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1205:, from one of Rushton's own study it emerges that the average cranial capacity for North American blacks is similar to the average for Caucasians from comparable climatic zones. Per Cernovsky, people from different climates tend to have minor differences in brain size, but these do not necessarily imply differences in intelligence; for instance, though women tend to have smaller brains than men they also have more neural complexity and loading in certain areas of the brain than men.
549:
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criticized for questionable methodology, such as lumping in
African-Americans with equatorial Africans, as people from hot climates generally have slightly smaller crania. Rushton also compared equatorial Africans from the poorest and least educated areas of Africa against Asians from the wealthiest and most educated areas of Asia and areas with colder climates which generally induce larger cranium sizes in evolution. According to
1900:
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1016:, a collaborator of Virchow, stated in the same congress that the people of Europe, be them German, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of various races", furthermore declaring that the "results of craniology" led to "struggle against any theory concerning the superiority of this or that European race" on others.
1332:
859:
remeasured half of the skulls used in Morton's reports, finding that in only 2% of cases did Morton's measurements differ significantly from their own and that these errors either were random or gave a larger than accurate volume to
African skulls, the reverse of the bias that Gould imputed to Morton.
304:
There is a rift between forensic and biological anthropologists in the use of race in craniometry, with biological anthropologists attempting to disprove any theory of biological race, compared to how many forensic anthropologists make factual inquiries based on societally-created racial categories.
858:
In 2011, physical anthropologists at the
University of Pennsylvania, which owns Morton's collection, published a study that concluded that almost every detail of Gould's analysis was wrong and that "Morton did not manipulate his data to support his preconceptions, contra Gould." They identified and
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In the 19th century the names of notable contributors to the literature of craniometry quickly increased in number. While it is impossible to analyse each contribution, or even record a complete list of the names of the authors, notable researchers who used craniometric methods to compare humans to
698:
from the
African American population. The distancing of the African population in American society through craniometry helped greatly in the efforts to scientifically prove they were inferior. The ideologies set forth by this new "American School" of thought were then used to justify maintaining an
798:
size. A large skull meant a large brain and high intellectual capacity, and a small skull indicated a small brain and decreased intellectual capacity. Morton collected hundreds of human skulls from all over the world. By studying these skulls he claimed that each race had a separate origin. Morton
301:, or helping law enforcement to identify the race of the deceased. Forensic anthropologists can correctly identify the perceived social race of an individual with rates from 81-99% accuracy depending on the craniometric data, the number of variables used, the populations, and the type of analysis.
666:
Measurements were first made to compare the skulls of men with those of other animals. This wide comparison constituted the first subdivision of craniometric studies. The artist-anatomist Camper developed a theory to measure the facial angle, for which he is chiefly known in later anthropological
1200:
pattern. However, in the same article Beals explicitly warns against using the findings as indicative of racial traits, "If one merely lists such means by geographical region or race, causes of similarity by genogroup and ecotype are hopelessly confounded". Rushton's findings have also been
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He concluded that skull and facial features were clues to genetic criminality, and that these features could be measured with craniometers and calipers with the results developed into quantitative research. A few of the 14 identified traits of a criminal included large
772:, collected hundreds of human skulls from all over the world and started trying to find a way to classify them according to some logical criterion. Influenced by the common theories of his time, he claimed that he could judge the intellectual capacity of a race by the
458:
into various, hierarchized, different "races", spanning from the "Aryan white race, dolichocephalic", to the "brachycephalic" "mediocre and inert" race, best represented by the population of "France, Spain, Italy, all of Asia, and most of the Slavic countries"
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that the
Caucasians had the biggest brains, averaging 87 cubic inches, Indians were in the middle with an average of 82 cubic inches and Negroes had the smallest brains with an average of 78 cubic inches.
689:
the Anglo-American hegemony present in
America during the eighteenth and nineteenth century helped establish "The American School of Craniometry" which helped establish the American and Western concept of
382:
Quite separately, certain artists from the 15th century onward made measurements of heads and skulls with a view to attaining greater accuracy in their representation of those parts of the human frame.
610:(1722–1789), distinguished both as an artist and as an anatomist, published some lectures containing an account of his craniometrical methods. These laid the foundation of all subsequent work.
779:
After inspecting three mummies from ancient
Egyptian catacombs, Morton concluded that Caucasians and other races were already distinct three thousand years ago. Since the Bible indicated that
2772:
1192:. Other similar claims were previously made by Ho et al. (1980), who measured 1,261 brains at autopsy, and Beals et al. (1984), who measured approximately 20,000 skulls, finding the same
855:
John
Michael found Morton's original data to be more accurate than Gould describes, concluding that "ontrary to Gould's interpretation... Morton's research was conducted with integrity."
1954:
1293:
685:"Craniometry" also played a role in the foundation of the United States and the ideologies or racism that would become ingrained in the American psyche. As John Jeffries articulates in
1095:, who claimed to be able to scientifically identify links between the nature of a crime and the personality or physical appearance of the offender. The originator of the concept of a "
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Camper claimed that antique statues presented an angle of 90°, Europeans of 80°, Black people of 70° and the orangutan of 58°, thus displaying a hierarchic view of mankind, based on a
851:(1981) and claimed Samuel Morton had fudged data and "overpacked" the skulls with filler in order to justify his preconceived notions on racial differences. A subsequent study by the
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1224:
Brain volume data and other craniometric data are used in mainstream science to compare modern-day animal species, and to analyze the evolution of the human species in archaeology.
736:", according to which each individual mirrored the evolution of the whole species during his life. Although outdated, his work contributed then to the examination of human life.
942:. Gobineau, meanwhile, made three main divisions between races, based not on colour but on climatic conditions and geographic location, and which privileged the "Aryan" race.
1053:, which purported to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head and thus of the skull. At the turn of the 19th century,
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Today, physical and forensic anthropologists use craniometry to study the evolution of human populations, determining the origin of ancient remains such as the
1947:
787:, only a thousand years ago before this, Morton claimed that Noah's sons could not possibly account for every race on Earth. According to Morton's theory of
694:. As Jeffries points out the rigid establishment of race in eighteenth-century American society came from a new school of sciences which sought to distance
1924:
670:
Camper's work followed 18th-century scientific theories. His measurements of facial angle were used to liken the skulls of non-Europeans to those of apes.
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2724:
1759:
Cernovsky, Z. Z. (1997)A critical look at intelligence research, In Fox, D. & Prilleltensky, I. (Eds.) Critical
Psychology, London: Sage, ps 121–133.
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1940:
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Measurements of the skull based on specific anatomical reference points are used in both forensic facial reconstruction and portrait sculpture.
1065:: vision), a method to determine the personality and development of mental and moral faculties on the basis of the external shape of the skull.
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1915:
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957:. Other historical studies alleging a Black-White difference in brain size include Bean (1906), Mall, (1909), Pearl, (1934) and Vint (1934).
322:
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435:, the categories of which were "chamaecranic" (low-skulled), "orthocranic", (medium high-skulled), and "hypsicranic" (high-skulled).
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242:
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120:
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63:
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912:(1853–1855), which is one of the founding works of the group of studies that segregates society based on "race", in contrast to
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among various species. According to this technique, a "facial angle" was formed by drawing two lines: one horizontally from the
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to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. He classified brains into three main categories, "dolichocephalic" (from the
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2620:
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2193:
1993:
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Ousley, Stephen (2009). "Understanding Race and Human
Variation: Why Forensic Anthropologists are Good at Identifying Race".
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Ousley, Stephen (2009). "Understanding Race and Human Variation: Why Forensic Anthropologists are Good at Identifying Race".
162:
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1998:
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David Hurst Thomas, Skull Wars Kennewick Man, Archaeology, And The Battle For Native American Identity, 2001, pp. 38 – 41
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System". Physiognomy claimed a correlation between physical features (especially facial features) and character traits.
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49:
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519:" (Congo, Florida) was even excluded from the discussion. Vacher de Lapouge became one of the leading inspirations of
348:" (short and broad-headed) race. On the other hand, craniometry was also used as evidence against the existence of a "
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1980:
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More direct measurements involve examinations of brains from corpses, or more recently, imaging techniques such as
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978:
439:
314:
1388:. Biological Affinity in Forensic Identification of Human Skeletal Remains: Beyond Black and White. p. 111.
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1963:
1298:. Biological Affinity in Forensic Identification of Human Skeletal Remains: Beyond Black and White. p. 106
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91:
85:
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1556:"Cultural Biases Reflected in the Hominid Fossil Record" (history), by Joshua Barbach and Craig Byron, 2005,
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launched a study of craniometry, which gave surprising results according to contemporary theories on the "
723:
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102:
428:, long and thin), "brachycephalic" (short and broad) and "mesocephalic" (intermediate length and width).
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733:
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Beals, Kenneth L.; et al. (1984). "Brain Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines".
1337:(2nd ed.). Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains. pp. 293–295
1261:
1171:, had shown a pattern of decreasing brain size proceeding from East Asians to Europeans to Africans.
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842:
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Mémoire sur les différences de la situation du grand trou occipital dans l'homme et dans les animaux
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991:(1899), who even made a map of Europe according to the alleged cephalic index of its inhabitants.
442:(1854–1936), one of the founders of pseudo-scientific theories in this area and a theoretician of
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Rushton, J. P. (1990). "Race, Brain Size, and Intelligence: A Rejoinder to Cain and Vanderwolf".
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1417:(2nd ed.). Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains. p. 305.
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1167:(1995), reanalyzed Gould's retabulation in 1989, and argued that Samuel Morton, in his 1839 book
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903:
883:
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874:(1854), carried Morton's ideas further and backed up his findings which supported the notion of
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These researches on skulls and skeletons helped liberate 19th-century European science from its
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Ariani, indogermani, stirpi mediterranee: aspetti del dibattito sulle razze europee (1870–1914)
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1630:"The Mismeasure of Science: Stephen Jay Gould versus Samuel George Morton on Skulls and Bias"
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1119:; hard shifty eyes; scanty beard or baldness; insensitivity to pain; long arms, and so on.
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man, thinking it to be the remains of a bear. They gave the material to amateur naturalist
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Lewis, Jason E.; DeGusta, D.; Meyer, M.R.; Monge, J.M.; Mann, A.E.; et al. (2011).
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290:, the pseudoscience that tried to link personality and character to head shape, and
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2550:
2335:
2121:
2076:
2071:
2013:
1988:
1825:
1810:"Evolving knowledge of sex differences in brain structure, function, and chemistry"
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981:'s racial classification ("Teutonic", "Alpine" and "Mediterranean") was re-used by
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753:
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695:
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489:
275:
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1932:
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1217:, which can be used on living persons. Such measurements are used in research on
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An Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America
699:
enslaved population to sustain the increasing number of slave plantations in the
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to the ear; and the other perpendicularly from the advancing part of the upper
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2003:
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Morton claimed that he could judge the intellectual capacity of a race by the
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641:
464:
The end of the soul: scientific modernity, atheism, and anthropology in France
353:
287:
283:
2133:
1928:. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 372–374.
1797:
Insider – The Female Brain, By Ivory E. Welcome, MBA Candidate December 2009
1519:
1127:
1115:, flattened or upturned nose; handle-shaped ears; hawk-like noses or fleshy
1112:
1023:
quoted an 1892 discussion with him concerning these criticisms, also citing
1007:
633:
512:
17:
1880:
1843:
1665:
309:
in the 19th and the first part of the 20th century. Theories attempting to
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Virchow later rejected measure of skulls as legitimate means of taxonomy.
2852:
2232:
1103:, Lombroso tried to recognize criminals by measurements of their bodies.
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626:
443:
365:
1593:
Michael, J. S. (1988). "A New Look at Morton's Craniological Research".
726:", which stated that man and ape were descended from a common ancestor.
613:
Pieter Camper invented the "facial angle", a measure meant to determine
2155:
2150:
2116:
2091:
2008:
1732:
1579:
1577:
954:
757:
to be discovered, demonstrated mankind's deep ancestry outside Europe.
678:
644:(1824–1880), founder of the Anthropological Society in 1859 in France.
618:
891:
of the species. Darwin conceived the common origin of all humans (the
2222:
2036:
1180:, Rushton alleged an average endocranial volume of 1,364 cm for
1080:(1776–1832), who wrote extensively on the "Drs. Gall and Spurzheim's
923:
508:
916:' (1658–1722) theory of races. Henri de Boulainvilliers opposed the
1724:
1606:
1123:
Criticisms and revival of past cranial theories in the 20th century
1027:'s 1895 work, who basically proclaimed the failure of craniometry.
1905:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
1126:
672:
455:
451:
326:
318:
313:
became popular at this time, one of their prominent figures being
267:
254:
2822:
An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus
636:
conception of history. This scientific research was continued by
1857:
SchĂĽltke, Elisabeth (May 2009). "Theodor Kocher's craniometer".
949:(1824–1880) found the same pattern described by Samuel Morton's
520:
1936:
1374:, 367 F.3d 864, 870-872 (9th Circuit 2004).
311:
scientifically justify the segregation of society based on race
1214:
1116:
1108:
761:
Cranial capacity, races and 19th–20th-century scientific ideas
659:. The discovery was jointly announced in 1857, giving rise to
134:
70:
29:
647:
In 1856, workers found in a limestone quarry the skull of a
2708:
An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People
799:
had many skulls from ancient Egypt, and concluded that the
1482:
1480:
1478:
1476:
776:(the measure of the volume of the interior of the skull).
278:, measurement of the head, which in humans is a subset of
1516:
La Force du préjugé – Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles
1504:
La couleur et le sang – Doctrines racistes à la française
1415:
Craniofacial Criteria in the Skeletal Attribution of Race
1334:
Craniofacial Criteria in the Skeletal Attribution of Race
1111:, forward projection of jaw, low sloping forehead; high
714:
By comparing skeletons of apes to man, Huxley backed up
2790:
The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy
1808:
Cosgrove, KP; Mazure, CM; Staley, JK (October 2007).
1147:(1899) was eventually rewritten in 1939, just before
747:' (1858–1940) discovery in 1891 in Indonesia of the "
1161:, psychologist and author of the controversial work
1135:
of "a Negro head… a Caucasian skull… a Mongol head."
467:. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 171.
266:
is measurement of the cranium (the main part of the
2840:
2699:
2268:
2166:
2022:
1979:
1386:
The Sagittal Suture as an Indicator of Race and Sex
1295:
The Sagittal Suture as an Indicator of Race and Sex
1057:(1758–1822) developed "cranioscopy" (Ancient Greek
922:(French people), alleged descendants of the Nordic
881:Charles Darwin opposed Nott and Glidon in his 1871
165:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
481:Between these, Vacher de Lapouge identified the "
732:(1834–1919) became famous for his now outdated "
703:during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
360:to show the influence of environmental factors.
1867:(5). United States: 1001–4, discussion 1004–5.
1754:
1752:
1750:
967:'s map of the "cephalic index" in Europe, from
902:Furthermore, Josiah Nott was the translator of
938:people who were subordinated by the Franks by
870:in their monumental tribute to Morton's work,
259:A human skull and measurement device from 1902
2734:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
1948:
1068:Cranioscopy was later renamed to phrenology (
909:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
826:Based on craniometry data, Morton claimed in
294:, which tried the same for facial features.
8:
791:, races have been separate since the start.
655:, who turned the fossils over to anatomist
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2726:Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question
1955:
1941:
1933:
1677:
1675:
1427:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1398:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1355:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1316:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2750:The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
1833:
1655:
1645:
1486:
1463:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1444:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
597:Memoir on the Different Positions of the
243:Learn how and when to remove this message
225:Learn how and when to remove this message
121:Learn how and when to remove this message
1536:. Seattle: Bay Press. pp. 156–157.
959:
547:
84:This article includes a list of general
1284:
1031:Craniometry, phrenology and physiognomy
1006:" in the 1885 Anthropology Congress in
711:(1825–1895) of England and Paul Broca.
321:into various, hierarchized, different "
2341:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
1772:Personality and Individual Differences
1420:
1391:
1348:
1309:
845:, studied these craniometric works in
1151:, by Harvard physical anthropologist
768:(1799–1851), one of the inspirers of
565:compared skeletons of apes to humans.
530:. His classification was mirrored in
487:" (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "
305:It was once intensively practised in
7:
1002:", leading Virchow to denounce the "
811:. His two major monographs were the
558:Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature
555:: In the frontispiece from his 1863
163:adding citations to reliable sources
2893:Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness
1139:After being a main influence of US
1873:10.1227/01.NEU.0000344003.72056.7F
625:to the most prominent part of the
391:were pioneers in such researches.
364:used craniometry and the study of
90:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
2919:Race and intelligence controversy
2798:The Myth of the Twentieth Century
2718:The Outline of History of Mankind
1912:Duckworth, Wynfrid Laurence Henry
862:Morton's followers, particularly
431:A similar classification was the
45:This article has multiple issues.
2766:Heredity in Relation to Eugenics
1898:
1522:, La DĂ©couverte, 1987, 644 pages
461:Hecht, Jennifer Michael (2003).
139:
75:
34:
27:Measurement of the human cranium
1506:("Colour and Blood – doctrines
150:needs additional citations for
53:or discuss these issues on the
2758:Race Life of the Aryan Peoples
1964:Historical definitions of race
1826:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.03.001
934:, considered to be indigenous
638:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
454:and his social role") divided
438:These terms were then used by
1:
2782:The Passing of the Great Race
1269:, inventor of the craniometer
1257:Neuroscience and intelligence
1219:neuroscience and intelligence
1177:Race, Evolution, and Behavior
1049:Craniometry was also used in
841:, evolutionary biologist and
405:Swedish professor of anatomy
2681:Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer
1784:10.1016/0191-8869(90)90186-u
1647:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001071
1164:Race, Evolution and Behavior
1091:(1835–1909), the founder of
544:Craniometry and anthropology
2396:Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt
2361:Houston Stewart Chamberlain
2311:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
1371:Bonnichsen v. United States
1093:anthropological criminology
1045:Anthropological criminology
409:(1796–1860) first used the
2945:
1247:Craniofacial anthropometry
1099:" and arguing in favor of
1034:
581:Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton
568:
501:, etc.), and finally the "
448:L'Aryen et son rĂ´le social
398:
344:, long and thin), to the "
2491:Georges Vacher de Lapouge
1970:
1532:Wallace, Michele (1992).
979:Georges Vacher de Lapouge
837:(1941–2002), an American
751:", the first specimen of
440:Georges Vacher de Lapouge
317:(1854–1936), who divided
315:Georges Vacher de Lapouge
2863:History of anthropometry
2631:Charles Gabriel Seligman
2456:Frederick Ludwig Hoffman
2144:Sinodonty and Sundadonty
1076:: study) by his student
893:single-origin hypothesis
687:The Collision of Culture
375:On the Origin of Species
2914:History of neuroscience
2321:Daniel Garrison Brinton
1925:Encyclopædia Britannica
1514:, 2002, 203 pages, and
1273:Typology (anthropology)
743:biases. In particular,
707:other animals included
433:vertical cephalic index
105:more precise citations.
2666:Thomas Griffith Taylor
2421:Reginald Ruggles Gates
1136:
1101:biological determinism
1087:It was made famous by
974:
953:by weighing brains at
724:Pithecometra principle
682:
566:
325:", spanning from the "
286:. It is distinct from
260:
2806:Annihilation of Caste
2710:in Different Climates
2661:William Graham Sumner
2641:Samuel Stanhope Smith
2586:James Cowles Prichard
2218:Racial discrimination
1534:Black Popular Culture
1500:Pierre-André Taguieff
1413:Gill, George (1998).
1384:Mann, Robert (2015).
1331:Gill, George (1998).
1292:Mann, Robert (2015).
1252:Forensic anthropology
1130:
1035:Further information:
963:
926:, and members of the
848:The Mismeasure of Man
770:physical anthropology
734:recapitulation theory
676:
657:Hermann Schaaffhausen
595:(which translates as
575:Physical anthropology
569:Further information:
551:
415:physical anthropology
307:physical anthropology
282:, measurement of the
258:
2858:Great chain of being
2576:Ludwig Hermann Plate
2541:Samuel George Morton
2356:Samuel A. Cartwright
2206:in the United States
1713:Current Anthropology
1688:18 December 2012 at
1595:Current Anthropology
1262:Samuel George Morton
1133:Samuel George Morton
843:historian of science
766:Samuel George Morton
653:Johann Karl Fuhlrott
274:. It is a subset of
159:improve this article
2814:The Races of Europe
2742:The Races of Europe
2521:Dominick McCausland
2471:Thomas Henry Huxley
2416:Stanley Marion Garn
2296:Robert Bennett Bean
2024:Historical concepts
1567:16 May 2011 at the
1562:ArchaeologyInfo-003
1558:ArchaeologyInfo.com
1159:J. Philippe Rushton
1145:The Races of Europe
1143:, William Ripley's
1131:An 1839 drawing by
988:The Races of Europe
970:The Races of Europe
897:evolutionary theory
895:) as essential for
722:and developed the "
720:theory of evolution
585:comparative anatomy
537:The Races of Europe
372:first expressed in
370:theory of evolution
368:to demonstrate his
2686:Alexander Winchell
2616:Henric Sanielevici
2476:Calvin Ira Kephart
2446:Hans F. K. GĂĽnther
2431:Arthur de Gobineau
2331:Alice Mossie Brues
2228:Racial stereotypes
1512:Mille et une nuits
1141:white nationalists
1137:
975:
904:Arthur de Gobineau
884:The Descent of Man
683:
601:in Man and Animals
589:Académie française
567:
504:Homo mediterraneus
395:The cephalic index
261:
2929:Scientific racism
2901:
2900:
2830:The Race Question
2676:John H. Van Evrie
2601:William Z. Ripley
2571:Charles Pickering
2516:Felix von Luschan
2486:Robert E. Kuttner
2386:Charles Davenport
2255:Whiteness studies
1981:Color terminology
1973:Scientific racism
1681:Andrea Orsucci, "
1543:978-1-56584-459-9
1174:In his 1995 book
1055:Franz Joseph Gall
983:William Z. Ripley
965:William Z. Ripley
940:right of conquest
835:Stephen Jay Gould
821:Crania Aegyptiaca
801:ancient Egyptians
783:had washed up on
661:paleoanthropology
606:Six years later,
599:Occipital Foramen
583:, who wrote many
532:William Z. Ripley
253:
252:
245:
235:
234:
227:
209:
131:
130:
123:
68:
16:(Redirected from
2936:
2709:
2656:Lothrop Stoddard
2651:Morris Steggerda
2626:Ilse Schwidetzky
2621:Heinrich Schmidt
2606:Alfred Rosenberg
2566:Isaac La Peyrère
2371:Carleton S. Coon
2346:Charles Caldwell
2301:François Bernier
2184:in Latin America
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1186:white caucasians
1169:Crania Americana
1153:Carleton S. Coon
1078:Johann Spurzheim
1004:Nordic mysticism
951:Crania Americana
887:, arguing for a
872:Types of Mankind
828:Crania Americana
813:Crania Americana
774:cranial capacity
640:(1772–1844) and
591:, published the
587:memoirs for the
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2695:
2691:Ludwig Woltmann
2646:Herbert Spencer
2536:Lewis H. Morgan
2506:Cesare Lombroso
2381:Jan Czekanowski
2366:Sonia Mary Cole
2306:Renato Biasutti
2264:
2243:Nazism and race
2162:
2139:Proto-Mongoloid
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1778:(8): 785–794.
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1725:10.1086/203138
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1607:10.1086/203646
1601:(2): 349–354.
1585:
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1549:
1542:
1524:
1508:à la française
1491:
1489:, p. 372.
1487:Duckworth 1911
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1210:
1207:
1203:Zack Cernovsky
1190:black Africans
1188:and 1,268 for
1124:
1121:
1082:physiognomical
1032:
1029:
1014:Josef Kollmann
996:Rudolf Virchow
868:George Gliddon
864:Josiah C. Nott
853:anthropologist
839:paleontologist
762:
759:
716:Charles Darwin
701:American South
545:
542:
517:Homo africanus
484:Homo europaeus
474:978-0231128469
473:
411:cephalic index
407:Anders Retzius
401:Cephalic index
399:Main article:
396:
393:
389:Albrecht DĂĽrer
362:Charles Darwin
358:cephalic index
352:" and also by
346:brachycephalic
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2924:Anthropometry
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2868:Miscegenation
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1242:Cranial vault
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1237:Anthropometry
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1234:
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1196:→ European →
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730:Ernst Haeckel
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677:Selection of
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450:(1899 – "The
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174:"Craniometry"
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170:Find sources:
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148:This article
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2848:Ethnogenesis
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2816:(Coon, 1939)
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2700:Publications
2551:Karl Pearson
2441:John Grattan
2336:Halfdan Bryn
2201:in Singapore
2168:Sociological
1923:
1864:
1860:Neurosurgery
1858:
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1339:. Retrieved
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1300:. Retrieved
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1184:, 1,347 for
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1149:World War II
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994:In Germany,
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932:Third Estate
917:
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827:
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793:
785:Mount Ararat
778:
764:
754:Homo erectus
752:
741:ethnocentric
738:
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713:
709:T. H. Huxley
705:
696:Anglo-Saxons
686:
684:
669:
667:literature.
665:
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631:
615:intelligence
612:
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571:Anthropology
556:
553:Pithecometra
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524:antisemitism
516:
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490:Homo alpinus
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424:, head, and
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341:
340:, head, and
337:
333:" (from the
329:white race,
303:
296:
276:cephalometry
263:
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212:
202:
195:
188:
181:
169:
157:Please help
152:verification
149:
132:
117:
108:
89:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
18:Craniometric
2888:Pre-Adamite
2878:Multiracial
2481:Robert Knox
2291:John Beddoe
2238:Master race
2194:in Colombia
2082:East Baltic
1916:Craniometry
1510:"), Paris,
1182:East Asians
1041:Physiognomy
936:Gallo-Roman
928:aristocracy
807:, but were
649:Neanderthal
350:Nordic race
292:physiognomy
264:Craniometry
103:introducing
2908:Categories
2883:Polygenism
2873:Monogenism
2591:Otto Reche
2496:Fritz Lenz
2326:Paul Broca
2316:Franz Boas
2286:Erwin Baur
2281:John Baker
2175:By region
2032:Australoid
1719:(3): 306.
1279:References
1209:Modern use
1194:East Asian
1113:cheekbones
1051:phrenology
1037:Phrenology
1000:Aryan race
947:Paul Broca
889:monogenism
876:polygenism
789:polygenism
781:Noah's Ark
642:Paul Broca
515:, etc.). "
509:Napolitano
354:Franz Boas
288:phrenology
284:human body
215:March 2011
185:newspapers
86:references
50:improve it
2260:NĂ©gritude
2189:in Brazil
2134:Mongoloid
2042:Caucasoid
1914:(1911). "
1634:PLOS Biol
1615:144528631
1560:webpage:
1520:Gallimard
1423:cite book
1394:cite book
1351:cite book
1312:cite book
1061:: skull,
1008:Karlsruhe
945:In 1873,
930:, to the
803:were not
579:In 1784,
495:Auvergnat
446:, who in
366:skeletons
111:June 2022
56:talk page
2853:Eugenics
2233:Colorism
2179:in India
2087:Ethiopid
2067:Atlantid
2057:Armenoid
1881:19404160
1844:17544382
1741:86147507
1686:Archived
1666:21666803
1565:Archived
1469:(1): 68.
1450:(1): 71.
1231:See also
1072:: mind,
919:Français
823:(1844).
815:(1839),
749:Java Man
634:decadent
627:forehead
540:(1899).
456:humanity
444:eugenics
426:dolikhos
378:(1859).
342:dolikhos
319:humanity
2841:Related
2269:Writers
2213:Passing
2156:Negrito
2151:Negroid
2122:Turanid
2117:Semites
2092:Hamites
2077:Dinaric
2072:Caspian
1922:(ed.).
1909::
1892:Sources
1835:2711771
1733:2742800
1698:, 1998
1695:Cromohs
1657:3110184
1341:18 July
1302:18 July
1198:African
1070:phrenos
1059:kranion
955:autopsy
805:African
679:primate
623:jawbone
619:nostril
513:Andalus
499:Turkish
422:kephalĂŞ
338:kephalĂŞ
199:scholar
99:improve
2832:(1950)
2824:(1943)
2808:(1936)
2800:(1930)
2792:(1920)
2784:(1916)
2776:(1916)
2768:(1911)
2760:(1907)
2752:(1899)
2736:(1855)
2728:(1849)
2720:(1785)
2712:(1744)
2223:Racism
2112:Nordic
2102:Iranid
2052:Arabid
2047:Alpine
2037:Capoid
1994:Bronze
1918:". In
1903:
1879:
1842:
1832:
1739:
1731:
1664:
1654:
1613:
1540:
1518:, Tel
1063:scopos
1043:, and
973:(1899)
924:Franks
681:skulls
471:
201:
194:
187:
180:
172:
88:, but
2129:Malay
2097:Indid
2062:Aryan
2014:White
2004:Olive
1999:Brown
1989:Black
1737:S2CID
1729:JSTOR
1611:S2CID
1074:logos
809:White
796:skull
452:Aryan
327:Aryan
323:races
268:skull
206:JSTOR
192:books
1877:PMID
1840:PMID
1662:PMID
1538:ISBN
1498:See
1429:link
1400:link
1357:link
1343:2024
1318:link
1304:2024
1117:lips
1109:jaws
866:and
819:and
692:race
573:and
526:and
521:Nazi
469:ISBN
387:and
178:news
2009:Red
1869:doi
1830:PMC
1822:doi
1780:doi
1721:doi
1652:PMC
1642:doi
1603:doi
1467:139
1448:139
1215:MRI
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718:'s
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534:in
507:" (
493:" (
413:in
161:by
2910::
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1818:62
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1812:.
1776:11
1774:.
1749:^
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1692:,
1674:^
1660:.
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1609:.
1599:29
1597:.
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1942:v
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