Creole language - Knowledge (XXG)

529: 45: 206:, argue that pidgins and creoles arise independently under different circumstances, and that a pidgin need not always precede a creole nor a creole evolve from a pidgin. Pidgins, according to Mufwene, emerged in trade colonies among "users who preserved their native vernaculars for their day-to-day interactions". Creoles, meanwhile, developed in settlement colonies in which speakers of a European language, often 788:

little historical exposure to Portuguese for many of these populations, no strong direct evidence for this claim, and with Portuguese leaving almost no trace on the lexicon of most of them, with the similarities in grammar explainable by analogous processes of loss of inflection and grammatical forms not common to European and West African languages. For example,

641:), when the substratum cannot be identified, or when the presence or the survival of substratal evidence is inferred from mere typological analogies. On the other hand, the distinction may be meaningful when the contributions of each parent language to the resulting creole can be shown to be very unequal, in a scientifically meaningful way. In the literature on 544:

dramatically. In fact, some have been standardized, and are used in local schools and universities around the world. At the same time, linguists have begun to come to the realization that creole languages are in no way inferior to other languages. They now use the term "creole" or "creole language" for any language suspected to have undergone

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rivers as well as in neighboring areas such as the Bullom and Sherbro coasts. These settlers intermarried with the local population leading to mixed populations, and, as a result of this intermarriage, an English pidgin was created. This pidgin was learned by slaves in slave depots, who later on took

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in the late nineteenth century and popularized in the late 1950s and early 1960s by Taylor, Whinnom, Thompson, and Stewart. However, this hypothesis is now not widely accepted, since it relies on all creole-speaking slave populations being based on the same Portuguese-based creole, despite no to very

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In addition to the precise mechanism of creole genesis, a more general debate has developed whether creole languages are characterized by different mechanisms than traditional languages (which is McWhorter's 2018 main point) or whether in that regard creole languages develop by the same mechanisms as

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points out that relexification postulates too many improbabilities and that it is unlikely that a language "could be disseminated round the entire tropical zone, to peoples of widely differing language background, and still preserve a virtually complete identity in its grammatical structure wherever

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have all these three features but show none of the sociohistoric traits of creole languages. McWhorter (2011, 2018) disagrees: for instance, he points out that Soninke has "a goodly amount" of inherent (i.e. non-contextual) inflection, that Magoua "retains ample marking of gender, person and number

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The Foreigner Talk (FT) hypothesis argues that a pidgin or creole language forms when native speakers attempt to simplify their language in order to address speakers who do not know their language at all. Because of the similarities found in this type of speech and speech directed to a small child,

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language group. French and English are particularly close, since English, through extensive borrowing, is typologically closer to French than to other Germanic languages. Thus the claimed similarities between creoles may be mere consequences of similar parentage, rather than characteristic features

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events, when the native speakers of a certain source language (the substrate) are somehow compelled to abandon it for another target language (the superstrate). The outcome of such an event is that erstwhile speakers of the substrate will use some version of the superstrate, at least in more formal

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parent of a creole – that is, whether a language should be classified as a "French creole", "Portuguese creole" or "English creole", etc. – often has no definitive answer, and can become the topic of long-lasting controversies, where social prejudices and political considerations may interfere with

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Because of the generally low status of the Creole peoples in the eyes of prior European colonial powers, creole languages have generally been regarded as "degenerate" languages, or at best as rudimentary "dialects" of the politically dominant parent languages. Because of this, the word "creole" was

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McWhorter claims that these three properties characterize any language that was born recently as a pidgin, and states "At this writing, in twenty years I have encountered not a single counterexample" (McWhorter 2018). Nevertheless, the existence of a creole prototype has been disputed by others:

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However, there is dispute over the extent to which the terms "substrate" and "superstrate" are applicable to the genesis or the description of creole languages. The language replacement model may not be appropriate in creole formation contexts, where the emerging language is derived from multiple

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Because of social, political, and academic changes brought on by decolonization in the second half of the 20th century, creole languages have experienced revivals in the past few decades. They are increasingly being used in print and film, and in many cases, their community prestige has improved

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spell out the idea of creole exceptionalism, claiming that creole languages are an instance of nongenetic language change due to language shift with abnormal transmission. Gradualists question the abnormal transmission of languages in a creole setting and argue that the processes which created

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Theories focusing on the substrate, or non-European, languages attribute similarities amongst creoles to the similarities of African substrate languages. These features are often assumed to be transferred from the substrate language to the creole or to be preserved invariant from the substrate

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McWhorter argues that the absence of these three features is predictable in languages that were born recently of a pidgin, since learning them would constitute a distinct challenge to the non-native speaker. Over the course of generations, however, such features would be expected to gradually

122:, traders had to learn to communicate with people around the world, and the quickest way to do this was to develop a pidgin; in turn, full creole languages developed from these pidgins. In addition to creoles that have European languages as their base, there are, for example, creoles based on 1515:

ideologies, rejecting the notion that Creoles can be responsibly defined in terms of specific grammatical characteristics. They discuss the history of linguistics and nineteenth-century work that argues for the consideration of the sociohistorical contexts in which Creole languages emerged.

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Some linguists, such as Derek Bickerton, posit that creoles share more grammatical similarities with each other than with the languages from which they are phylogenetically derived. However, there is no widely accepted theory that would account for those perceived similarities. Moreover, no

973:) learning hypothesis claims that pidgins are primarily the result of the imperfect L2 learning of the dominant lexifier language by the slaves. Research on naturalistic L2 processes has revealed a number of features of "interlanguage systems" that are also seen in pidgins and creoles: 590:

Phylogenetic classification traditionally relies on inheritance of the lexicon, especially of "core" terms, and of the grammar structure. However, in creoles, the core lexicon often has mixed origin, and the grammar is largely original. For these reasons, the issue of which language is

1069:, which usually take years to learn, are omitted; the syntax is kept very simple, usually based on strict word order. In this initial stage, all aspects of the speech – syntax, lexicon, and pronunciation – tend to be quite variable, especially with regard to the speaker's background. 301:

were originally qualifiers used throughout the Spanish and Portuguese colonies to distinguish the members of an ethnic group who were born and raised locally from those who immigrated as adults. They were most commonly applied to nationals of the colonial power, e.g. to distinguish

196:. However, political and academic changes in recent decades have improved the status of creoles, both as living languages and as object of linguistic study. Some creoles have even been granted the status of official or semi-official languages of particular political territories. 1065:) suggests that pidgins need three languages to form, with one (the superstrate) being clearly dominant over the others. The lexicon of a pidgin is usually small and drawn from the vocabularies of its speakers, in varying proportions. Morphological details like word 105:

The precise number of creole languages is not known, particularly as many are poorly attested or documented. About one hundred creole languages have arisen since 1500. These are predominantly based on European languages such as English and French due to the European

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If a pidgin manages to be learned by the children of a community as a native language, it may become fixed and acquire a more complex grammar, with fixed phonology, syntax, morphology, and syntactic embedding. Pidgins can become full languages in only a single

90:, creoles are often characterized by a tendency to systematize their inherited grammar (e.g., by eliminating irregularities or regularizing the conjugation of otherwise irregular verbs). Like any language, creoles are characterized by a consistent system of 850:, the French Atlantic harbors, and the nascent French colonies. Supporters of this hypothesis suggest that the non-Creole French dialects still spoken in many parts of the Americas share mutual descent from this single koiné. These dialects are found in 1627: 1017:

with lexical material from the superstrate language while retaining the native grammatical categories. The problem with this explanation is that the postulated substrate languages differ amongst themselves and with creoles in meaningful ways.

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Building up on this discussion, McWhorter proposed that "the world's simplest grammars are Creole grammars", claiming that every noncreole language's grammar is at least as complex as any creole language's grammar. Gil has replied that

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classification of a particular creole usually is a matter of dispute; especially when the pidgin precursor and its parent tongues (which may have been other creoles or pidgins) have disappeared before they could be documented.

1077:. "Creolization" is this second stage where the pidgin language develops into a fully developed native language. The vocabulary, too, will develop to contain more and more items according to a rationale of lexical enrichment. 336:, etc.) lost the generic meaning and became the proper name of many distinct ethnic groups that developed locally from immigrant communities. Originally, therefore, the term "creole language" meant the speech of any of those 1506:

have argued further that Creole languages are structurally no different from any other language, and that Creole is in fact a sociohistoric concept (and not a linguistic one), encompassing displaced population and slavery.

1309:. Again, McWhorter (2018) disagrees. For instance, he points out that the use of tone in Papiamentu to distinguish participial verb forms from base ones appeared only after extensive contact with native Spanish speakers. 1140:

The last decades have seen the emergence of some new questions about the nature of creoles: in particular, the question of how complex creoles are and the question of whether creoles are indeed "exceptional" languages.

1204:(re-)appear, and therefore "many creoles would harbor departures from the Prototype identifiable as having happened after the creole was born" (McWhorter 2018). As one example, McWhorter (2013) notes that the creole 1446:, on the other hand, would be less prototypical, given the presence of inflection to mark plural, past, gerund, and participle forms. Objections to the McWhorter-Parkvall hypotheses point out that these typological 218:

version of the original language. These servants and slaves would come to use the creole as an everyday vernacular, rather than merely in situations in which contact with a speaker of the superstrate was necessary.

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coined the term "cafeteria principle" to refer to the practice of arbitrarily attributing features of creoles to the influence of substrate African languages or assorted substandard dialects of European languages.

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models stress the intervention of specific general processes during the transmission of language from generation to generation and from speaker to speaker. The process invoked varies: a general tendency towards

286:. The specific sense of the term was coined in the 16th and 17th century, during the great expansion in European maritime power and trade that led to the establishment of European colonies in other continents. 805:

for the origin of English-based creoles of the West Indies, the domestic origin hypothesis argues that, towards the end of the 16th century, English-speaking traders began to settle in the Gambia and

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points out that FT is often based on the imitation of the incorrect speech of the non-natives, that is the pidgin. Therefore, one may be mistaken in assuming that the former gave rise to the latter.

633:), the influence of the substrate on the official speech is often limited to pronunciation and a modest number of loanwords. The substrate might even disappear altogether without leaving any trace. 668:

It is generally acknowledged that creoles have a simpler grammar and more internal variability than older, more established languages. However, these notions are occasionally challenged. (See also

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of a creole language is largely supplied by the parent languages, particularly that of the most dominant group in the social context of the creole's construction. However, there are often clear

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by children as their native language. These three features distinguish a creole language from a pidgin. Creolistics, or creology, is the study of creole languages and, as such, is a subfield of

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languages without any one of them being imposed as a replacement for any other. The substratum–superstratum distinction becomes awkward when multiple superstrata must be assumed (such as in

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a lack of semantically opaque word formation, that is, a lack of words like "understand" or "make up", the meaning of which is not analyzable in terms of the meanings of their components.

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linguistic capacities to transform the pidgin input into a full-fledged language. The alleged common features of all creoles would then stem from those innate abilities being universal.

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Singler, John Victor (1996), "Theories of creole genesis, sociohistorical considerations, and the evaluation of evidence: The case of Haitian Creole and the Relexification Hypothesis",

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Singler, John Victor (1996), "Theories of creole genesis, sociohistorical considerations, and the evaluation of evidence: The case of Haitian Creole and the Relexification Hypothesis",

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Since creole languages rarely attain official status, the speakers of a fully formed creole may eventually feel compelled to conform their speech to one of the parent languages. This

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As a consequence of colonial European trade patterns, most of the known European-based creole languages arose in coastal areas in the equatorial belt around the world, including the

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Hamilton, A. Cris; Coslett, H. Branch (2008), "Role of inflectional regularity and semantic transparency in reading morphologically complex words: Evidence from acquired dyslexia",

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argues that the number and diversity of African languages and the paucity of a historical record on creole genesis makes determining lexical correspondences a matter of chance.

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a lack of contextual inflection, that is, a lack of inflection that marks only agreement in case or gender (as opposed to inherent inflection that marks tense, mood or number);

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Eckkrammer, Eva (1994), "How to Pave the Way for the Emancipation of a Creole Language. Papiamentu, or What Can a Literature Do for its Language", in Hoogbergen, Wim (ed.),

1419:. In McWhorter's definition, creoleness is a matter of degree, in that prototypical creoles exhibit all of the three traits he proposes to diagnose creoleness: little or no 2216:

Chambers, Douglas B. (2008-12-01). "Slave trade merchants of Spanish New Orleans, 1763–1803: Clarifying the colonial slave trade to Louisiana in Atlantic perspective".

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Linguists now recognize that creole formation is a universal phenomenon, not limited to the European colonial period, and an important aspect of language evolution.

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Hinnenkamp, V. (1984), "Eye-witnessing pidginization: Structural and Sociolinguistic Aspects of German and Turkish Foreigner Talk", in Sebba, M.; Todd, L. (eds.),

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Hancock, Ian F. (1985), "The domestic hypothesis, diffusion and componentiality: An account of Anglophone creole origins", in Pieter Muysken; Norval Smith (eds.),

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Imperfect L2 learning is compatible with other approaches, notably the European dialect origin hypothesis and the universalist models of language transmission.

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Ferguson, C.A. (1971), "Absence of Copula and the Notion of Simplicity: A Study of Normal Speech, Baby Talk, Foreigner Talk and Pidgins", in Hymes, D. (ed.),

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Singler, John Victor (1983), "The influence of African languages on pidgins and creoles", in Kaye, Jonathan; Koopman, H.; Sportiche, D.; et al. (eds.),

1544:, and that current lexicography of Soninke is too elementary for it to be stated with authority that it does not have non-transparent derivation. Meanwhile, 679:

comparisons of creole languages have led to divergent conclusions. Similarities are usually higher among creoles derived from related languages, such as the

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contexts. The substrate may survive as a second language for informal conversation. As demonstrated by the fate of many replaced European languages (such as

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While the simplification of input was supposed to account for creoles' simple grammar, commentators have raised a number of criticisms of this explanation:

1120:, proposed in the 1980s, remains the main universalist theory. Bickerton claims that creoles are inventions of the children growing up on newly founded 149:

shifts. On the other hand, the grammar that has evolved often has new or unique features that differ substantially from those of the parent languages.

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of their parent languages. Because of that prejudice, many of the creoles that arose in the European colonies, having been stigmatized, have become

497:"tree model" for the evolution of languages, and its postulated regularity of sound changes (these critics including the earliest advocates of the 3889:

Seuren, Pieter A.M.; Wekker, Herman C. (1986), "Semantic transparency as a factor in creole genesis", in Muysken, Pieter; Smith, Norval (eds.),

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or merely evidence indicative of a set of recognizable phenomena seen in association with little inherent unity and no underlying single cause.

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Many of the creoles known today arose in the last 500 years, as a result of the worldwide expansion of European maritime power and trade in the

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in turn are more similar to each other (and to varieties of French) than to other European-based creoles. It was observed, in particular, that

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Another factor that may have contributed to the relative neglect of creole languages in linguistics is that they do not fit the 19th-century

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Meijer, Guus; Muysken, Pieter (1977), "On the beginnings of pidgin and creole studies: Schuchardt and Hesseling", in Valdman, Albert (ed.),

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Pidgins are more often used amongst speakers of different substrate languages than between such speakers and those of the lexifier language.

1327:, the language McWhorter uses as a showcase for his theory. The same objections were raised by Wittmann in his 1999 debate with McWhorter. 707:. Moreover, the European languages which gave rise to the creole languages of European colonies all belong to the same subgroup of Western 4461:

Les langues des autres dans la créolisation : théorie et exemplification par le créole d'empreinte wolof à l'île Santiago du Cap Vert

1532:, there is ample non-transparent derivation, and that there is no reason to suppose that this would be absent in close relatives such as 4784: 4520:

Mufwene, Salikoko (2000), "Creolization is a social, not a structural, process", in Neumann-Holzschuh, Ingrid; Schneider, Edgar (eds.),

552: 6288: 4177:, Revue québécoise de linguistique théorique et appliquée 13, Trois-Rivières: Presses universitaires de Trois-Rivières, pp. 225–43 1061:, rudimentary second languages improvised for use between speakers of two or more non-intelligible native languages. Keith Whinnom (in 926:, in analyzing German Foreigner Talk, claims that it is too inconsistent and unpredictable to provide any model for language learning. 5226: 5550: 4278: 4260: 3907: 3880: 3443: 3080: 1785: 1571:

critically assesses the proposal that creole languages exist as a homogeneous structural type with shared and/ or peculiar origins.

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Speakers of a creole's lexifier language often fail to understand, without learning the language, the grammar of a pidgin or creole.

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Based on 19th-century intuitions, approaches underlying the imperfect L2 learning hypothesis have been followed up in the works of

188:. Like most non-official and minority languages, creoles have generally been regarded in popular opinion as degenerate variants or 161:, developed by adults for use as a second language, becomes the native and primary language of their children – a process known as 6679: 6048: 5682: 5054: 1943: 728:

There are a variety of theories on the origin of creole languages, all of which attempt to explain the similarities among them.

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Thompson, R.W. (1961), "A note on some possible affinities between the creole dialects of the Old World and those of the New",

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Vennemann, Theo (2003), "Languages in prehistoric Europe north of the Alps", in Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo (eds.),

3731:(2013), "Why noncompositional derivation isn't boring: A second try on the 'other' part of the Creole prototype hypothesis.", 3055:

Bickerton, Derek (1977). "Pidginization and creolization: Language acquisition and language universals". In A. Valdman (ed.).

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are potential creoles but that they are not considered as such by linguists because of a historical bias against such a view.

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distinctions on verbs as well as conjugational classes" and therefore that these languages should not be considered creoles.

4152:"Grammaire comparée des variétés coloniales du français populaire de Paris du 17e siècle et origines du français québécois" 1482:

have adduced evidence as to creole languages which respond unexpectedly to one of McWhorter's three features (for example,

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a lack of functional tone marking, that is, a lack of tone that serves to distinguish lexical items (e.g. Mandarin Chinese

6210: 5989: 5285: 4842: 1743: 1738: 1718: 1696: 831: 819: 764: 688: 6423: 6145: 1556:, which qualifies as inflection, and it also retains non-transparent derivation. Michel DeGraff's argument has been that 6674: 6298: 6058: 5718: 5521: 5500: 5490: 5475: 5465: 5460: 5450: 5445: 5428: 5421: 5416: 5408: 4869: 1771: 1728: 658: 6553: 6165: 4711: 2689:

for a discussion of the controversy surrounding the retaining of substrate grammatical features through relexification.

1864: 6325: 6123: 6083: 5688: 4979: 3779:(2000), "Creolization is a social, not a structural, process", in Neumann-Holzschuh, Ingrid; Schneider, Edgar (eds.), 3675:

McWhorter, John H. (1999), "The Afrogenesis Hypothesis of Plantation Creole Origin", in Huber, M; Parkvall, M (eds.),

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According to their external history, four types of creoles have been distinguished: plantation creoles, fort creoles,

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Schneider, Edgar W. (1990), "The cline of creoleness in English-oriented Creoles and semi-creoles of the Caribbean",

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Geeslin, Kimberly L. (2002), "Semantic transparency as a predictor of copula choice in second-language acquisition",

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as a concept, DeGraff and others question the idea that creoles are exceptional in any meaningful way. Additionally,

316:(those born in the Iberian Peninsula, i.e. Spain). However, in Brazil the term was also used to distinguish between 6320: 6220: 6053: 6007: 4328: 3626:

Lefebvre, Claire (2002), "The emergence of productive morphology in creole languages: the case of Haitian Creole",

3238: 1293:) have claimed the existence of creoles that serve as counterexamples to McWhorter's hypothesis – the existence of 1117: 944: 612:

are often used when two languages interact. However, the meaning of these terms is reasonably well-defined only in

4769: 4311: 3221: 1896:"Typologizing grammatical complexities, or Why creoles may be paradigmatically simple but syntagmatically average" 6093: 5997: 5675: 5536: 5332: 4698: 3964: 1595: 1428: 1099: 716: 428: 4191:

Français d'Amérique: variation, créolisation, normalisation (Actes du colloque, Université d'Avignon, 8-11 Oct.)

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as a typological class; they argue that creoles are structurally no different from any other language, and that

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Some features that distinguish creole languages from noncreoles have been proposed (by Bickerton, for example).

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The lack of progress made in defining creoles in terms of their morphology and syntax has led scholars such as

704: 498: 6558: 214:, absorbing certain words and features from the slaves' non-European native languages, resulting in a heavily 4293:

Bastard Tongues: A Trailblazing Linguist Finds Clues to Our Common Humanity in the World's Lowliest Languages

3454:"Des créolismes dans la distribution des déterminants et des complémenteurs en français québécois basilectal" 6538: 6449: 6403: 6346: 6033: 6028: 6023: 5735: 5666: 5310: 5305: 5186: 4994: 1483: 1294: 793:

it took root, despite considerable changes in its phonology and virtually complete changes in its lexicon".

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whose language would be far from the standard in the first place, interacted extensively with non-European

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Good, Jeff (2004), "Tone and accent in Saramaccan: Charting a deep split in the phonology of a language",

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Traugott, Elizabeth Closs (1977), "The Development of Pidgin and Creole Studies", in Valdman, Theo (ed.),

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Dillard, J.L. (1970), "Principles in the history of American English: Paradox, virginity, and cafeteria",

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There are a great many grammatical similarities amongst pidgins and creoles despite having very different

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This could explain why creole languages have much in common, while avoiding a monogenetic model. However,

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to be sociohistoric in nature and relative to their colonial origin. Within this theoretical framework, a

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which are not considered creoles. Wittmann and DeGraff come to the conclusion that efforts to conceive a

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and the plantation system of the European colonies have been emphasized as factors by linguists such as

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Feist, Sigmund (1932), "The Origin of the Germanic Languages and the Europeanization of North Europe",

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Singler, John Victor (1988), "The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis",

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Singler, John Victor (1988), "The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis",

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that develops from the process of different languages simplifying and mixing into a new form (often a

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is a sociohistoric concept – not a linguistic one – encompassing displaced populations and slavery.

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Bailey, Charles J; Maroldt, Karl (1977), "The French lineage of English", in Meisel, Jürgen (ed.),

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Recent investigations about substrates and superstrates, in creoles and other languages, includes

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Parkvall, Mikael (2001), "Creolistics and the quest for Creoleness: A reply to Claire Lefebvre",

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Because of the sociohistoric similarities amongst many (but by no means all) of the creoles, the

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DeCamp, David (1977), "The Development of Pidgin and Creole Studies", in Valdman, Albert (ed.),

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into separate chapters outside this scheme whether or not relexification come into the picture.

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of creoleness". No consensus exists among creolists as to whether the nature of creoleness is

44: 6608: 6508: 6231: 6200: 6160: 6108: 5884: 5861: 5848: 5741: 5635: 5373: 5363: 5116: 5106: 5064: 5059: 4297: 4274: 4256: 4068: 4046: 3903: 3876: 3612: 3482: 3439: 3076: 3017: 3007: 2443:. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology – Department of Linguistics. August 2013. 2233: 1993: 1976: 1701: 1533: 1529: 1451: 1331: 1270: 1103: 1086: 843: 630: 622: 466: 4224:"Contraintes sur la relexification: les limites imposées dans un cadre théorique minimaliste" 6548: 6241: 6087: 5985: 5936: 5907: 5857: 5808: 5747: 5378: 5368: 5337: 5300: 5253: 5248: 5206: 4938: 4588: 4560: 4480: 4422: 4363: 4116: 4002: 3953: 3925: 3851: 3831: 3788: 3776: 3760: 3740: 3717: 3656: 3510: 3474: 3402: 3346: 3337:

DeGraff, Michel (2005), "Do creole languages constitute an exceptional typological class?",

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Calvet, Louis-Jean. (2006). Toward an Ecology of World Languages. Malden, MA: Polity Press.

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Creolistics investigates the relative creoleness of languages suspected to be creoles, what

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Muysken, Pieter; Law, Paul (2001), "Creole studies: A theoretical linguist's field guide",

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Muysken, Pieter; Law, Paul (2001), "Creole studies: A theoretical linguist's field guide",

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loss of determiners or use of demonstrative pronouns, adjectives or adverbs as determiners;

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Grammatical simplification can be explained by other processes, i.e. the innate grammar of

528: 6618: 6543: 6433: 6413: 6382: 6372: 6367: 6356: 6336: 6303: 6171: 6063: 5949: 5902: 5866: 5852: 5775: 5585: 5480: 5433: 5281: 5257: 5216: 5174: 5162: 5152: 5142: 5137: 5076: 5049: 5044: 5032: 5004: 4999: 4974: 4727: 4715: 4702: 4287: 3768: 3212: 3175: 3163: 3064: 1766: 1714: 1705: 1679: 1613: 1475: 1320: 1282: 1114: 970: 941: 879: 839: 823: 784: 662: 642: 626: 579: 506: 454: 38: 4393:

Imagining the Creole City: The Rise of Literary Culture in Nineteenth-Century New Orleans

3102: 551:

There is controversy about the extent to which creolization influenced the evolution of

513:). This controversy of the late 19th century profoundly shaped modern approaches to the 6645: 6613: 6568: 6563: 6533: 6518: 6482: 6397: 6331: 6190: 6155: 6017: 5940: 5926: 5916: 5911: 5898: 5630: 5470: 5455: 5404: 5358: 5327: 4865: 4808: 4749: 4599: 4468: 4127: 3998: 3728: 3705: 3684: 3644: 3432: 3110: 2686: 2599: 1895: 1808: 1799: 1780: 1762: 1649: 1557: 1549: 1545: 1459: 1439: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1343: 1339: 1278: 1262: 1152: 1124:. Around them, they only heard pidgins spoken, without enough structure to function as 1010: 772: 654: 617: 556: 532: 474: 337: 305: 131: 87: 4679: 4426: 3069: 1951: 1361:

today's creole languages are no different from universal patterns of language change.

977:

invariant verb forms derived from the infinitive or the least marked finite verb form;

555:(AAVE). In the American education system, as well as in the past, the use of the word 6668: 6503: 6362: 6314: 6308: 6257: 6205: 6195: 6184: 5821: 5211: 4964: 4885: 4855: 3453: 3330: 3156: 2319: 2245: 1664: 1014: 874:

in other parts of the Americas. Approaches under this hypothesis are compatible with

700: 494: 470: 412: 333: 115: 4434: 4375: 3494: 3360: 3285: 6583: 6578: 6444: 6392: 5640: 5507: 5485: 5101: 5022: 4913: 4899: 1601: 1393: 1205: 1110: 835: 806: 609: 545: 462: 448: 237: 162: 83: 4642: 4199: 2804: 457:

languages are based on European languages with elements from African and possibly

328:(born in Africa). Over time, the term and its derivatives (Creole, Kréol, Kreyol, 82:), and then that form expanding and elaborating into a full-fledged language with 62:, literally translated is "Lift your foot. Small people are playing here" in 2010. 4603: 4291: 3689:

The Missing Spanish Creoles: recovering the birth of plantation contact languages

1911:

Millar, Robert M. (2015). Trask's historical linguistics. Routledge. pp. 305-306.

6387: 5580: 5531: 5512: 5438: 5390: 4850: 4689: 4168:"La forme phonologique comparée du parler magoua de la région de Trois-Rivières" 3534:

Givón, Talmy (1979), "Prolegomena to any sane creology", in Hancock, Ian (ed.),

1512: 1121: 810:

it to the West Indies and formed one component of the emerging English creoles.

712: 699:

and English whereas they are generally postnominal in French creoles and in the

645:, "superstrate" usually means European and "substrate" non-European or African. 522: 432: 416: 385: 259: 250: 99: 4623: 4082:

Whinnom, Keith (1965), "The origin of the European-based creoles and pidgins",

905:

suggest that four different processes are involved in creating Foreigner Talk:

6593: 6528: 6408: 6377: 5832: 5780: 4989: 4235:

13, Trois-Rivières: Presses universitaires de Trois-Rivières, pp. 245–280

4217:. The Linguist List. Eastern Michigan University & Wayne State University. 3478: 3148: 2311: 2229: 1591: 1541: 1495: 1467: 1447: 1443: 1442:, exhibiting all three traits, as "the most creole of creoles". A creole like 1420: 1324: 1306: 1074: 1066: 875: 827: 638: 444: 397: 119: 86:, all within a fairly brief period. While the concept is similar to that of a 53: 4471:(1998), "Identifying the creole prototype: Vindicating a typological class", 4312:"On the origin of creoles: A Cartesian critique of Neo-Darwinian linguistics" 4223: 4193:, Avignon: Université d'Avignon, Centre d'études canadiennes, pp. 229–48 4183: 4131: 3647:(1998), "Identifying the creole prototype: Vindicating a typological class", 3222:"On the origin of creoles: A Cartesian critique of Neo-Darwinian linguistics" 3021: 2237: 582:

creoles, and creolized pidgins. By the very nature of a creole language, the

6438: 6226: 6118: 6077: 6068: 5920: 5827: 5241: 4708: 4611:

Actes du Colloque de la Société Internationale de Linguistique Fonctionnelle

4592: 4161:, Trois-Rivières: Presses universitaires de Trois-Rivières, pp. 281–334 4120: 3957: 3835: 3744: 1871: 1654: 1463: 1435: 1209: 1107: 896: 863: 732:

outline a fourfold classification of explanations regarding creole genesis:

583: 487: 440: 436: 424: 408: 393: 381: 373: 369: 4151: 4107:

Winford, D (1997), "Creole Formation in the Context of Contact Languages",

3855: 3721: 3486: 3191: 1434:. In McWhorter's view, less prototypical creoles depart somewhat from this 855: 329: 4695: 4367: 3514: 3322: 3277: 2990:

Ansaldo, U.; Matthews, S. (2007), "Deconstructing creole: The rationale",

486:

generally used by linguists in opposition to "language", rather than as a

6623: 6428: 6351: 6293: 6246: 6113: 5754: 5262: 5221: 4753: 3003: 1096: 934: 767:

and creoles hypothesizes that all Atlantic creoles derived from a single

561:

to refer to AAVE mirrors the historical negative connotation of the word

548:, terms that now imply no geographic restrictions nor ethnic prejudices. 389: 349: 215: 146: 4347: 4184:"Les créolismes syntaxiques du français magoua parlé aux Trois-Rivières" 4167: 3351: 3166:(1988), "Creole languages and the bioprogram", in Newmeyer, F.J. (ed.), 3118: 17: 6459: 6177: 6129: 5231: 4892: 4684: 4211:

Wittmann, Henri (2001). "CreoList debate, parts I-VI, appendixes 1-9".

4100:

Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf

3637:Économie des Changements Phonétiques: traité de phonologie diachronique 1609: 859: 536: 407:

Many of those creoles are now extinct, but others still survive in the

401: 246: 189: 142: 138: 91: 4572: 4492: 3937: 3668: 3414: 2441:"Creole and pidgin language structure in cross-linguistic perspective" 1224:

in Sranan) and whose meaning is not analyzable; for instance the pair

1212:

relationship with Dutch, has borrowed some Dutch verbs containing the

957:

Another problem with the FT explanation is its potential circularity.

6588: 6215: 5973: 5892: 4838: 4804: 3677:

Spreading the Word: The Issue of Diffusion among the Atlantic Creoles

3460:, Université d'Avignon: Centre d'études canadiennes, pp. 217–228 1582: 1129: 1058: 851: 469:

and possibly other Asian languages. There are, however, creoles like

420: 353: 166: 158: 123: 79: 31: 1030:

For a representative debate on this issue, see the contributions to

465:

Creole languages are based on European languages with elements from

4564: 4484: 4271:

Syntactic Developments in Sranan: Creolization as a gradual process

3929: 3660: 3605:

La Teoría del substrato y los dialectos hispano-romances y gascones

3406: 3368: 2619:; cf. the article on Quebec French and the History of Quebec French 771:, via a West African Pidgin Portuguese of the seventeenth century, 683:, than among broader groups that include also creoles based on non- 6603: 6573: 6498: 6277: 5875: 5236: 5081: 4920: 4759: 3971:, Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, pp. 34–53 3864:

The Pidginization Process: A Model for Second Language Acquisition

1748: 1524:

On the other hand, McWhorter points out that in languages such as

847: 527: 377: 361: 211: 43: 30:"ISO 639:crp" redirects here. But that language code incorporates 3967:(1962), "Creole languages in the Caribbean", in F.A. Rice (ed.), 365: 57: 6480: 5971: 4824: 4773: 3708:(2011), "Tying up loose ends: the creole prototype after all", 3178:(1991), "On the Supposed 'Gradualness' of Creole Development", 3125:

Bickerton, Derek (1984), "The language bioprogram hypothesis",

4400:

Gil, David (2001), "Creoles, Complexity and Riau Indonesian",

3521:

Gil, David (2001), "Creoles, Complexity and Riau Indonesian",

357: 177:

grammatical feature has been shown to be specific to creoles.

4764: 4732: 4675:

Association of Portuguese and Spanish Lexically-based Creoles

4669: 3578:

Papers from the York Creole Conference, September 24–27, 1983

2298:

Williams, Robert L. (2016-07-25). "The Ebonics Controversy".

822:

are the foremost candidates to being the outcome of "normal"

4653:"Lexical diffusion and the glottogenetics of creole French." 3438:, Trois-Rivières: Presses universitaires de Trois-Rivières, 1828:"Multilingualism and language contact | Languages In Danger" 1155:

has proposed the following list of features as defining the

4674: 3458:

Français d'Amérique: variation, créolisation, normalisation

705:

exported to what is now Quebec in the 17th and 18th century

4744: 4009:(first ed.), Berkeley: University of California Press 2598:

There are some similarities in this line of thinking with

310:(people born in the colonies from Spanish ancestors) from 102:. Someone who engages in this study is called a creolist. 27:

Stable natural languages that have developed from a pidgin

4354:

DeGraff, Michel (2003), "Against Creole Exceptionalism",

4233:, Revue québécoise de linguistique théorique et appliquée 4214:

Lexical diffusion and the glottogenetics of creole French

1470:

in any scientifically meaningful way have failed so far.

322:(blacks born in Brazil from African slave ancestors) and 4384:

Born Out of Resistance. On Caribbean Cultural Creativity

4251:

Arends, Jacques; Muysken, Pieter; Smith, Norval (1995),

3059:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 49–69. 3037:

Arends, Jacques; Muysken, Pieter; Smith, Norval (1995),

4705:

at the Online Dictionary of Language Terminology (ODLT)

4036:(fourth ed.), Blackwell Publishing, pp. 57–86 4018:, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 70–98 4007:

Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics

3755:, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 21–45 3028:

Ansaldo, Umberto; Matthews, Stephen; Lim, Lisa (2007),

993:

fixed single word order with no inversion in questions;

983:

placement of a negative particle in preverbal position;

711:

and have highly convergent grammars; to the point that

4750:

Groupe d'études et de recherches en espace créolophone

4733:

Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures (APiCS)

4631:

Proceedings of the International Congress of Linguists

2983:

Pidginization and Creolization as Language Acquisition

4760:

Associação Brasileira de Estudos Crioulos e Similares

4643:"Prototype as a typological yardstick to creoleness." 4624:"Le français de Paris dans le français des Amériques" 4604:"Les réactions en chaîne en morphologie diachronique" 4544:

Out of Africa: African influences in Atlantic Creoles

4061:

Spanish Contact Vernaculars in the Philippine Islands

3815:

Out of Africa: African influences in Atlantic Creoles

2523:

DeGraff, Michael (2001). "On the origin of creoles".

1577:

groups creole genesis theories into four categories:

1106:

driven by universal process, or a general process of

477:

that are derived solely from non-European languages.

4659:, Eastern Michigan University|Wayne State University 4445:, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 4200:"Prototype as a typological yardstick to creoleness" 3589:, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 3170:, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2805:"Prototype as a Typological Yardstick to Creoleness" 169:-creole life cycle was studied by American linguist 6138: 5984: 5841: 5807: 5768: 5727: 5665: 5658: 5623: 5565: 5558: 5545: 5403: 5346: 5293: 5280: 5199: 5130: 5015: 4957: 4950: 4937: 4864: 4837: 4395:, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press 2512:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 3. 1159:, that is, any language born recently of a pidgin: 3431: 3068: 2665: 2453: 2332: 1574: 1568: 1240: 1225: 1219: 902: 729: 271:('to breed' or 'to raise'), all coming from Latin 114:that arose at that time. With the improvements in 4273:, Nijmegen: Katholieke Universiteit ti Nijmegen, 4032:Wardhaugh, Ronald (2002), "Pidgins and Creoles", 3902:, vol. 2, Dordrecht: Foris, pp. 65–77, 4745:Groupe Européen de Recherches en Langues Créoles 3562:, New York: American Elsevier Publishing Company 3430:Fournier, Robert; Wittmann, Henri, eds. (1995), 3369:"Creole Exceptionalism and Accidents of History" 2616: 2273: 2271: 1992:. New York: Oxford Linguistics. pp. 68–69. 1560:retains non-transparent derivation from French. 1450:of creoleness can be found in languages such as 779:" of Western Africa that were the source of the 323: 317: 296: 262: 4157:, in Fournier, Robert; Wittmann, Henri (eds.), 3765:Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties 2833: 2673: 2122: 2120: 2097: 2095: 1944:"Creole – Language Information & Resources" 1357: 4452:The Genesis of the Creole Languages of Surinam 1630:. Oxford Research Encyclopedias: Linguistics. 1508: 1182: 1167: 4785: 4655:CreoList debate, parts I-VI, appendixes 1–9. 3891:Substrata Versus Universals in Creole Genesis 3569:Substrata Versus Universals in Creole Genesis 3373:Sargasso: Creolistics and Caribbean Languages 3089:Bickerton, Derek (1983), "Creole Languages", 2496: 2262: 1013:: the substrate language replaces the native 311: 303: 290: 253: 94:, possess large stable vocabularies, and are 8: 4522:Degrees of Restructuring in Creole Languages 3781:Degrees of restructuring in creole languages 2661: 2343: 2341: 1990:The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole Languages 1009:language in the creole through a process of 240: 4721:Society for Pidgin & Creole Linguistics 4524:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 65–84 4043:Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems 3980:, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 3783:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 65–84 3596:Pidginization and Creolization of Languages 3423:Pidginization and Creolization of Languages 2083: 2081: 1588:Theories focusing on the non-European input 1213: 783:. This theory was originally formulated by 661:characterized by large-scale variation and 272: 6477: 5981: 5968: 5662: 5562: 5555: 5290: 4954: 4947: 4834: 4821: 4792: 4778: 4770: 4222:Wittmann, Henri; Fournier, Robert (1996), 4073:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3691:, Berkeley: University of California Press 3617:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2770: 2101: 1848:"The study of pidgin and creole languages" 1479: 1290: 958: 923: 883: 4027:, Heidelberg: C. Winter, pp. 319–332 3900:Current Approaches to African Linguistics 3679:, London: University of Westminster Press 3560:External History of the Romance Languages 3367:DeGraff, Michel; Walicek, Don E. (2005). 3350: 3339:Revue Française de Linguistique Appliquée 3312: 3215:: Indiana University Press, pp. 3–20 3138: 2944: 2932: 2896: 2884: 2845: 2792: 2781: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2739: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2698: 2640: 2586: 2400: 2396: 2347: 2257: 2255: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2136: 2134: 2051: 2035: 2012: 1865:"Language varieties: Pidgins and creoles" 1385: 1046: 1019: 996:reduced or absent nominal plural marking. 789: 759:Monogenetic theory of pidgins and creoles 750:any other languages (e.g. DeGraff 2001). 2964: 2960: 2956: 2908: 2856: 2657: 2653: 2629: 2612: 2564: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2428: 2404: 2277: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2112: 2062: 1540:has what all linguists would analyze as 1536:itself. Moreover, he also observes that 1503: 1407:is at the heart of the controversy with 1196:) or to encode grammatical features; and 1035: 4454:, Amsterdam: Universiteit van Amsterdam 3795:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 3571:, Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 71–102 3425:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 3294:"Against Creole Exceptionalism (redux)" 2920: 2873: 2869: 2821: 2669: 2575: 2553: 2549: 2416: 2412: 2380: 2369: 2358: 2126: 2073: 2047: 1819: 1499: 1438:. Along these lines, McWhorter defines 1369: 1208:, which has existed for centuries in a 1053:Gradualist and developmental hypotheses 1031: 1023: 1004:Theories focusing on non-European input 802: 742:Gradualist and developmental hypotheses 739:Theories focusing on non-European input 4581:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 4513:Langues en Contact – Pidgins – Creoles 4109:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 4066: 3946:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3893:, Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 57–70 3873:Contact Languages: Pidgins and Creoles 3824:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3733:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3610: 3180:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3048:Langues en Contact – Pidgins – Creoles 2538: 2146: 1520:"Creole", a genuine linguistic concept 842:, more specifically on a 17th-century 37:For the computer markup language, see 3969:Study of the Role of Second Languages 2485: 2392: 2162: 1975:, ed. Anne E. Baker, Kees Hengeveld, 1636:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.68 1062: 157:A creole is believed to arise when a 7: 5895:Kundoku (Chinese and Japanese-based) 4646:The Creolist Archives Papers On-Line 4253:Pidgins and Creoles: An introduction 4204:The Creolist Archives Papers On-Line 3039:Pidgins and creoles: An introduction 2408: 2203: 2024: 1057:One class of creoles might start as 59:Lévé pié aw / Ni ti moun ka joué la! 5783:(with Dutch and Spanish influences) 4450:Hunter Smith, Norval Selby (1987), 4034:An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 2087: 1511:discuss creolistics in relation to 1471: 1266: 754:Theories focusing on European input 736:Theories focusing on European input 553:African-American Vernacular English 6650:Languages between parentheses are 3111:10.1038/scientificamerican0783-116 2666:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) 1575:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) 1569:Ansaldo, Matthews & Lim (2007) 1128:; and the children used their own 903:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) 814:European dialect origin hypothesis 730:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) 25: 4765:Society for Caribbean Linguistics 4503:, Oxford: Oxford University Press 3793:The Ecology of Language Evolution 3700:, Oxford: Oxford University Press 3382:Florida Foreign Language Reporter 3168:Linguistics: The Cambridge survey 3127:The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2454:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995 2333:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995 1786:Portuguese-based creole languages 1474:comes to the same conclusion for 1400:"Creole", a sociohistoric concept 657:process typically brings about a 6049:Liberian Interior Pidgin English 5683:Indo-Portuguese Creole of Bombay 5055:Leeward Caribbean Creole English 4329:"Relexification: A reevaluation" 3239:"Relexification: A reevaluation" 3050:, Tübingen: Narr, pp. 21–53 2981:Anderson, Roger W., ed. (1983), 535:in use at car rental counter in 5789:(English and Portuguese based) 5701:Daman and Diu Portuguese Creole 5091:(English and Portuguese based) 4132:"Le joual, c'est-tu un créole?" 4045:, New York: Mouton Publishers, 4025:Languages in Prehistoric Europe 3603:Jungemann, Fréderic H. (1955), 3259:"Against Creole Exceptionalism" 2992:Typological Studies in Language 1758:Japanese-based creole languages 1626:Muysken, Pieter (9 June 2016). 884:imperfect language transmission 411:, the north and east coasts of 267:, all descending from the verb 6654:of the language on their left. 6289:Kyakhta Russian–Chinese Pidgin 6003:American Indian Pidgin English 4189:, in Brasseur, Patrice (ed.), 2617:Fournier & Wittmann (1995) 1791:Spanish-based creole languages 1734:English-based creole languages 1724:Chinese-based creole languages 697:English-based creole languages 1: 6211:Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin 5182:San Andrés–Providencia Creole 4427:10.1016/S0024-3841(03)00062-7 4229:, in Fournier, Robert (ed.), 4173:, in Fournier, Robert (ed.), 4016:Pidgin and Creole Linguistics 3771:: University of Georgia Press 3753:Pidgin and Creole Linguistics 3456:, in Patrice Brasseur (ed.), 3209:Pidgin and Creole Linguistics 2834:Ansaldo & Matthews (2007) 2674:Hamilton & Coslett (2008) 2611:Wittmann (1983, 1995, 2001), 2176:"Pidgin and Creole Languages" 1744:German-based creole languages 1739:French-based creole languages 1697:Arabic-based creole languages 1552:, retains some indication of 1411:and Mikael Parkvall opposing 1358:Thomason & Kaufman (1988) 1269:argue that languages such as 765:monogenetic theory of pidgins 689:French-based creole languages 6299:Labrador Inuit Pidgin French 5719:Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole 4670:International Magazine Kreol 4386:, Utrecht: Isor-Publications 4098:(1956), John Carroll (ed.), 3978:Languages in the West Indies 3598:, Cambridge University Press 3580:, York Papers in Linguistics 3550:, Ithaca: Cornell University 1772:Malay-based creole languages 1729:Dutch-based creole languages 1509:DeGraff & Walicek (2005) 1183: 1168: 895:it is also sometimes called 890:Foreigner talk and baby talk 659:post-creole speech continuum 509:, the forerunners of modern 439:), Island Countries such as 6326:Mediterranean Lingua Franca 6124:West African Pidgin English 6084:Port Jackson Pidgin English 5689:Cannanore Portuguese Creole 4980:West African Pidgin English 4709:Louisiana Creole Dictionary 4499:McWhorter, John H. (2005), 3866:, Rowley, MA: Newbury House 3696:McWhorter, John H. (2005), 3548:Pidgin and Creole Languages 3057:Pidgin and creole languages 2985:, Rowley, MA: Newbury House 2602:domestic origin hypothesis. 2497:Bailey & Maroldt (1977) 2300:Journal of Black Psychology 2263:Meijer & Muysken (1977) 1528:, essentially a dialect of 1323:has a simpler grammar than 769:Mediterranean Lingua Franca 614:second language acquisition 481:Social and political status 6696: 6321:Maritime Polynesian Pidgin 6221:Cameroonian Pidgin English 6054:Micronesian Pidgin English 6008:Cameroonian Pidgin English 4041:Weinreich, Uriel (1979) , 3862:Schumann, John H. (1978), 3536:Readings in Creole Studies 2662:Seuren & Wekker (1986) 1933:. Oxford University Press. 1691:Creoles by parent language 1364:Given these objections to 1118:language bioprogram theory 1084: 1034:; for a more recent view, 986:use of adverbs to express 945:language bioprogram theory 797:Domestic origin hypothesis 715:joined them into a single 36: 29: 6636: 6489: 6476: 6094:Queensland Kanaka English 5998:Aboriginal Pidgin English 5980: 5967: 5676:Bengali Portuguese Creole 5347:Indian and Pacific Oceans 4833: 4820: 4648:, Stockholms Universitet. 4542:Parkvall, Mikael (2000), 4159:Le Français des Amériques 3813:Parkvall, Mikael (2000), 3635:Martinet, André (1964) , 3479:10.1080/13554790802368679 3452:Fournier, Robert (1998), 3434:Le Français des Amériques 3149:10.1017/S0140525X00044149 2312:10.1177/00957984970233002 2230:10.1080/14788810802445024 1929:McWhorter, J. H. (2005). 1608:The authors also confine 1581:Theories focusing on the 1346:to question the value of 717:Standard Average European 695:are mostly prenominal in 600:Substrate and superstrate 429:Australian Kriol language 186:European colonial empires 184:, which led to extensive 6494:Arabic-Javanese of Klego 6455:Yokohama Pidgin Japanese 6273:Kiautschou Pidgin German 6268:Inuktitut-English Pidgin 6146:Algonquian–Basque pidgin 6099:Samoan Plantation Pidgin 5714:Korlai Portuguese Creole 5695:Cochin Portuguese Creole 5446:Eastern Indonesian Malay 5028:Grenadian Creole English 4813:list of creole languages 4651:Wittmann, Henri (2001). 4641:Wittmann, Henri (1999). 4622:Wittmann, Henri (1998), 4327:DeGraff, Michel (2002), 4310:DeGraff, Michel (2001), 4269:Arends, Jacques (1989), 4255:, Amsterdam: Benjamins, 4206:, Stockholms Universitet 4198:Wittmann, Henri (1999), 4182:Wittmann, Henri (1998), 4166:Wittmann, Henri (1996), 4150:Wittmann, Henri (1995), 3976:Taylor, Douglas (1977), 3292:DeGraff, Michel (2004), 3257:DeGraff, Michel (2003), 3237:DeGraff, Michel (2002), 3220:DeGraff, Michel (2001), 2771:Muysken & Law (2001) 2508:McWhorter, John (2018). 2102:Muysken & Law (2001) 1685:Nicaraguan Sign Language 1670:List of creole languages 1480:Muysken & Law (2001) 1291:Muysken & Law (2001) 1289:Others (see overview in 915:Telegraphic condensation 775:in the so-called "slave 202:Other scholars, such as 88:mixed or hybrid language 6680:Linguistics terminology 6519:Cypriot Maronite-Arabic 6450:West Greenlandic Pidgin 6404:Roquetas Pidgin Spanish 6166:Basque–Icelandic pidgin 6069:Papua New Guinea Pidgin 6034:Japanese Pidgin English 6029:Japanese Bamboo English 6024:Hawaiian Pidgin English 5736:Bidau Creole Portuguese 5311:Grenadian Creole French 5306:Dominican Creole French 5187:Turks and Caicos Creole 4995:Ghanaian Pidgin English 4593:10.1075/jpcl.11.2.02sin 4336:Linguistic Anthropology 4121:10.1075/jpcl.12.1.06win 4059:Whinnom, Keith (1956), 3987:Creole Language Studies 3958:10.1075/jpcl.11.2.02sin 3836:10.1075/jpcl.16.1.07par 3745:10.1075/jpcl.28.1.08mcw 3246:Linguistic Anthropology 3198:Bloomfield, L. (1933), 2180:Humanities.uchicago.edu 1484:inflectional morphology 1295:inflectional morphology 1241: 1226: 1220: 1081:Universalist approaches 745:Universalist approaches 685:Indo-European languages 596:scientific discussion. 574:Historic classification 344:Geographic distribution 58: 6554:Língua Geral Amazônica 6013:Chinese Pidgin English 5333:Karipúna French Creole 5323:French Guianese Creole 5148:Jamaican Maroon Creole 4546:, London: Battlebridge 4231:Mélanges linguistiques 4175:Mélanges linguistiques 4102:, Cambridge: MIT Press 3856:10.1075/eww.11.1.07sch 3817:, London: Battlebridge 3722:10.1075/dia.28.1.04mcw 3628:Yearbook of Morphology 3202:, New York: Henry Holt 3192:10.1075/jpcl.6.1.03bic 3041:, Amsterdam: Benjamins 3032:, Amsterdam: Benjamins 1214: 687:(like Nubi or Sango). 540: 519:historical linguistics 364:, and along Southeast 324: 318: 313:españoles peninsulares 312: 304: 297: 291: 273: 263: 254: 241: 63: 6599:Para-Romani languages 6559:Língua Geral Paulista 6514:Cauque Mayan language 6424:Tây Bồi Pidgin French 6419:Taimyr Pidgin Russian 6342:Namibian Black German 6104:Solomon Islands Pijin 6074:Papuan Pidgin English 6039:Korean Bamboo English 5889:Yilan Creole Japanese 5522:Malaccan Creole Malay 5158:Bocas del Toro Creole 5122:Virgin Islands Creole 4637:, Amsterdam: Elsevier 4459:Lang, Jürgen (2009), 4391:Fertel, Rien (2014), 4368:10.1353/lan.2003.0114 3594:Hymes, D. H. (1971), 3515:10.1515/ling.2002.019 3323:10.1353/lan.2004.0178 3278:10.1353/lan.2003.0114 3075:, Karoma Publishers, 3030:Deconstructing Creole 1988:Siegel, Jeff (2008). 1085:Further information: 965:Imperfect L2 learning 531: 47: 6347:Ndyuka-Tiriyó Pidgin 6284:Kwoma-Manambu Pidgin 6151:Arafundi-Enga Pidgin 6126:(multiple varieties) 6059:Nauru Pidgin English 5880:Andaman Creole Hindi 5615:Guinea-Bissau Creole 5496:North Moluccan Malay 5268:Torres Strait Creole 5170:Miskito Coast Creole 5038:Afro-Seminole Creole 3871:Sebba, Mark (1997), 3004:10.1075/tsl.73.02ans 1753:Andaman Creole Hindi 1719:Bishnupriya Manipuri 1564:Additional resources 1488:Berbice Creole Dutch 1299:Berbice Dutch Creole 1043:Atlantic slave trade 781:Atlantic slave trade 618:language replacement 459:Amerindian languages 112:Atlantic slave trade 6675:Pidgins and creoles 6253:Français Tirailleur 6237:Eskimo Trade Jargon 6114:Thai Pidgin English 5592:Barlavento Creoles 5573:Cape Verdean Creole 5316:Saint Lucian Creole 4443:Pidgins and Creoles 4441:Holm, John (1989), 4402:Linguistic Typology 4316:Linguistic Typology 3965:Stewart, William A. 3587:Pidgins and Creoles 3585:Holm, John (1988), 3523:Linguistic Typology 3352:10.3917/rfla.101.24 3226:Linguistic Typology 3103:1983SciAm.249a.116B 3091:Scientific American 2947:, pp. 35, 369. 2685:See the article on 2525:Linguistic Typology 2174:Mufwene, Salikoko. 681:languages of Europe 670:language complexity 208:indentured servants 34:as well as creoles. 6263:International Sign 6044:Kru Pidgin English 5646:Principense Creole 5606:São Vicente Creole 5601:São Nicolau Creole 5596:Santo Antão Creole 5577:Sotavento Creoles 5384:Seychellois Creole 5354:Bourbonnais Creole 5112:Trinidadian Creole 5070:Saint Kitts Creole 4985:Cameroonian Pidgin 4928:Skepi Dutch Creole 4726:2020-10-11 at the 4714:2019-09-29 at the 4701:2019-09-24 at the 4680:Language Varieties 4531:Glot International 4469:McWhorter, John H. 3844:English World-Wide 3802:Glot International 3729:McWhorter, John H. 3706:McWhorter, John H. 3685:McWhorter, John H. 3645:McWhorter, John H. 2963:as interpreted by 2628:See, for example, 2288:Holm (1988, 1989) 1675:Macaronic language 1628:"Creole Languages" 1554:grammatical gender 1548:, as described by 1301:, for example, or 969:The imperfect L2 ( 886:in koiné genesis. 541: 515:comparative method 360:along the west of 306:españoles criollos 281:to produce, create 64: 6662: 6661: 6646:extinct languages 6632: 6631: 6509:Cappadocian Greek 6472: 6471: 6468: 6467: 6232:Duvle-Wano Pidgin 6201:Broken Oghibbeway 6161:Barikanchi Pidgin 6109:Solombala-English 5963: 5962: 5959: 5958: 5803: 5802: 5764: 5763: 5654: 5653: 5636:Annobonese Creole 5399: 5398: 5364:Chagossian Creole 5276: 5275: 5227:Melanesian Pidgin 5195: 5194: 5131:Western Caribbean 5117:Vincentian Creole 5107:Tobagonian Creole 5065:Montserrat Creole 5060:Anguillian Creole 5016:Eastern Caribbean 4696:Creole definition 4657:The Linguist List 4303:978-0-8090-2816-0 4052:978-90-279-2689-0 4003:Kaufman, Terrence 3789:Mufwene, Salikoko 3777:Mufwene, Salikoko 3761:Mufwene, Salikoko 3071:Roots of Language 3013:978-90-272-2985-4 2824:, Wittmann (2001) 2510:The Creole Debate 1999:978-0-19-921666-6 1374:Romance languages 1372:argues that some 1332:Robert Chaudenson 1265:(1999) and David 1126:natural languages 1104:language learning 1087:Universal grammar 959:Bloomfield (1933) 924:Hinnenkamp (1984) 846:French extant in 824:linguistic change 701:variety of French 693:definite articles 665:in the language. 232:The English term 16:(Redirected from 6687: 6478: 6280:(Swahili pidgin) 6242:Ewondo Populaire 6088:Australian Kriol 5982: 5969: 5748:Mardijker Creole 5663: 5563: 5556: 5537:Sri Lankan Malay 5379:Rodriguan Creole 5369:Mauritian Creole 5338:Louisiana Creole 5301:Antillean Creole 5291: 5249:Ngatikese Creole 5207:Australian Kriol 4955: 4948: 4835: 4822: 4794: 4787: 4780: 4771: 4638: 4628: 4618: 4608: 4595: 4575: 4547: 4538: 4525: 4516: 4515:, Tübingen: Narr 4504: 4495: 4464: 4463:, Tübingen: Narr 4455: 4446: 4437: 4409: 4396: 4387: 4378: 4350: 4333: 4323: 4306: 4288:Bickerton, Derek 4283: 4265: 4237: 4228: 4218: 4207: 4194: 4188: 4178: 4172: 4162: 4156: 4146: 4136: 4123: 4103: 4091: 4078: 4072: 4064: 4055: 4037: 4028: 4019: 4010: 3994: 3981: 3972: 3960: 3940: 3912: 3894: 3885: 3867: 3858: 3838: 3818: 3809: 3796: 3784: 3772: 3756: 3747: 3724: 3701: 3692: 3680: 3671: 3640: 3639:, Berne: Francke 3631: 3622: 3616: 3608: 3599: 3590: 3581: 3572: 3563: 3551: 3539: 3530: 3517: 3497: 3461: 3448: 3437: 3426: 3417: 3389: 3376: 3363: 3354: 3333: 3316: 3298: 3288: 3263: 3253: 3243: 3233: 3216: 3203: 3194: 3176:Bickerton, Derek 3171: 3164:Bickerton, Derek 3159: 3142: 3121: 3085: 3074: 3065:Bickerton, Derek 3060: 3051: 3042: 3033: 3024: 2986: 2968: 2954: 2948: 2945:McWhorter (2005) 2942: 2936: 2933:McWhorter (2005) 2930: 2924: 2918: 2912: 2906: 2900: 2897:McWhorter (2000) 2894: 2888: 2885:McWhorter (1998) 2882: 2876: 2866: 2860: 2854: 2848: 2846:McWhorter (1998) 2842: 2836: 2831: 2825: 2819: 2813: 2812: 2801: 2795: 2793:McWhorter (2005) 2790: 2784: 2782:McWhorter (1998) 2779: 2773: 2768: 2762: 2760:McWhorter (2018) 2756:McWhorter (2005) 2752:McWhorter (1998) 2748: 2742: 2740:Bickerton (1983) 2736: 2730: 2728:Bickerton (1991) 2724:Bickerton (1988) 2720:Bickerton (1984) 2716:Bickerton (1983) 2712:Bickerton (1981) 2708: 2702: 2696: 2690: 2683: 2677: 2650: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2620: 2609: 2603: 2596: 2590: 2584: 2578: 2573: 2567: 2562: 2556: 2547: 2541: 2535: 2529: 2528: 2520: 2514: 2513: 2505: 2499: 2494: 2488: 2483: 2477: 2463: 2457: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2437: 2431: 2426: 2420: 2401:Jungemann (1955) 2397:Weinreich (1979) 2389: 2383: 2378: 2372: 2367: 2361: 2356: 2350: 2348:Weinreich (1979) 2345: 2336: 2330: 2324: 2323: 2295: 2289: 2286: 2280: 2275: 2266: 2259: 2250: 2249: 2218:Atlantic Studies 2213: 2207: 2201: 2195: 2194: 2192: 2191: 2182:. Archived from 2171: 2165: 2160: 2149: 2144: 2129: 2124: 2115: 2110: 2104: 2099: 2090: 2085: 2076: 2071: 2065: 2060: 2054: 2052:Wardhaugh (2002) 2050::138); cited in 2045: 2039: 2033: 2027: 2022: 2016: 2010: 2004: 2003: 1985: 1979: 1970: 1964: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1954:on June 20, 2017 1950:. Archived from 1940: 1934: 1927: 1921: 1918: 1912: 1909: 1903: 1902: 1900: 1892: 1886: 1885: 1883: 1882: 1876: 1870:. Archived from 1869: 1861: 1855: 1854: 1852: 1844: 1838: 1837: 1835: 1834: 1824: 1660:Language contact 1639: 1386:Schneider (1990) 1336:Salikoko Mufwene 1253: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1238: 1235: 1232: 1229: 1223: 1217: 1195: 1192: 1189: 1186: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1171: 1157:creole prototype 1145:Creole prototype 1047:McWhorter (1999) 1020:Bickerton (1981) 868:Saint-Barthélemy 836:phylogenetically 790:Bickerton (1977) 720:of all creoles. 675:Phylogenetic or 643:Atlantic Creoles 511:sociolinguistics 503:Johannes Schmidt 327: 325:negros africanos 321: 315: 309: 300: 294: 285: 282: 279: 276: 266: 257: 244: 204:Salikoko Mufwene 182:Age of Discovery 108:Age of Discovery 76:natural language 61: 52:traffic sign in 50:Antillean Creole 21: 6695: 6694: 6690: 6689: 6688: 6686: 6685: 6684: 6665: 6664: 6663: 6658: 6657: 6628: 6485: 6483:Mixed languages 6464: 6434:Te Parau Tinito 6414:Settler Swahili 6383:Pidgin Ngarluma 6373:Pidgin Hawaiian 6368:Pidgin Delaware 6357:Nigerian Pidgin 6337:Mobilian Jargon 6304:Loucheux Jargon 6172:Bimbashi Arabic 6139:Other languages 6134: 6076:(distinct from 6064:Nigerian Pidgin 5976: 5955: 5842:Other languages 5837: 5799: 5776:Macanese Patois 5760: 5723: 5667:Indo-Portuguese 5650: 5619: 5586:Santiago Creole 5541: 5481:Larantuka Malay 5395: 5342: 5272: 5217:Hawaiian Pidgin 5191: 5175:Rama Cay Creole 5163:Limonese Creole 5153:Jamaican Patois 5143:Belizean Creole 5138:Bahamian Creole 5126: 5045:Guyanese Creole 5011: 5005:Nigerian Pidgin 5000:Liberian Kreyol 4933: 4860: 4829: 4816: 4809:mixed languages 4798: 4741: 4728:Wayback Machine 4716:Wayback Machine 4703:Wayback Machine 4685:Creole language 4666: 4626: 4621: 4606: 4600:Wittmann, Henri 4598: 4578: 4550: 4541: 4528: 4519: 4507: 4501:Defining Creole 4498: 4467: 4458: 4449: 4440: 4412: 4399: 4390: 4381: 4353: 4331: 4326: 4309: 4304: 4286: 4281: 4268: 4263: 4250: 4247: 4245:Further reading 4242: 4226: 4221: 4210: 4197: 4186: 4181: 4170: 4165: 4154: 4149: 4139:La Linguistique 4134: 4128:Wittmann, Henri 4126: 4106: 4096:Whorf, Benjamin 4094: 4081: 4065: 4058: 4053: 4040: 4031: 4022: 4013: 3999:Thomason, Sarah 3997: 3984: 3975: 3963: 3943: 3915: 3910: 3897: 3888: 3883: 3870: 3861: 3841: 3821: 3812: 3799: 3787: 3775: 3759: 3750: 3727: 3704: 3698:Defining Creole 3695: 3683: 3674: 3643: 3634: 3625: 3609: 3602: 3593: 3584: 3575: 3566: 3556:Hall, Robert A. 3554: 3544:Hall, Robert A. 3542: 3538:, pp. 3–35 3533: 3520: 3500: 3464: 3451: 3446: 3429: 3420: 3392: 3379: 3366: 3336: 3314:10.1.1.693.2511 3296: 3291: 3261: 3256: 3241: 3236: 3219: 3206: 3197: 3174: 3162: 3140:10.1.1.908.5328 3124: 3088: 3083: 3063: 3054: 3045: 3036: 3027: 3014: 2989: 2980: 2976: 2971: 2965:Parkvall (2000) 2961:Wittmann (1998) 2957:Wittmann (1996) 2955: 2951: 2943: 2939: 2931: 2927: 2919: 2915: 2909:Wittmann (1999) 2907: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2883: 2879: 2867: 2863: 2857:Parkvall (2001) 2855: 2851: 2843: 2839: 2832: 2828: 2820: 2816: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2791: 2787: 2780: 2776: 2769: 2765: 2749: 2745: 2737: 2733: 2709: 2705: 2699:Wardhaugh (2002 2697: 2693: 2684: 2680: 2658:Anderson (1983) 2654:Schumann (1978) 2651: 2647: 2641:Wardhaugh (2002 2639: 2635: 2630:Ferguson (1971) 2627: 2623: 2613:Fournier (1998) 2610: 2606: 2597: 2593: 2587:Bickerton (1977 2585: 2581: 2574: 2570: 2565:Thompson (1961) 2563: 2559: 2548: 2544: 2536: 2532: 2522: 2521: 2517: 2507: 2506: 2502: 2495: 2491: 2484: 2480: 2474:Wittmann (1998) 2470:Wittmann (1995) 2466:Fournier (1998) 2464: 2460: 2452: 2448: 2439: 2438: 2434: 2429:Parkvall (2000) 2427: 2423: 2405:Martinet (1964) 2390: 2386: 2379: 2375: 2368: 2364: 2357: 2353: 2346: 2339: 2331: 2327: 2297: 2296: 2292: 2287: 2283: 2278:Traugott (1977) 2276: 2269: 2260: 2253: 2215: 2214: 2210: 2202: 2198: 2189: 2187: 2173: 2172: 2168: 2161: 2152: 2145: 2132: 2125: 2118: 2113:Lefebvre (2002) 2111: 2107: 2100: 2093: 2086: 2079: 2072: 2068: 2063:Wittmann (1999) 2061: 2057: 2046: 2042: 2036:Bickerton (1983 2034: 2030: 2023: 2019: 2013:Wardhaugh (2002 2011: 2007: 2000: 1987: 1986: 1982: 1971: 1967: 1957: 1955: 1948:www.alsintl.com 1942: 1941: 1937: 1931:Defining creole 1928: 1924: 1919: 1915: 1910: 1906: 1898: 1894: 1893: 1889: 1880: 1878: 1874: 1867: 1863: 1862: 1858: 1850: 1846: 1845: 1841: 1832: 1830: 1826: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1693: 1680:Nation language 1646: 1625: 1622: 1620:Further reading 1614:mixed languages 1566: 1522: 1504:Wittmann (2001) 1476:Riau Indonesian 1423:, little or no 1402: 1382: 1321:Riau Indonesian 1316: 1283:Riau Indonesian 1251: 1248: 1245: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1147: 1138: 1089: 1083: 1055: 1036:Parkvall (2000) 1006: 971:second language 967: 892: 816: 799: 785:Hugo Schuchardt 761: 756: 726: 663:hypercorrection 651: 602: 576: 571: 507:Hugo Schuchardt 483: 455:Atlantic Creole 346: 319:negros crioulos 283: 280: 277: 230: 225: 155: 84:native speakers 68:creole language 42: 39:Creole (markup) 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6693: 6691: 6683: 6682: 6677: 6667: 6666: 6660: 6659: 6656: 6655: 6648: 6638: 6637: 6634: 6633: 6630: 6629: 6627: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6569:Makassar Malay 6566: 6564:Light Warlpiri 6561: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6539:Gurindji Kriol 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6490: 6487: 6486: 6481: 6474: 6473: 6470: 6469: 6466: 6465: 6463: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6323: 6318: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6181: 6175: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6156:Bamboo English 6153: 6148: 6142: 6140: 6136: 6135: 6133: 6132: 6127: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6086:(ancestral to 6081: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6018:Butler English 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5994: 5992: 5978: 5977: 5972: 5965: 5964: 5961: 5960: 5957: 5956: 5954: 5953: 5943: 5941:Vedda language 5934: 5927:Pretoria Sotho 5924: 5917:Oorlams Creole 5914: 5905: 5896: 5882: 5873: 5864: 5855: 5845: 5843: 5839: 5838: 5836: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5817: 5815: 5805: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5798: 5797: 5796: 5795: 5784: 5778: 5772: 5770: 5766: 5765: 5762: 5761: 5759: 5758: 5751: 5744: 5739: 5731: 5729: 5728:Southeast Asia 5725: 5724: 5722: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5710: 5709: 5706: 5698: 5691: 5686: 5679: 5671: 5669: 5660: 5656: 5655: 5652: 5651: 5649: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5631:Angolar Creole 5627: 5625: 5624:Gulf of Guinea 5621: 5620: 5618: 5617: 5612: 5611: 5610: 5609: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5590: 5589: 5588: 5583: 5569: 5567: 5560: 5553: 5543: 5542: 5540: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5518: 5517: 5516: 5515: 5505: 5504: 5503: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5456:Ambonese Malay 5453: 5443: 5442: 5441: 5431: 5429:Balinese Malay 5426: 5425: 5424: 5413: 5411: 5401: 5400: 5397: 5396: 5394: 5393: 5388: 5387: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5374:Réunion Creole 5371: 5366: 5361: 5359:Agalega Creole 5350: 5348: 5344: 5343: 5341: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5328:Haitian Creole 5325: 5320: 5319: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5297: 5295: 5288: 5278: 5277: 5274: 5273: 5271: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5251: 5246: 5245: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5203: 5201: 5197: 5196: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5178: 5177: 5167: 5166: 5165: 5160: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5134: 5132: 5128: 5127: 5125: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5098: 5097: 5086: 5085: 5084: 5074: 5073: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5041: 5040: 5030: 5025: 5019: 5017: 5013: 5012: 5010: 5009: 5008: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4977: 4972: 4971: 4970: 4961: 4959: 4952: 4945: 4935: 4934: 4932: 4931: 4924: 4917: 4910: 4909: 4908: 4896: 4889: 4882: 4874: 4872: 4862: 4861: 4859: 4858: 4853: 4847: 4845: 4831: 4830: 4825: 4818: 4817: 4799: 4797: 4796: 4789: 4782: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752:in libraries ( 4747: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4735: 4730: 4718: 4706: 4693: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4665: 4664:External links 4662: 4661: 4660: 4649: 4639: 4619: 4596: 4587:(2): 185–230, 4576: 4565:10.2307/414784 4548: 4539: 4526: 4517: 4509:Meisel, Jürgen 4505: 4496: 4485:10.2307/417003 4479:(4): 788–818, 4465: 4456: 4447: 4438: 4421:(5): 575–619, 4410: 4397: 4388: 4379: 4362:(2): 391–410, 4351: 4342:(4): 321–414, 4324: 4322:(2–3): 213–310 4307: 4302: 4284: 4279: 4266: 4261: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4240: 4219: 4208: 4195: 4179: 4163: 4147: 4124: 4115:(1): 131–151, 4104: 4092: 4079: 4056: 4051: 4038: 4029: 4020: 4011: 3995: 3982: 3973: 3961: 3952:(2): 185–230, 3941: 3930:10.2307/414784 3913: 3908: 3895: 3886: 3881: 3868: 3859: 3839: 3830:(1): 147–151, 3819: 3810: 3797: 3785: 3773: 3763:, ed. (1993), 3757: 3748: 3739:(1): 167–179, 3725: 3702: 3693: 3681: 3672: 3661:10.2307/417003 3655:(4): 788–818, 3641: 3632: 3623: 3600: 3591: 3582: 3573: 3564: 3552: 3540: 3531: 3518: 3509:(2): 439–468, 3498: 3473:(4): 347–368, 3462: 3449: 3444: 3427: 3418: 3407:10.2307/408831 3401:(4): 245–254, 3390: 3377: 3364: 3334: 3307:(4): 834–839, 3289: 3272:(2): 391–410, 3254: 3234: 3232:(2–3): 213–310 3217: 3204: 3195: 3172: 3160: 3133:(2): 173–188, 3122: 3097:(8): 116–122, 3086: 3081: 3061: 3052: 3043: 3034: 3025: 3012: 2987: 2977: 2975: 2972: 2970: 2969: 2949: 2937: 2925: 2921:DeGraff (2003) 2913: 2901: 2889: 2887:, p. 809. 2877: 2874:DeGraff (2005) 2870:DeGraff (2003) 2861: 2849: 2837: 2826: 2822:Mufwene (2000) 2814: 2809:www.nou-la.org 2796: 2785: 2774: 2763: 2743: 2731: 2703: 2691: 2687:relexification 2678: 2670:Geeslin (2002) 2645: 2633: 2621: 2604: 2591: 2579: 2576:Stewart (1962) 2568: 2557: 2554:Whinnom (1965) 2550:Whinnom (1956) 2542: 2530: 2515: 2500: 2489: 2478: 2458: 2446: 2432: 2421: 2417:Singler (1988) 2413:Singler (1983) 2384: 2381:Singler (1996) 2373: 2370:Singler (1988) 2362: 2359:Mufwene (1993) 2351: 2337: 2325: 2306:(3): 208–214. 2290: 2281: 2267: 2251: 2224:(3): 335–346. 2208: 2196: 2166: 2150: 2130: 2127:DeGraff (2003) 2116: 2105: 2091: 2077: 2074:Mufwene (2000) 2066: 2055: 2040: 2028: 2017: 2005: 1998: 1980: 1965: 1935: 1922: 1913: 1904: 1887: 1856: 1839: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1812: 1811: 1809:Kutchi-Swahili 1802: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1774: 1769: 1760: 1755: 1746: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1726: 1721: 1708: 1699: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1687: 1682: 1677: 1672: 1667: 1662: 1657: 1652: 1650:Criollo people 1645: 1642: 1641: 1640: 1621: 1618: 1606: 1605: 1599: 1589: 1586: 1565: 1562: 1558:Haitian Creole 1550:Henri Wittmann 1521: 1518: 1500:Mufwene (2000) 1466:for measuring 1440:Haitian Creole 1417:Michel DeGraff 1413:Henri Wittmann 1409:John McWhorter 1401: 1398: 1381: 1378: 1370:Mufwene (2002) 1344:Henri Wittmann 1340:Michel DeGraff 1315: 1314:Exceptionalism 1312: 1311: 1310: 1287: 1263:Henri Wittmann 1201: 1200: 1197: 1164: 1153:John McWhorter 1146: 1143: 1137: 1136:Recent studies 1134: 1082: 1079: 1054: 1051: 1032:Mufwene (1993) 1024:Dillard (1970) 1011:relexification 1005: 1002: 998: 997: 994: 991: 984: 981: 978: 966: 963: 955: 954: 951: 948: 938: 920: 919: 916: 913: 910: 891: 888: 882:and models of 862:communities), 834:is a language 820:French creoles 815: 812: 803:Hancock (1985) 798: 795: 760: 757: 755: 752: 747: 746: 743: 740: 737: 725: 724:Creole genesis 722: 655:decreolization 650: 649:Decreolization 647: 601: 598: 575: 572: 570: 569:Classification 567: 539:, U.S. in 2014 533:Haitian Creole 482: 479: 345: 342: 338:creole peoples 229: 226: 224: 221: 216:basilectalized 173:in the 1960s. 154: 151: 74:, is a stable 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6692: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6672: 6670: 6653: 6649: 6647: 6643: 6640: 6639: 6635: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6504:Bonin English 6502: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6491: 6488: 6484: 6479: 6475: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6363:Nootka Jargon 6361: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6332:Mekeo pidgins 6330: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6316: 6315:Maridi Arabic 6312: 6310: 6309:Madras Bashai 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6258:Haflong Hindi 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249:(Pidgin Zulu) 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6206:Broken Slavey 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6196:Bozal Spanish 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6186: 6185:Bongor Arabic 6182: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6173: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6137: 6131: 6128: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6089: 6085: 6082: 6079: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5995: 5993: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5970: 5966: 5951: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5938: 5935: 5932: 5928: 5925: 5922: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5900: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5850: 5847: 5846: 5844: 5840: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5823: 5822:Bozal Spanish 5819: 5818: 5816: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5794: 5791: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5773: 5771: 5767: 5757: 5756: 5752: 5750: 5749: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5737: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5726: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5707: 5704: 5703: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5696: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5684: 5680: 5678: 5677: 5673: 5672: 5670: 5668: 5664: 5661: 5657: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5628: 5626: 5622: 5616: 5613: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5593: 5591: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5578: 5576: 5575: 5574: 5571: 5570: 5568: 5564: 5561: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5514: 5511: 5510: 5509: 5506: 5502: 5499: 5498: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5491:Maumere Malay 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5448: 5447: 5444: 5440: 5437: 5436: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5423: 5420: 5419: 5418: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5392: 5389: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5356: 5355: 5352: 5351: 5349: 5345: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5303: 5302: 5299: 5298: 5296: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5229: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5212:Bonin English 5210: 5208: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5198: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5176: 5173: 5172: 5171: 5168: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5155: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5135: 5133: 5129: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5096: 5093: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5083: 5080: 5079: 5078: 5075: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5057: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5039: 5036: 5035: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5014: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4982: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4968: 4967: 4966: 4963: 4962: 4960: 4956: 4953: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4930: 4929: 4925: 4923: 4922: 4918: 4916: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4902: 4901: 4897: 4895: 4894: 4890: 4888: 4887: 4886:Negerhollands 4883: 4881: 4880: 4876: 4875: 4873: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4848: 4846: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4823: 4819: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4795: 4790: 4788: 4783: 4781: 4776: 4775: 4772: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4755: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4725: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4713: 4710: 4707: 4704: 4700: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4691: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4647: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4625: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4577: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4549: 4545: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4527: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4497: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4457: 4453: 4448: 4444: 4439: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4398: 4394: 4389: 4385: 4380: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4352: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4330: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4305: 4299: 4296:, Macmillan, 4295: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4282: 4280:90-900268-3-5 4276: 4272: 4267: 4264: 4262:90-272-5236-X 4258: 4254: 4249: 4248: 4244: 4239: 4236: 4232: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4215: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4196: 4192: 4185: 4180: 4176: 4169: 4164: 4160: 4153: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4080: 4076: 4070: 4062: 4057: 4054: 4048: 4044: 4039: 4035: 4030: 4026: 4021: 4017: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3983: 3979: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3942: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3914: 3911: 3909:90-70176-95-5 3905: 3901: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3884: 3882:0-333-63024-6 3878: 3875:, MacMillan, 3874: 3869: 3865: 3860: 3857: 3853: 3850:(1): 79–113, 3849: 3845: 3840: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3749: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3723: 3719: 3716:(1): 82–117, 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3673: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3633: 3629: 3624: 3620: 3614: 3606: 3601: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3583: 3579: 3574: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3519: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3499: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3450: 3447: 3445:2-9802307-2-3 3441: 3436: 3435: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3365: 3362: 3358: 3353: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3335: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3295: 3290: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3260: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3240: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3196: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3123: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3084: 3082:0-89720-044-6 3078: 3073: 3072: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2979: 2978: 2973: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2950: 2946: 2941: 2938: 2935:, p. 16. 2934: 2929: 2926: 2922: 2917: 2914: 2910: 2905: 2902: 2898: 2893: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2878: 2875: 2871: 2865: 2862: 2858: 2853: 2850: 2847: 2841: 2838: 2835: 2830: 2827: 2823: 2818: 2815: 2810: 2806: 2800: 2797: 2794: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2778: 2775: 2772: 2767: 2764: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2747: 2744: 2741: 2735: 2732: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2707: 2704: 2700: 2695: 2692: 2688: 2682: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2649: 2646: 2642: 2637: 2634: 2631: 2625: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2608: 2605: 2601: 2595: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2580: 2577: 2572: 2569: 2566: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2551: 2546: 2543: 2540: 2539:Taylor (1977) 2534: 2531: 2526: 2519: 2516: 2511: 2504: 2501: 2498: 2493: 2490: 2487: 2482: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2462: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2447: 2442: 2436: 2433: 2430: 2425: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2388: 2385: 2382: 2377: 2374: 2371: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2355: 2352: 2349: 2344: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2329: 2326: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2294: 2291: 2285: 2282: 2279: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2258: 2256: 2252: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2212: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2197: 2186:on 2013-06-03 2185: 2181: 2177: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2148: 2147:DeCamp (1977) 2143: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2123: 2121: 2117: 2114: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2098: 2096: 2092: 2089: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2075: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2059: 2056: 2053: 2049: 2048:Winford (1997 2044: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2029: 2026: 2021: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2006: 2001: 1995: 1991: 1984: 1981: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1966: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1939: 1936: 1932: 1926: 1923: 1917: 1914: 1908: 1905: 1897: 1891: 1888: 1877:on 2018-07-12 1873: 1866: 1860: 1857: 1849: 1843: 1840: 1829: 1823: 1820: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1797: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1782: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1764: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1754: 1750: 1747: 1745: 1742: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1703: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1683: 1681: 1678: 1676: 1673: 1671: 1668: 1666: 1665:Lingua franca 1663: 1661: 1658: 1656: 1653: 1651: 1648: 1647: 1643: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1624: 1623: 1619: 1617: 1615: 1611: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1596:developmental 1593: 1590: 1587: 1584: 1580: 1579: 1578: 1576: 1572: 1570: 1563: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1546:Magoua French 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1510: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1460:Magoua French 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1399: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1379: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1362: 1359: 1355: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1313: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1279:Magoua French 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1261: 1260: 1259: 1255: 1243: 1228: 1222: 1216: 1211: 1207: 1198: 1185: 1170: 1165: 1162: 1161: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1144: 1142: 1135: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1116: 1112: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1098: 1093: 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Retrieved 2184:the original 2179: 2169: 2163:Sebba (1997) 2108: 2069: 2058: 2043: 2031: 2020: 2008: 1989: 1983: 1972: 1968: 1956:. Retrieved 1952:the original 1947: 1938: 1930: 1925: 1916: 1907: 1890: 1879:. Retrieved 1872:the original 1859: 1842: 1831:. Retrieved 1822: 1607: 1602:Universalist 1573: 1567: 1523: 1404: 1403: 1394:prototypical 1383: 1365: 1363: 1356: 1351: 1347: 1329: 1317: 1256: 1202: 1156: 1151: 1148: 1139: 1111:organization 1100:transparency 1092:Universalist 1090: 1071: 1063:Hymes (1971) 1056: 1040: 1029: 1007: 999: 968: 956: 928: 921: 901: 893: 817: 807:Sierra Leone 801:Proposed by 800: 762: 748: 727: 674: 667: 652: 635: 603: 592: 589: 584:phylogenetic 577: 562: 557: 550: 546:creolization 542: 492: 484: 463:Indian Ocean 453: 449:Indian Ocean 406: 347: 288: 268: 251:Spanish term 233: 231: 201: 198: 179: 175: 163:nativization 156: 136: 104: 71: 70:, or simply 67: 65: 6441:(creolized) 6400:(creolized) 6388:Pidgin Onin 6359:(creolized) 6223:(creolized) 6191:Borgarmålet 6180:(creolized) 5581:Fogo Creole 5532:Sabah Malay 5513:Serui Malay 5461:Banda Malay 5439:Cocos Malay 5391:Tayo Creole 4906:Negro Dutch 4851:Juba Arabic 4690:Answers.com 4063:, Hong Kong 3710:Diachronica 3503:Linguistics 3213:Bloomington 2537:such as in 2409:Hall (1974) 2204:Holm (1988) 2025:Hall (1966) 1973:Linguistics 1542:inflections 1513:colonialist 1429:transparent 1415:(1999) and 1388:calls "the 1380:Controversy 1249:to squander 1122:plantations 1115:Bickerton's 1067:inflections 942:Bickerton's 918:Conventions 854:(mostly in 677:typological 610:superstrate 523:creolistics 447:and in the 433:Philippines 419:), western 417:The Guyanas 396:, Réunion, 386:Philippines 245:, which is 236:comes from 171:Robert Hall 100:linguistics 6669:Categories 6594:Missingsch 6409:Russenorsk 6378:Pidgin Iha 5946:Tsotsitaal 5919:(possibly 5833:Palenquero 5787:Saramaccan 5781:Papiamento 5547:Portuguese 5527:Orang Pulo 5501:Sula Malay 5466:Dili Malay 5451:Alor Malay 5417:Baba Malay 5089:Saramaccan 4990:Pichinglis 4537:(2): 47–57 4145:(2): 83–93 3808:(2): 47–57 2190:2010-04-24 2088:Gil (2001) 1958:October 9, 1881:2017-05-24 1833:2020-04-09 1815:References 1604:approaches 1598:hypotheses 1592:Gradualist 1496:Papiamentu 1472:Gil (2001) 1468:creoleness 1448:parameters 1444:Palenquero 1432:derivation 1421:inflection 1405:Creoleness 1325:Saramaccan 1307:Papiamentu 1267:Gil (2001) 1075:generation 937:languages. 876:gradualism 828:creoleness 826:and their 773:relexified 639:Papiamento 604:The terms 499:wave model 445:Seychelles 398:Seychelles 352:, western 289:The terms 260:Portuguese 120:navigation 54:Guadeloupe 6652:varieties 6644:indicate 6439:Tok Pisin 6227:Cocoliche 6119:Tok Pisin 6078:Tok Pisin 5921:Afrikaans 5828:Chavacano 5422:Peranakan 5242:Tok Pisin 4739:In French 4408:: 325–371 3993:: 107–113 3529:: 325–371 3467:Neurocase 3331:143265334 3309:CiteSeerX 3186:: 25–58, 3157:144264276 3135:CiteSeerX 3022:0167-7373 2600:Hancock's 2320:145764278 2246:159786747 2238:1478-8810 2038::116–122) 1655:Diglossia 1464:yardstick 1436:prototype 1210:diglossic 1108:discourse 912:Imitation 897:baby talk 864:Louisiana 838:based on 777:factories 703:that was 606:substrate 488:qualifier 441:Mauritius 437:Chavacano 425:Australia 409:Caribbean 394:Mauritius 382:Hong Kong 374:Singapore 370:Indonesia 332:, Kriol, 249:with the 228:Etymology 6624:Wutunhua 6609:Tangwang 6549:Lingling 6429:Tinglish 6352:Nefamese 6294:Kyowa-go 6247:Fanagalo 5939:-based: 5910:-based: 5901:-based: 5887:-based: 5885:Japanese 5878:-based: 5869:-based: 5862:Tangwang 5860:-based: 5853:Nagamese 5851:-based: 5849:Assamese 5755:Portugis 5742:Kristang 5263:Singlish 5254:Pitcairn 5222:Manglish 4951:Atlantic 4756:catalog) 4754:WorldCat 4724:Archived 4712:Archived 4699:Archived 4617:: 285–92 4602:(1983), 4553:Language 4511:(1977), 4473:Language 4435:18601673 4376:47857823 4356:Language 4348:30028860 4290:(2009), 4130:(1973), 4090:: 509–27 4069:citation 4005:(1988), 3918:Language 3791:(2002), 3687:(2000), 3649:Language 3613:citation 3607:, Madrid 3558:(1974), 3546:(1966), 3495:44889915 3487:18792839 3395:Language 3361:60957821 3301:Language 3286:47857823 3266:Language 3200:Language 3119:24968948 3067:(1981), 2998:: 1–20, 1807:-based: 1798:-based: 1779:-based: 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