 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1703:Colonial rule 1702: 1697: 1695: 1693: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1640: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1613: 1608: 1604: 1599: 1597: 1594:known as the 1593: 1592:Belgian Congo 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1546: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1532: 1531: 1530: 1522: 1521: 1517: 1515: 1514: 1510: 1508: 1507: 1503: 1501: 1500: 1496: 1494: 1493: 1489: 1488: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1448: 1447: 1446: 1445: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1429: 1428:Niemba ambush 1426: 1424: 1423: 1419: 1418: 1417: 1414: 1410: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1399: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1389: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1381: 1378: 1373: 1365: 1360: 1358: 1353: 1351: 1346: 1345: 1342: 1326: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1289: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1270: 1267: 1258: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1210: 1209:2nd Kitshanga 1207: 1205: 1204:1st Kitshanga 1202: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1191: 1190: 1187: 1185: 1184:Kagogo ambush 1182: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1170: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1137: 1133: 1132:Uvira clashes 1130: 1129: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1093: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1084: 1080: 1075: 1074:Kivu conflict 1067: 1062: 1060: 1055: 1053: 1048: 1047: 1044: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 996: 993: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 975: 970: 962: 957: 955: 950: 948: 943: 942: 939: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 912: 908: 906: 903: 901: 898: 896: 893: 891: 888: 886: 883: 881: 878: 876: 875: 871: 870: 867: 862: 854: 844: 841: 839: 836: 834: 831: 829: 826: 824: 823: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 808: 805: 802: 801: 797: 794: 792: 789: 785: 782: 781: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 751: 748: 745: 744: 741: 736: 728: 719: 716: 712: 709: 708: 707: 704: 702: 699: 696: 691: 683: 673: 670: 668: 665: 663: 660: 659: 658: 657: 650: 649: 645: 643: 642: 638: 636: 635: 631: 629: 628: 624: 622: 621: 617: 616: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 602: 598: 595: 593: 590: 588: 587: 583: 579: 576: 575: 574: 573: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 556:Niemba ambush 554: 552: 551: 547: 546: 545: 542: 538: 535: 531: 528: 527: 526: 523: 521: 518: 517: 515: 513: 510: 507: 502: 494: 489: 487: 482: 480: 475: 474: 471: 465: 462: 458: 455: 453: 450: 449: 448: 447:Belgian Congo 445: 441: 438: 437: 436: 433: 431: 428: 427: 424: 421: 420: 417: 412: 409:Conflicts in 403: 398: 396: 391: 389: 384: 383: 380: 372: 369: 367:Today part of 365: 349: 347: 344: 343: 340: 334: 331: 324: 323: 320: 319: 316: 313: 311: 308: 307: 303: 300: 297: 293: 289: 285: 266: 262: 259: 249: 239: 230:12 April 1961 229: 220:9 August 1960 219: 209: 206: 193: 190: 186: 182: 179: 176: 162: 155: 151: 147: 141: 140: 135: 131: 125: 124: 120: 116: 113: 110: 106: 103: 100: 96: 92:to the south. 91: 85: 80: 70: 58: 50: 45: 41: 33: 30: 19: 8030:Congo Crisis 7977: 7964: 7959:Léopoldville 7957: 7950: 7943: 7936: 7929: 7922: 7904: 7897: 7890: 7884: 7883: 7876: 7869: 7864:Nord-Katanga 7862: 7855: 7848: 7841: 7834: 7827: 7820: 7813: 7806: 7801:Kivu Central 7799: 7794:Kibali-Ituri 7792: 7785: 7778: 7771: 7764: 7746: 7739: 7732: 7725: 7718: 7711: 7704: 7697: 7690: 7683: 7676: 7546:Haut-Katanga 7312:M23 conflict 7194: 7187: 7153: 7124: 7117: 7086: 7071: 6996:Dragon Rouge 6995: 6961: 6954:Camp Massart 6947: 6925: 6885: 6863:Congo Crisis 6788:Colonization 6665: 6656: 6647: 6638: 6630:Dragon Rouge 6629: 6583: 6574:Camp Massart 6565: 6535: 6502: 6446:Larry Devlin 6393:Jack Malloch 6372:Hans Germani 6319:Marc Goosens 6287:Norbert Moke 6273:Louis Bobozo 5991: 5977:Rebel forces 5905:Théo Lefèvre 5840:Congo Crisis 5769: 5758: 5722: 5718: 5705: 5701: 5682: 5660: 5640: 5611: 5591: 5570: 5558:. Retrieved 5552: 5536:. Retrieved 5532:Le Potentiel 5530: 5514:. Retrieved 5510:the original 5493:. Retrieved 5489:the original 5484: 5470: 5462: 5446: 5442: 5418: 5414: 5400:the original 5377: 5371: 5353:the original 5348: 5311: 5290: 5267:. New York: 5264: 5244:. Stanford: 5240: 5213: 5190: 5166: 5145: 5121: 5101: 5077: 5056:Nova Science 5054:. New York: 5051: 5027: 5003: 4990:. Retrieved 4984: 4956: 4934: 4910: 4884: 4857: 4839: 4820: 4800: 4774: 4748: 4735: 4712: 4688: 4674:Bibliography 4660: 4633: 4621: 4609: 4582: 4575:Boulden 2001 4570: 4560: 4555: 4548:Willame 1972 4518:Packham 1996 4503:Packham 1996 4498: 4491:Packham 1996 4486: 4479:Packham 1996 4474: 4467:Packham 1996 4462: 4455:Packham 1996 4450: 4443:Packham 1996 4438: 4431:Packham 1996 4426: 4414: 4407:Hoskyns 1965 4402: 4395:Packham 1996 4390: 4383:Willame 1972 4378: 4371:Willame 1972 4354: 4348: 4341:Packham 1996 4321: 4316: 4309:Hoskyns 1965 4304: 4292: 4280: 4268: 4256: 4244: 4232: 4210:Hoskyns 1965 4205: 4198:Packham 1996 4193: 4164: 4144:, p. 5. 4122: 4110: 4088:Packham 1996 4073:Gondola 2002 4068: 4056: 4044: 4032: 4020: 4008: 4001:Packham 1996 3996: 3989:Willame 1972 3963: 3956:Willame 1972 3951: 3944:Packham 1996 3939: 3929: 3924: 3912: 3890:Rubbens 1961 3885: 3873: 3861: 3851: 3800: 3790: 3785: 3758: 3751:Willame 1972 3732:Willame 1972 3717:Packham 1996 3712: 3700: 3667: 3655: 3648:Olivier 2010 3643: 3600: 3590: 3585: 3573: 3561: 3549: 3537: 3525: 3513: 3501: 3489: 3477: 3450: 3438: 3411: 3399: 3387: 3375: 3366:Le Potentiel 3365: 3333: 3323: 3287: 3279: 3274: 3260: 3247: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3218: 3209: 3197:authenticité 3195: 3186: 3177: 3169: 3161: 3157: 3145: 3134:French Congo 3124: 3061:failed state 3057: 3052: 3030: 3017: 3012: 3007:and renamed 2992: 2946: 2941: 2938: 2925: 2902: 2873:Antananarivo 2866: 2862: 2841: 2795: 2791:Soviet Union 2775: 2766: 2758: 2751:human rights 2748: 2739: 2737: 2715: 2711: 2709: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2686: 2681: 2667: 2647:South Africa 2615: 2590:militaristic 2587: 2579: 2562: 2550: 2547: 2524: 2515: 2504: 2499: 2495: 2493: 2472: 2464: 2461: 2456: 2450: 2442: 2410: 2403: 2327: 2306:Congo Crisis 2201:Daniel Kanza 2184: 2183: 2153: 2100:World War II 2084:Independence 2017:Jason Sendwe 2010: 2007:Léopoldville 2003: 1983: 1976: 1969:Stanleyville 1959: 1956: 1929: 1922:Kongo people 1911: 1884:united front 1877: 1867: 1857: 1832:Lulua Frères 1831: 1828: 1816: 1799: 1785: 1765: 1763: 1755:Kasai region 1725: 1691: 1689: 1677:Léopoldville 1668: 1644:an offensive 1641: 1625:Kasai region 1610: 1600: 1596:Congo Crisis 1569:unrecognised 1556: 1555: 1528: 1527: 1519: 1512: 1505: 1498: 1492:Dragon Rouge 1491: 1457: 1450:Camp Massart 1443: 1421: 1396: 1372:Congo Crisis 909: 872: 821: 803: 746: 655: 654: 647: 640: 633: 626: 620:Dragon Rouge 619: 585: 578:Camp Massart 571: 549: 524: 501:Congo Crisis 430:Colonization 422: 315:Succeeded by 314: 309: 210:30 June 1960 192:Congo Crisis 144:Independent 137: 121: 74:Coat of arms 39: 29: 7999: / 7885:South Kasai 7857:Moyen-Congo 7626:Nord-Ubangi 7551:Haut-Lomami 7266:(Post-2007) 7181:(Post-2003) 7139:Six-Day War 7111:(1998–2003) 7055:(1996–1997) 6886:South Kasai 6866:(1960–1965) 6648:White Giant 6639:Dragon Noir 6503:South Kasai 6460:Che Guevara 6414:Jerry Puren 6407:John Peters 6255:Pat Quinlan 6241:K.A.S. Raja 6195:15 Commando 6188:14 Commando 6181:13 Commando 6174:12 Commando 6167:11 Commando 5842:(1960–1965) 5560:28 December 5538:25 November 5495:12 November 5220:(Habitat). 5216:. Nairobi: 5105:. Manohar. 4665:Turner 2007 4653:Turner 2007 4638:French 2007 4626:Nugent 2004 4614:Nugent 2004 4602:Nugent 2004 4285:Janzen 2013 4249:UN-CHS 1991 4237:Haskin 2005 4225:Haskin 2005 4186:Zeilig 2008 4169:Haskin 2005 4142:Haskin 2005 4025:Nugent 2004 3778:Nugent 2004 3705:Nugent 2004 3566:Haskin 2005 3554:Zeilig 2008 3542:Zeilig 2008 3530:Zeilig 2008 3518:Zeilig 2008 3506:Zeilig 2008 3494:Zeilig 2008 3482:Freund 1998 3416:Turner 2007 3404:Turner 2007 3292:reputation. 3228:État minier 3138:Brazzaville 2812:kwashiorkor 2680:Kalonji as 2582:gendarmerie 2412:Table Ronde 2236:Joseph Iléo 1896:Joseph Iléo 1874:bourgeoisie 1860:Pan-African 1823:Lulua river 1782:specialised 1751:Luba Empire 1739:Congo Basin 1692:coup d'état 1685:coup d'état 1673:Luba Empire 1665:gendarmerie 1574:within the 1557:South Kasai 1506:White Giant 1499:Dragon Noir 1397:South Kasai 1015:Plaine Savo 895:Six-Day War 822:Thunderbolt 634:White Giant 627:Dragon Noir 525:South Kasai 452:during WWII 310:Preceded by 258:Dissolution 128:Autonomous 36:South Kasai 8014:Categories 7843:Mai-Ndombe 7836:Luluabourg 7780:Haut-Congo 7748:South Kivu 7734:North Kivu 7651:Tanganyika 7646:Sud-Ubangi 7641:South Kivu 7631:North Kivu 7611:Mai-Ndombe 7420:Overview / 6942:Jadotville 6798:Atrocities 6558:Jadotville 6379:Mike Hoare 6351:Bob Denard 6219:Commanders 6160:9 Commando 6153:6 Commando 6146:5 Commando 6139:4 Commando 5708:(1): 1–26. 5314:. London: 4533:Othen 2015 4157:Bring 2011 4103:Young 1965 4061:Kanza 1994 3968:Young 1965 3878:Young 1965 3763:Kanza 1994 3660:Kanza 1994 3300:References 3021:J. 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